Download File - Tony S. Jugé, Ph.D.

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Chapter 2
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Asking & Answering Sociological Questions
Scientific Method
Sociology is a science because it requires a systematic method of investigation
The scientific method is organized around a series of steps that ensures maximum
objectivity and consistency when researching a problem
Empirical Evidence
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A scientific orientation often challenges what we accept as “common sense”
If most of you are not going into Sociology or research, why should you even care?
Defining the Research problem
(p. 32-33)
All research starts with a research problem
You need to pose a question for research purposes that help you bridge the gap in
your understanding of a social phenomena
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Operational definition: Explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to
allow a researcher to measure the concept
Stating exactly what is being measured
Crime and gang membership
Literature Review (p. 33)
Go to the library and search for keywords
Check sociological database
Scholar.google.com but NOT google nor wikipedia
Want to check if somebody has already done the research
If so, can you replicate it?
Same outcome?
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If nothing has been done
Your study is even more justified
Formulating the Hypothesis (p. 33-34)
Hypothesis
Speculative statement regarding the relationship between two or more variables
A statement of how two or more variables are related
An educated guess about how variables are linked – usually an if-then
statement
Variable
Measurable trait subject to change under certain conditions
A concept which changes from case to case
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A concept which changes from case to case
Independent variable
Dependent variable
Exploring relationships (pp. 39-42)
Evidence needed to reject or accept the hypothesis occurs in four steps:
State which variable is the independent variable and which is the dependent
variable
Measure the initial value of the dependent variable
Expose the dependent variable to the independent variable
Measure the dependent variable again to see what change, if any, took place
Causation
One event happens before another. But does one causes the other?
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Correlation
Change in one variable coincides with change in another
Causation vs. Correlation (1) (pp. 39-40)
Evidence needed to reject or accept the hypothesis occurs in four steps:
State which variable is the independent variable and which is the dependent
variable
Measure the initial value of the dependent variable
Expose the dependent variable to the independent variable
Measure the dependent variable again to see what change, if any, took place
Causal Logic
One event happens before another. But does one causes the other?
Correlation
Change in one variable coincides with change in another
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Spurious variables
Variables that affect the relationship between two or more variables
Example: Ice cream consumption and rape rates
Causation vs. Correlation (2) (pp. 39-40)
Evidence needed to reject or accept the hypothesis occurs in four steps:
State which variable is the independent variable and which is the dependent
variable
Measure the initial value of the dependent variable
Expose the dependent variable to the independent variable
Measure the dependent variable again to see what change, if any, took place
Causal Logic
One event happens before another. But does one causes the other?
One event happens before another. But does one causes the other?
Correlation
Change in one variable coincides with change in another
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Spurious variables
Variables that affect the relationship between two or more variables
Example: Ice cream consumption and rape rates
Sampling (p. 45)
Often the groups sociologists want to study are so large or so dispersed that research
on the whole group is impossible
To construct a picture of the entire group, they take data from a subset of the
population
A sample is any subset of a population
A population is a relatively
large collection of people
that a researcher studies
and about which generalizations
are made
Data Collection & Analysis
Since you cannot ask everybody, you need to get a sample
Representative
Randomly selected
Reliability
Consistency in measurement
For measurement to be reliable, the process must yield the same results when
repeated
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Validity
Actually measuring exactly what you intend to measure
Conclusion
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Should be an end to this research but the beginning of the next research project
Can point out a need for a control variable
Factor which is held constant to test the impact of the independent variable
Example: if social class is held constant (or identical) does race or gender affect
the independent variable?)
The Steps in the Scientific Method
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Interpretive Sociology
Humans engage in meaningful action every moment of the day
Interpretive sociology
The study of sociology that focuses on the meanings people attach to their social
world
Interpretive sociology
The study of sociology that focuses on the meanings people attach to their social
world
Scientific sociology favors quantitative data
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Interpretive sociology favors qualitative data
Interpretive orientation is better suited in a natural setting
Investigators interact with people
Types of Research Designs
Research design
Detailed plan for collecting data scientifically
Quantitative research
Data is collected in numerical form
Typically through the use of surveys
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Qualitative research
It relies on field notes
Open-ended questions
Surveys (pp. 44-45)
Advantages
Survey must have a specific plan for asking questions and recording answers
Most common is a questionnaire
Series of written statements or questions
Cheap and easy to administer
More anonymous
Good for sensitive topic
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Disadvantages
Cannot probe details
Cannot clarify answers
People can throw them away or rejects requests
Interviews
Advantages
Researcher personally asks subjects a series of questions
Gives participants freedom to respond as they wish
Can clarify details; ask follow-up questions
High response rate because people wonʼt turn down a person asking for help
Disadvantages
More expensive
Person might not tell the truth
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More expensive
Person might not tell the truth
Bias based on age, race or gender of interviewer
Ethnography (1) (pp. 43-44)
Collection of data through direct participation and/or observation of group
Research method in which investigators systematically observe people while
joining them in their routine activities
Called “Fieldwork”
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Fieldwork makes most participant observation exploratory and descriptive
Researcher joins group under study
Challenges
Acceptance into group
Sociologists need to understand what they observe
Canʼt allow friendships to influence the results
Ethnography (2) (pp. 43-44)
Collection of data through direct participation and/or observation of group
Research method in which investigators systematically observe people while
joining them in their routine activities
Called “Fieldwork”
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Fieldwork makes most participant observation exploratory and descriptive
Researcher joins group under study
Challenges
Acceptance into group
Sociologists need to understand what they observe
Canʼt allow friendships to influence the results
Experiments (pp. 45-46)
Attempt to test an hypothesis
Cause and effect relationships
One event happens before another
Classic Experiment
Experimental group and control group
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Example: Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment (unethical)
Example: The Zimbardo Prison Experiment (unethical)
The Milgram Experiment
Attempt to test an hypothesis
Cause and effect relationships
One event happens before another
Classic Experiment
Classic Experiment
Experimental group and control group
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Example: Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment (unethical)
Example: The Zimbardo Prison Experiment (unethical)
Historical Analysis (pp. 48-49)
Sociologically, it is crucial to have a time perspective because the past will explain the
present
Examines sociological themes over time
Use of oral history
Interviews of people about past historical events
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Researchers might rely on written documents and records
Comparative Research (p. 48)
Making comparison is central to sociology because it allows to clarify many aspects
of a particular research
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Example: Comparing the infant mortality rate (number of deaths of infants under
one year old per 1,000 live births) of the U.S. with other countries will answer
questions about the quality of life and health care in both places
U.S. (2016): 5.8/1,000
Sweden (2016): 2.6/1,000
Kenya (2016): 38.3/1,000
Afghanistan (2016): 112.8/1,000
Prediction and Probability
Sociology analyzes, explains, and predicts human social behavior in terms of trends
and probabilities
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Example:
If you are a Black male, 16 to 29, you are 6 times more likely to be arrested for a
given offense than a White male of the same age, from the same neighborhood
and the same socioeconomic background, for the same offense, and with the
same prior arrest record (DʼAllesio & Stolzenberg, 2003 & Zuberi, 2001)
Misuse of Statistics
Interpreting probability as certainty
Example:
Finding that women are more likely than men to favor strict gun control only
means that women have a higher probability of favoring strict gun control than
men
It does not mean that all women favor strict gun control and all men do not
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It does not mean that all women favor strict gun control and all men do not
favor it
Statistics in Sociology
Percentage is the same as parts per hundred
If 22% of U.S. children are poor, for every 100 children randomly selected from the
population, approximately 22 will be poor
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Rate is the same as parts per some number, such as per 10,000 or 100,000
The homicide rate in 2003 was 5.7 killed per 100,000
For every 100,000 in the population, 5.7 were murdered
Misuse of Statistics
Citing a correlation as causation
A correlation reveals an association between things they do not necessarily
indicate that one thing causes the other
Overgeneralizing
Example: Studying only men, and then generalizing conclusions to both men and
women
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Building in bias
Bias can be built into a questionnaire by little more than careless wording
Ethics
American Sociological Association Code of Ethics
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1. Maintain objectivity
2. Respect subjectsʼ rights to privacy and dignity
3. Protect subjects from harm
4. Preserve confidentiality
5. Get informed consent from research participants
6. Acknowledge research collaboration and assistance
7. Disclosure all sources of financial support
Ethics
Whenever you do research, you rely to some extent on other peopleʼs ideas.
You must always acknowledge when you have used othersʼ ideas, whether you quote
from another's work directly, or paraphrase words, or simply take someone's ideas
and advice into consideration
To do otherwise constitutes plagiarism
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To avoid these problems, always cite your sources
How to Quote
In general, quote as little as possible
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To avoid these problems, always cite your sources
How to Quote
In general, quote as little as possible
One key term is better than a phrase and a short phrase is better than an entire
sentence
Long quotations simply show that you cannot synthesize
If you do need to use a short quote, use the format indicated in the APA style
sheet
If you use a quote longer than three typed lines (something you rarely need to do,
especially in a short paper), then use single-spacing, with no quotation marks, and
indent the quote five spaces on the left side of the page (to indicate that you are
quoting)
The authorʼs name, the year of publication, and page numbers (all in parentheses)
will follow the quote after the final period