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Chapter 1: Thinking Geographically Key Issue #2: Why Is Each Point on Earth Unique? Each place on Earth is in some respects unique and in other respects similar to other places -this interplay is the heart of geographic inquiry as to why things are found where they are Two Concepts Used to Show Why Each Point on Earth is Unique: 1. Place (a point) 2. Region (an area) Location: the position that something occupies on Earth’s surface The most fundamental concept in geography! Four Ways Geographers Identify Location: 1. Place Name 2. Site 3. Situation 4. Mathematical Location Place Names: Toponym: name given to a place on Earth -most straightforward way to describe a particular location -may be named for a person (George Washington—1 state, counties in 31 other states, national capital) -may be religious (Saint Paul, Saint Louis) may be historical (Athens, New Jersey, New Prague) Board of Geographical Names: -operated by the U.S. Geological Survey -is the final say of names on U.S. maps -has recently been involved in removing offensive pace names -racial or ethnic connotations -place names may change (Cincinnati was originally named Losantiville) -place names can change as a result of political changes (Eastern Europe) Site—the physical character of a place -includes climate, water sources, topography, soil, vegetation, latitude, elevation… -this combination creates a distinct character -people disagree on the attributes of a good site -often is related to cultural values -hilltops are good for defense -rivers are convenient for communication and commerce Site of Singapore: a small, swampy island about 1 km off of the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula at the eastern end of the Strait of Malacca Situation: the location of a place relative to other places -situation helps us find an unfamiliar place by comparing its location to a familiar one “Across the highway from the Mermaid, next to McDonalds, behind the BP gas station” -situation helps us understand the importance of a location -New Orleans is situated at the mouth of the Mississippi River…prone to (flooding, hurricanes…) Mathematical Location: latitude and longitude Meridian: drawn between North and South poles (longitude) Parallel: a circle drawn on the globe parallel to the equator at right angles to the meridians (latitude) Prime Meridian: line of longitude that passes through the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England -known as 0º longitude the meridian on the opposite side of the globe is 180° -all other meridians are located between 0° and 180° East or West -New York City--74° West -Lahore, Pakistan--74° East -San Diego--117° West -Tianjin, China--117° East Mathematical Location (continued) -longitude is important in calculating time -every 15° is equivalent of traveling to a place 1 hour earlier or later (360° / 24 hours = 15°) Equator: 0° latitude -North Pole is 90° North latitude -South Pole is 90° South latitude -New York City is 41° North -Wellington, New Zealand is 41° South -San Diego is 33° North -Santiago, Chile is 33° South Latitude and longitude are used together like a grid to identify locations Mathematical Location (continued) -Midland, Texas: 32° N, 102° W Degrees are divided into 60 minutes (“) -minutes are divided into 60 seconds (‘) -Denver, Colorado: 39° 44” N, 104° 59” W -state capitol building in Denver: -39° 42” 52’ N, 104° 59” 04’ W Determining Longitude: -Latitude is scientifically derived -the Equator is at the Earth’s greatest circumference -distance North or South of the Equator can be accurately determined by the length of daylight and the position of the Sun and stars Determining Longitude (continued) Longitude is a human creation -any meridian could have become the Prime Meredian, but England was the most powerful country when the international agreement of longitude was signed Inability to measure longitude was a huge obstacle to exploration and discovery John Harrison: created the first clock that didn’t need a pendulum -so when on a ship, when the Sun was directly overhead, it was noon -so, if the clock said it was 2PM when the Sun was directly overhead, then the ship was located at 30° West longitude -determined because each hour of difference equals 15° Telling Time From Longitude: Greenwich Mean Time—GMT (Universal Time--UT) The idea of Standardized Time Zones was created by U.S. railroads during the 19th Century -the 48 contiguous states and Canada share 4 standard time zones (Eastern, Central, Mountain, Pacific) (Eastern Canada is in the Atlantic Time Zone) i.e.—Los Angeles is 8 hours behind GMT -if it is noon GMT, it is 4am Pacific International Date Line: follows the 180° longitude line for the most part -if traveling eastward, move clock back 24 hours -if traveling westward, move clock forward 24 hours Regions: Areas of Unique Characteristics Region—an area of Earth defined by one or more distinctive characteristics Cultural landscape—a combination of cultural features (such as language and religion), economic features (such as agriculture and industry), and physical features (such as climate and vegetation) -sometimes referred to as regional studies The cultural landscape was created in France during the 19th century but adopted by Carl Sauer (U. of Cal—Berkeley) who was one of the most famous and respected U.S. geographers of his time The Cultural Landscape (continued) -each region has its own distinctive landscape that results from a unique combination of social relationships and physical processes -within a region, people, activities, and environment will display similarities and regularities within while differing from those of other regions -regions gain uniqueness not from possessing a single human or environmental characteristic, but from a combination of them -fundamental principle of the cultural landscape is that people are the most important agents of change on Earth’s surface Geographers try to sort out the associations among various social characteristics I.e.—the fact that the distributions of ethnicities and resources do not match political boundaries in the Middle East and Eastern Europe is in large part a source of political unrest A region may be any area larger than a point and smaller than the entire planet Two Most Often Used Regions by Geographers: 1. Several neighboring countries that share important features (Latin America) 2. Many common localities found within a country (Southern California) Three Types of Regions: 1. Formal 2. Functional (nodal) 3. Vernacular (perceptual) Formal Region: an area in which everyone shares in common one or more distinctive characteristics -a selected characteristic is present throughout the area -Minnesota: characterized by a common state government -everyone within the clearly drawn and legally recognized boundaries are subject to a common set of laws -Wheat Belt: area where wheat is the most commonly grown crop (other crops grown as well) Geographers typically use formal regions to help explain broad global or national patterns Even while making generalizations, it is essential to recognize the diversity of cultural, economic, and environmental patterns found within formal regions -groups within a formal region have different characteristics Functional (nodal) region: an area organized around a focal point -the characteristic chosen to define a functional region dominates at a central focus and diminishes in importance outward -the region is tied to the central point by transportation or communication systems or by economic or functional associations Geographers use functional regions to display information about economic areas -focal point (node) is usually a shop or service I.e.—circulation of StarTribune, Wall Street, reception area of a television station New technologies are breaking down traditional functional regions (USA Today, Wall Street Journal, cable/satellite TV, internet shopping) Western Wisconsin shopper coverage Vermont’s Public Television reception areas Vernacular (Perceptual) Region: a place people believe exists as part of their cultural identity -created from people’s informal sense of place rather than from scientific models developed through geographic thought Mental map: an internal representation of a portion of Earth;s surface -it depicts what an individual knows about a place, containing personal impressions of what is in a place, and where places are located -a mental map of the campus of the University of Minnesota -this map will differ between a student and a professor -also different between seniors and freshmen Vernacular (Perceptual) Regions (continued) -EXAMPLE: “The South” -a vernacular region with unique environmental, cultural, and economic features -but, each definition results in slightly different borders (see Figure 1-12) -many people believe the South is a distinctive place that transcends geographic measurement -some people see the South as a source of pride; others see it as a place to avoid Vernacular Regions such as the Sunbelt and Frostbelt are difficult to accurately define Regional Integration of Culture Culture: the body of customary beliefs, material traits, and social forms that together constitute the distinct tradition of a group of people -helps geographers determine WHY each region on Earth is distinctive -geographers distinguish groups of people according to important cultural characteristics -culture from Latin word cultus (to care for)--this can have two meanings: 1. To care about something (adore, worship, cult) 2. To take care of something (nurse, look after, (cultivate) The concept of culture has several meanings Cultural ecology: the geographic study of human-environment relationships -geographers consider environmental factors as well as cultural factors when constructing regions -geography emphasizes the relationships between culture and the natural environment Different cultural groups modify the natural environment in distinctive ways to produce unique regions Alexander von Humboldt and Carl Ritter: -two German geographers who urged human geographers to adopt the methods of scientific inquiry used by the natural scientists -one goal of human geographers is to discover general laws…and the scientific method has helped natural scientists develop many general laws Environmental Determinism: Humboldt and Ritter’s approach concentrating on how the physical environment caused social development -some geographers adopted the idea of environmental determinism -most modern geographers have instead rejected environmental determinism in favor of possibilism: the physical environment may limit some human activities, but people have the ability to adjust to their environment Resources: substances that are useful to people -humans can use resources to alter the physical environment Example: climate in any location influences human activities (I.e.—food production) -under possibilism, people can choose the crops they grow to be compatible with their environment A people’s level of wealth can influence its attitude toward modifying the environment -a farmer with a tractor may avoid hills, while a farmer with only a hoe may farm the hills Modern technology allows humans to alter the physical environment -air conditioning makes warmer climates more appealing -insulation allows people to live more comfortably in colder climates Geographers are concerned that people sometimes are insensitive as they use modern technology to modify the environment They deplete or destroy scarce and irreplaceable resources The Netherlands: A Sensitive Environmental Modification -more than half of the country’s land lies below sea level Two Main Ways the Dutch Have Modified Their Environment: 1. Polders: a piece of land created by draining water from an area -2600 square miles of the Netherlands is polders (16% of their total land area) -government has reserved most of the polders for agriculture -to reduce dependence on foreign food Schiphol: Dutch airport located on polder 2. Dikes: walls built to hold back water from the North Sea Zuider Zee: dike area that created freshwater Lake Ijssel -620 square miles of this lake has been drained to create several polders In 1990, the Dutch created a plan to return 650,000 acres of farmland to wetlands or forests -much contaminated drinking water because of widespread use of insecticides and fertilizers -global warming may raise sea level from 8 to 23 inches in next 100 years which is a major concern the Dutch will have to address South Florida: A Not-So-Sensitive Environmental Modification: The fragile landscape of southern Florida has been altered in insensitive ways Barrier islands are large sandbars that shield the mainland from flooding and storm damage -these are constantly being eroded and are shifting -very attractive areas for constructing new homes and recreational facilities because so near the sea -several hundred thousand people live in Florida’s barrier islands -most are linked to the mainland by bridge, causeway, or ferry service Examples of Florida’s barrier islands Everglades: was a 50 mile wide, 6 inch deep river flowing very slowly south from Lake Okeechobee During 1940s, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers drained the northern third (about 750,000 acres) to grow sugarcane The southern 2/3’s became a national park To protect the southern city of Miami (and others) the Corps also built elaborate levees, canals, and pumping stations As a result, most water that would have reached the national park was instead pumped out to sea The water that did reach the park was very high in phosphorus This water threatened native vegetation, rare birds, and other animals In 1999, a plan was developed to stop pumping water out to sea and remove 60,000 acres from sugarcane production -river flow has been permanently disrupted -Everglades Park now depends on human management Lake Okeechobee: provides fresh water for almost half of Florida’s population -Kissimmee River flows into the lake from the north -the constant flooding of this river created an obstacle to cattle grazing and urban growth in this area In 1961, the Corps straightened the course of the river into a canal -completed in 1971 After the canal was completed, the water became very polluted, mostly because of cattle grazing along the river banks -fish began to die -high levels of mercury, phosphorus, and other contaminants found This polluted water flowed through Okeechobee and also created problems down in the Everglades Now, millions of dollars are being spent trying to restore the river to its meandering course John Anderson—Seminole Wind