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Key Concept 4.1 Globalizing Networks of Communication and Exchange Describe the degree of global “interconnection” after 1500 CE compared to before 1500. What were the overall effects of this change in global interconnectedness? This is meant to be a general answer here. How did the global trade network after 1500 affect the pre-existing regional trade networks? What technological developments made transoceanic European travel and trade possible? Where did those developments originate? Answer Concepts & Relevant Factual Examples in underline Before 1500 CE, the world wasn’t fully “global” yet, in that the two halves of the world never had any lasting contact or influence on each other. The “Old World” of AfroEurasia and the “New World” of the Americas were separate. There had been some contact, since the Vikings had voyaged to North America (they named it “Vinland”), but this was not very extensive, and the small Viking presence in North America soon faded. After 1500 CE, the New World and Old World were permanently brought together when Europeans rediscovered the Americas with a lasting impact upon the peoples of both the Old World and the New World. In addition to this, since innovations in technology had given Europeans the ability to travel further than they ever had before, they could also be connected to other remote regions such as the Indian Ocean region. The degree of global interconnection was upgraded, and this new contact led to more trade, greater contact with different ideas, and the rise of a new world socioeconomic order including the establishment of colonies that intensified as time went on. New organisms went to different parts of the globe in the Columbian Exchange. These organisms, as well as the developing New World Order, could have both auspicious and detrimental effects on the people of the world. Ultimately, the Europeans arose as a dominant power in world affairs. Trade in many regional trade networks intensified during this period. Europeans entered and took some limited control over the Indian Ocean trading network. When Da Gama got to India on his voyage, he had to bring back goods as convincing evidence of his success, but he didn’t have any goods that the Indians wanted. He ended up using military force to get them to trade with him, and this opened the door to early colonialism. This didn’t really affect many features of trade, though. The same goods were traded regionally, usually in the same manner, though European contact in areas such as the Indian Ocean region eventually led to the development of colonies and imperialism. The focus gradually shifted from land routes to maritime trade as maritime trade had a greater and greater significance in world economics. Land routes such as the Silk Roads decreased in importance. The Mediterranean Sea and TransSaharan route remained important. Several innovations in technology helped make long distance sea travel and trade possible for Europeans. Some of these were innovations in their own ships. They often built upon previous knowledge. Portugal made important advancements in ship construction with the caravel and the galleon. Ships became faster, more maneuverable, and more seaworthy, as well as more able to support heavy mounted weaponry for defense. Maps were also improved, becoming more precise and accurate. A lot of new borrowed technology helped them in the field of navigation. Navigational instruments such as the compass and astrolabe, an instrument allowing navigation by the stars, allowed for further long distance travel. The compass originated in the East, from “Facts” Indian Ocean Mediterranean Trans-Saharan Silk Road Maps, navigational instruments, ship building? China or the Muslim Empire. Through trade, this technology spread to Europe. Discuss the major notable trans-oceanic voyages between 1450-1750. Admiral Zheng He was a key figure in China’s short period of involvement in transoceanic trade. During the early Ming dynasty, he led large fleets of Junks, tremendously large Chinese treasure ships, on very extensive trade expeditions to demonstrate Chinese power and superiority. On these voyages, China, which usually had little interest in foreign affairs, made direct trade contact with people in other regions. They sailed all over the Indian Ocean region, even trading valuable Chinese goods directly with people in the Swahili coast cities of East Africa. China could have had an immensely powerful influence in global trade. If the Chinese had rounded the tip of Africa and made it to the Atlantic it could have drastically changed the picture of world history. However, this was not the case. Financial issues back home made building humongous treasure ships and organizing large trading expeditions a lesser priority than strengthening wall defenses and pushing the Mongols back. Many Chinese, with the “middle kingdom” ideology, did not see foreign involvement and trade as a worthy expenditure. So, the Chinese soon pulled out of extensive global trade, and the voyages stopped. Prince Henry the Navigator was a notable patron of Portuguese exploration. He sponsored numerous voyages down the west coast of Africa, and founded several schools of navigation. The perseverance of these voyages and schools made great headway in the charting of Africa’s coast. Bartolomeu Dias, a Portuguese explorer, was the first European to round the Cape of Good Hope at the tip of Africa. Vasco da Gama’s voyage to the Indian Ocean was one of the first naval expeditions from Europe to India. Using routes discovered by previous pioneers, especially Dias, and the help of an Indian pilot, they went down the coast of Africa, rounded the tip, and went across the Indian Ocean to land in Calicut. The efforts of da Gama and Dias opened up a valuable route of trade and communication. Christopher Columbus set out to sail for Spain in 1492 and sailed across the Atlantic, believing that he would go right around the world and discover a successful new trade route to the spice-wealthy East Indies. However, he inadvertently discovered the Caribbean instead, and brought the Americas into lasting contact with Afro-Eurasia. Ferdinand Magellan organized the first expedition that circumnavigated the globe. He didn’t survive the voyage, but it proved that without a doubt the world was round, and opened up new possibilities for trade. What originally motivated Europeans to travel across the northern Atlantic? Europeans were originally motivated to travel across the northern Atlantic by the possibility of a Northwest Passage for trade through the Arctic Ocean. If a Northwest Passage could be found, accessing the Indian Ocean trading network would be easier. The British and the French led many expeditions into the Northern Atlantic, the French being the first, reaching Canada in 1534. Cod was a highly desired fish, and fishing Zheng He Prince Henry, Dias, and da Gama Columbus Magellan Northwest Passage Cod? grounds were found in the northern Atlantic. What areas of the world were Oceania was still mostly left out of the global trade network in this period, and largely unaffected by the new involvement in Polynesia was limited. These regions include present-day Hawaii, Easter Island, New Zealand, and Australia. global connections during this period? What new financial and monetary means made the new scale(s) of trade possible? What previously established scale(s) of trade continued? a more general answer here Joint stock companies, invented by the Dutch, allowed the degree of financial risk taken in sponsoring a sea voyage to be lessened. It was essentially multiple investments for a sea voyage. This helped encourage trade and helped enable the volume of trade to increase. Joint stock companies were often given royal charters by the monarchy of their homeland for favorable trade conditions over specific regions. They had the right to coin money and raise armies in the areas they were designated. Intense trade continued in the Indian Ocean region. Previously established trading markets also remained, including the Hanseatic League in the Baltic Sea. Describe the overall trade role of European merchants c. 1450-1750. European merchants didn’t have many new goods of their own to contribute to the world market. They just tended to be middlemen, transporting goods from one region to another. They also established colonies at times and established joint stock companies. Silver was found in large amounts at Potosi in Argentina by the Spanish, as well as in What role did silver play in facilitating a truly global scale other areas of the New World. Exploiting the natives for mining labor, this silver was taken out of the ground and shipped off to the Old World where it became used as a of trade? currency. Silver was an official currency in China, and peasants had been ordered to start paying their taxes in silver rather than with other goods, so it was in high desire there. On the Western end, in Europe, spices and other Chinese goods were highly desired, and silver was in a humongous supply from the Americas, so they ended up paying for it in silver, causing a perpetual departure of silver from Spain as goods were imported from the East. It flowed from Spain to other parts of Europe, across the Silk Roads and other areas of trade, and eventually to China, where it stayed and did not circulate. There was skyrocketing inflation in Spain due to the large supply of silver, even though it went out of Spain quickly. Silver also helped pull Japan into the economy, since it had silver mines. What new mercantilist financial means develop to facilitate global trade? Mercantilism developed as a dominant financial theory in this period. The key idea of mercantilism was to import less and export more while sponsoring domestic productivity, and the economy was supposed to be regulated to make this happen. It encouraged countries to acquire colonies for its economic sake, and encouraged trade to be regulated in these colonies to help develop monopolies on certain goods and block royal charters— joint stock companies Potosi mercantilism, Dutch and British East India Companies competing countries from getting any form of advantage. This facilitated colonialism and imperialism. Joint Stock Companies such as the Dutch and British East India Companies regulated and facilitated trade in the regions they were responsible for, separate from the government. This helped the flow of the global economy. What were the economic and social effects of the Atlantic trading system? What were the effects of the Columbian Exchange? The unintentional biological effects? The transfer of foods/animals to new geographic regions? Discuss “new” world to “old” The Atlantic trading system connected the Old World and the New World economically. Sugar, tobacco, and other cash crops were in high demand in Europe. This led to the development of large plantations to mass produce these products. Sugar plantations were common in Brazil and the Caribbean Islands. The tasks that needed to be performed to create these goods were very labor-intensive, but in the Americas, a large amount of the native population had been wiped out by disease. There was not enough labor from the native population to keep these plantations running, so the Europeans used the labor of slaves they obtained from Africa. As the sugar industry and the industries of the other cash crops grew in importance, more and more labor was needed to fit the supply with the growing demand. Massive amounts of slaves were shipped to the Americas over the Atlantic ocean in a horrific journey known as the Middle Passage. This forced migration was a major aspect of the Atlantic trading system, and specifically the Slave Trade. In the Americas, new social designations and hierarchies based on race and ancestry formed. As intermingling happened, Mestizos, who were half-Indian, were joined by Mulattoes, who were half-African. Also, since there weren’t as many female slaves brought over to the Americas, intermingling often occurred between male slaves and females from the native population. Usually, the people with the “purest” European ancestry were on top of the hierarchy. Creoles were people who were born in the Americas, but the children of Europeans. In West Africa, since many of the young, strong men had been enslaved and sent to the Americas, there was often a higher proportion of women to men. This led to an increase in polygamy in some areas. Also, on the coasts, as the slave trade kicked in, Africans were often intensely involved, economically, because they were in charge of supplying slaves to Europeans. Slaves became a chief export in the region. The Columbian Exchange had an extremely long lasting impact on the world. One of the most prominent of these was the spread of disease, leading to demographic catastrophes. The Old World and New World, separate for thousands of years, had different diseases. The people from each region had developed immunity to their own, endemic diseases, but not to foreign diseases. This led to disastrous effects when Europeans brought smallpox and measles to the New World. These diseases killed a vast amount of the local population of the Americas, at times even 90%, since they had never encountered the disease before and had not developed any immune resistance to it. One major feature of the Columbian Exchange was the transfer of foods and animals to new geographic regions. Crops such as potatoes, maize, and manioc from the New World went to the Old World and greatly enriched nutrition and agriculture. For Migrations including the TransAtlantic slave trade Smallpox, measles Potatoes,maize, manioc Okra Sugar Horses, cattle AND “old” world to “new” What effects did American food crops have on the diet of Afro-Eurasians…and what demographic impact ultimately? Why? example, potatoes, when they came to Afro-Eurasia, were hardier and more productive than the existing staple crops. They had a higher yield, and brought better nutrients to the people. This lead to a large population increase in the Old World. Maize and the sweet potato were very effective in China. Okra was introduced to the New World from the Old World. Sugar was brought to the New World from the Old World, and could be cultivated very efficiently and profitably; the increasing demand for sugar had a large impact on the economies of both the Old and the New World. Animals were also a large part of the Columbian Exchange. Prior to the Columbian exchange, the Americas had almost no domesticated livestock. As settlers came from Europe to the Americas, they brought horses and cattle with them. The Old world got Turkeys and Guinea Pigs from the New World. How did the actions of European settlers in the Americas affect the region environmentally? When European settlers came to the Americas, they started to impact the region environmentally. Their need for wood and farmland led them to cut down a large part of the native forests, and their methods of agriculture led to soil depletion. Earthworms and red marsh worms were brought to America as a result of the English trading tobacco for soil. They took all the nutrients in the soil. Plantation farming and livestock took up massive amounts of land. The exploitation of natural resources such as silver in mining also had degrading effects on the environment. Deforestation also occurred due to Spanish cutting down trees to make pastures for cattle and accelerated when areas for plantations and mines were needed. How did the Columbian Exchange affect the spread of religions? During the Columbian Exchange, the spread of religion was facilitated by the greater contact and communication between the two hemispheres. Specifically, it was mostly Europeans spreading Christianity to the Americas because they had missionaries. The Jesuits went around as Eurpeans went and exchanged goods, Jesuits would try to convert people with their top down policy. They tried to convert the leader first, figuring that it would trickle down to the general population. They founded a lot of schools and shared knowledge in the conversion process. There were even Jesuit schools in Japan before the Tokugawa Shogunate cut of most contact with Europeans. Catholics and Protestants completed for converts on the new frontiers of European exploration. Syncretism also aided the spread of religion because it allowed for greater leniency for the customs and ideas of the native people to exist alongside the newer belief system. This made conversion easier. One kind of exception involves the slave trade and all the Africans exported to the New World; they also brought their customs and religion, too. Vodun and Candomble are two such African religions that adapted to conditions in the New World. Another example of how local beliefs were incorporated into Christianity as it spread was in Latin America with the cults of saints. Overall—where did the “universal” religions of Islam had done most of its spreading by the time of Period 4, but under the Gunpowder Empires, especially the Ottoman Empire, there was further conversion to Islam. An pigs Turkeys, guinea Deforestation Soil depletion Christian missionaries Jesuits Vodun, Candomble syncretism Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam spread in this period? example of this is the strongly recommended conversion of the Janissaries. Similarly, Buddhism didn’t do much more spreading except within Asia. Buddhism spread more along the Silk Road during the Post Classical Period, centuries before Period 4. But Christianity swelled dramatically in the Americas and Southeast Asia. What other syncretic religion developed during this period—why? What major developments occurred in the arts during the period? Sikhism developed in the northwestern region of India as a blend of Islam and Hinduism. It is a monotheistic religion that developed as a result of the long ages of the religions existing side-by-side in Mughal India. The Renaissance was a blossoming revolution in the arts in Western Europe. More people broke away from the stiff figures of the Middle Ages and started experimenting with Greco-Roman styles and other innovations like realism, perspective and chiaroscuro. They tried to paint things in a more lifelike way. Artists like Da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Shakespeare were three great names of the Renaissance. Artists also experimented with more secular themes compared to the Medieval Period when subjects were almost exclusively religious. This demonstrated a shift from a focus on getting into the afterlife towards a greater focus on humanism, focusing rather on living this life. This period was the beginning of the humanist movement, started by Petrarch, which influenced art, architecture, and science. Renaissance artists started signing their work. This all was helped by an increase in the state sponsorship of the arts—funded by increasing tax revenues from prosperous trade. It happened first in Italy then in other parts of Europe, this spread was called the Northern Renaissance. Other developments included: Griots, legends, and oral histories in Africa. The African Sundiata legend was passed down orally during these years. Sundiata, or the Lion Prince, was the brilliant founder of Mali who influenced culture. Kabuki is a type Japanese theatre that prospered in the Pre-Modern period. Shakespeare wrote his famous plays in England. Cervantes the Spanish writer wrote Don Quixote, one of the first European novels. Mesoamerican codices were created as a type of writing, and reveal a lot about Aztec culture and religious practices. State sponsorship of the arts in Mughal India under Akbar the Great. There was a school of miniature painting in Mughal India, dedicated to the creation of small, meticulous paintings, which was state-sponsored. Japanese woodblock moveable type for printing books. How did public literacy as well as literary and artistic forms of expression develop during this period? The printing press was invented at the beginning of this period. This meant that books were less expensive and available to a wider section of the public, which majorly increased literacy. Many Christians learned to read so they could read the bible. As people got more interested in reading, people also got more interested in writing and Sikhism Renaissance Mughal miniatures Japanese woodblock prints Post-Conquest codices in Mesoamerica Shakespeare, Cervantes, Sundiata, kabuki there were more authors, poets, and playwrights. Key Concept 4.2 New Forms of Social Organization and Modes of Production How and where did peasant labor intensify during the period? Discuss the labor system of slavery in Africa during this period. Traditional slavery in Africa as well as exports of slaves—what were the patterns of the exportation of slaves during this period? How did labor systems develop in the colonial Americas throughout this period? Pay attention to chronological development here Answer Concepts & Relevant Factual Examples in underline Before, agriculture was primarily for subsistence. In this period, commercial agriculture started to develop. Expansion of agriculture supported population growth during this time period. Farms often became larger to feed the people who moved into more populous areas. On the Siberian frontier in Russia, there was also a great increase in peasant agricultural area, as Cossacks spread east and created settlements. Silk production in China and cotton production in India also intensified in peasant labor. Due to the global flow of silver causing inflation in China, peasant labor intensified because they had to work harder to get silver which was required to pay taxes. ” Facts “ Trans-Saharan West/Central Africa East Africa Slavery had been a labor system in Africa for ages. Ethnic rivalries often led to war which led to conquest where the defeated were often enslaved. The slave trade to the Americas started during this period when there was a higher need for labor to support population growth in the New World. African slaves were immune to most of the diseases that decimated the native Indian population; this increased the demand for imported slaves. In Africa, slaves were often just used as domestic servants. In the Atlantic slave trade, they were used as manual laborers on massive plantations. In the Trans-Saharan network, slaves were brought up through Africa to the Mediterranean Sea trade networks. West/Central Africa—slaves in this region often went to the Atlantic coast to be traded for guns and other goods from the Europeans. East Africa—There was also a slave trade in East Africa that connected to the Indian Ocean trading network. Initially, when Europeans came to Latin America, they started out using the encomienda system where conquistadores and settlers were given grants of land and native laborers. Haciendas were estates with extra emphasis on commercial agriculture and used once the encomienda system fell. The mit’a system came next as gradually over time the tribes and groups of Latin America gained a little more economic independence. In this mit’a system, Europeans borrowed from a labor system that the native Latin Americans had before the Europeans came. There was a set amount of labor they desired. So you could have more people do the work for a shorter amount of time or vice versa. The mit’a system was still coerced labor but to a lesser extent than an outright serfdom. Then, as more economic independence developed with time, bands of laborers would be hired by the Europeans in a wage labor system. In North America, many Europeans came to the New World by trading themselves into indentured servitude, which was usually a fixed number of years of unpaid labor in exchange for something such as a passage to the Americas. This was the only way many immigrants could afford the passage. The great cotton plantations of the South used slave labor and developed a plantation encomienda hacienda wage labor mit’a indentured servitude (the first round) chattel slavery How did the post-1450 economic order affect the social, economic, and political elites? See below Who were NEW elites? How did they become so? How did the pre-existing elites react to changes? economy totally dependent on free labor similar to those of Brazil and the Caribbean. Chattel slavery is the type of slavery we tend think of first, where slaves were considered to be the property of their owners. The merchant class started to rise in status during this time since they were prospering from increased trade. This was especially true in port cities like Venice and Genoa. Merchant leaders in these wealthy trading cities would often replace the aristocracy and assume their power and influence. Merchants gained more sway on the monarchs. Previously, in feudal times, nobles even though they were vassals, still held the real power. Monarchs in general started to consolidate their power and the balance shifted away from the noble class. Urban commercial entrepreneurs in trading cities Many new elites took power due to political conquest and new economic opportunity. The Manchus took over the Ming Dynasty in China and climbed to the top of the social hierarchy. When they took power they changed the social hierarchy. Originally, the ethnic Chinese had been on top. The Creoles were direct descendants of those who had come to Latin America from Spain and Portugal. They gained significant power through the wealth of their large plantations and formed a new economic and social elite. Manchus in China Creoles in Latin America Many of the former elite wanted to retain power and tradition, so they often tried to resist many of the changes that were taking place or being imposed upon them by political leaders. Zamindars were the ruling aristocracy in Mughal India who were tax collectors as well as landowners. Because there was hostility between them and the new Mughal political elite, the zamindars rebelled frequently. The Daimyo were the feudal hereditary warlord class in Japan. The Daimyo were somewhat unified under the Tokugawa Shogunate, and when became less politically fragmented. They were also a source of dissent, and caused trouble. The old nobility in Europe also resisted change. Zamindars in the Mughal empire, Daimyo in Japan, nobles in Europe Discuss notable gender and family restructuring during the period. During this period, there began to be far more female political rulers than before. A prominent example would be Queen Elizabeth of England. Family size in Europe decreased. In the European exploration of Southeast Asia, European men became more dependent on native women to help them communicate and make deals and negotiations, which gave the native women more opportunities. European family size also decreased during this time period. Mostly men were taken from Africa as slaves, which caused women to have to step up their domestic roles. Discuss the new social hierarchy that developed in Latin America. In the Americas, new social designations and hierarchies based on racial and ethnic constructs formed. As intermingling happened, Mestizos, who were half-Indian, were joined by Mulattoes, who were half-African. Different castas augmented the social hierarchy with designations based on ancestry and race. Also, since there weren’t as many female slaves brought over to the Americas, intermingling often occurred between male slaves and females from the native population. Usually, the people with peninsulars creoles castas—mestizos, mulattos, and many more the “purest” European ancestry were on top of the hierarchy. Creoles were people who were born in the Americas, but the children of Europeans. Peninsulars were people who were born in Europe, but came to Latin America, and were above the creoles. Key Concept 4.3 State Consolidation and Imperial Expansion Discuss the overall role of each--Africa, the Americas, Asia, and Europe—in the development of empires in this period. An overview here. Answer Concepts & Relevant Factual Examples in underline “Facts” In Africa, there were various land and conquest based empires in the Sudan, such as the Mali and Songhay Empires, which stayed within Africa. The gunpowder empires of the Ottomans, Mughals, and Safavids were land based and situated from the Eastern Mediterranean to South Asia, straddling several regions. The Russian Empire was in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. The Machus conquered the Ming Dynasty in China and established the Qing Dynasty, but further expansion for the most part did not occur. Europe was very impactful in creating maritime empires through overseas exploration, conquest, and trade. How did political rulers use visual displays of power to legitimize and consolidate their rule. The easiest example here is monumental architecture. Provide at least three specific examples of rulers using it. Political rulers used visual displays of power to legitimize and consolidate their rule. One way they did this was through monumental architecture. The Ottoman ruler Suleyman the Magnificent commissioned the Suleymaniye Mosque. The Mughal ruler Shah Jahan commissioned the Taj Mahal. Louis XIV of France commissioned the Palace of Versailles. All of these monumental structures were built, in some way or another, as a physical assertion of a ruler’s power. The elaborate and elegant features struck awe into those who saw them, and this was a perfect tool to imprint upon viewers the ideal of a strong, powerful, nearly omnipotent ruler who could bring such a structure into existence. A different type of visual display of power was the Aztec human sacrifice as they pulled the still beating heart out of their newest victim and showed it to Huitzilopochtli and their onlookers to show their mighty power. What role did religion play in legitimizing political rule? Religion often played a highly important role in legitimizing political rule in this period. Divine right monarchies were still very common in Europe. In divine right monarchies, the ruler claimed that their right to rule had been bestowed upon them directly by God, and that disobeying their word and power was practically equal to disobeying God. In the Shi’a Muslim Safavid Empire, political rulers legitimized their power through religion by claiming descent from Muhammad and his relatives. In the Aztec Empire, religion also played a key role in the legitimization of a leader’s rule; human sacrifice was a religious practice as well as a political terror tactic that snapped the empire’s subjects into line. Public Confucian rituals where rulers venerated their ancestors helped these rulers gain ethos and legitimacy. How were ethnic and Ethnic and religious minorities were often tolerated so that they could contribute to the Theory of divine right Safavid Shiism Aztec human sacrifice Public performance of Confucian rituals Songhay promotion of Islam religious minorities treated in the following empires—nonMuslims in the Ottoman, Manchu treatment of the Chinese, Spanish treatment of the natives economy. In the Ottoman Empire, non-Muslims, as dhimmi (“people of the book”), were tolerated relatively well. They were not persecuted or forced to convert, but they did have to pay a head tax. Non-Muslims were taken into the military through the Devshirme, a system where Christian boys from controlled areas were enslaved, recruited and voluntarily converted to Islam. This led to a lot of integration. Former non-Muslims made up the majority of the vastly significant elite janissary force, where they could rise to great power through a meritocratic system. Muslim superiority was still recognized, though. In China, the Manchu, a separate ethnic group, established political rule over a Han Chinese majority. They rearranged the social hierarchy so that they were on top, and the Han Chinese majority was enthnically inferior to them. They used strict regulations on economics, social organization and cultural interaction. Interaction between Manchus and Han Chinese were limited, and special legislation was passed that prohibited intermarriage. The Spanish were relatively intolerant. In the Spanish Inquisition back home, they expelled, killed, or forcibly converted most of their non-Christians. Across the Atlantic, in their increasing involvement in the New World, they were often very intolerant as well. Forced conversion was common, and they often treated the natives very badly. However, they also created the Republica de Indios, where they tried to create a separate “republic” for the natives where they could rule themselves to some degree, but the natives were isolated from each other, and outside influences, in small communities. How did rulers make sure that their governments were well run? Many governments made sure that their governments were well run by nurturing a talented bureaucracy to run the government. In the Ottoman devshirme, janissary recruits did make up a large portion of the military, but they also provided skilled, well trained bureaucrats to the government. Bureaucrats drawn from the janissaries were specially filtered; they went through intensive training, and were very effective in running the government. Civil service exams continued to be used in China to select the bureaucracy, which also placed a large emphasis on merit. How did rulers finance their territorial expansion? To finance territorial expansion, rulers collected tribute from their subject peoples and taxed them in various ways. The Ottoman used a system of tax farming to help in their tax collection. This increased their revenue and gave them more funding for expansion. In this time period, what was the relationship between empire building and military technology? What European powers established empires in this In this time period, military technology was crucial to empire building. The Europeans’ more sophisticated weaponry gave them an advantage over the simpler weapons of other areas of the world. This helped them to become a dominant naval power, and allowed them to take control of areas that weren’t as militarily advanced. The landbased gunpowder empires of the Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals also expanded with the use of advanced weaponry. Spain, Portugal, France, Britain, and the Dutch were the major European powers who established Empires. These were all maritime empires. Trade was a large concern for Republica de Indios devshirme civil service exams salaried samurai tribute collection tax farming the Europeans, and they often took control of areas strategic to trade in the creation of period? Where were they? What was the nature of those trading post empires. The Portuguese had Brazil, as well as some parts of Southeast Asia and Africa. The Dutch had much of Southeast Asia, the tip of Africa, as well as a empires? small hold the Americas. Spain had a large parts of Latin America, and some holdings in Africa and Southeast Asia. France and Britain had large parts of North America, with the British holding their Atlantic settler colonies and France lots of present-day Canada. The British also had some parts of India. What were the major land based empires of the period? Where did these empires expand? All the Muslim gunpowder empires were land based. The Ottoman Empire expanded into the East Mediterranean, The Mughals had northern India, and the Safavids were sandwiched between them. What obstacles to empire building did empires confront, and how did they respond to those challenges? Rivalries were a major obstacle to empire building. The European maritime powers grappled over colonial holdings. There was also competition over trade routes. Piracy existed a lot in the Caribbean. Valuable goods like sugar were being traded, and there were struggles over these goods. In the Mediterranean region, there was intense rivalry between the Christian Europeans and the Muslim Ottomans, which caused mutual piracy that was sponsored by both sides. Continental European rivalries led to land based conflicts such as the Thirty Years War. There was also rivalry between the Shi’a Safavid Empire and the Sunni Ottoman Empire, which led to the Ottoman-Safavid War. These external conflicts were tolling to all that were involved, since any disruption of stability will make it harder and more expensive for a state to be run. However, there were also several challenges from within that were obstacles to empire building. In the Mughal Empire, Hindus often rebelled. In China often had peasant revolts such as the Taiping Rebellion and the Boxer Rebellion in the Qing Empire. Additionally, there were slave uprisings in the Americas. The Qing dealt with its rebellions by putting them down, often with the aid of Europeans. The same was done with rebellions in other regions to restore stability. maritime empires trading post empires Competition over trade routes such as piracy in the Caribbean State rivalries like the Thirty Years War or the Ottoman-Safavid War Local resistance like peasant uprisings