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Transcript
Community Ecology Chapter 54 1 Biological Communities • A community consists of all the species that occur together at any particular locality. 2 Fundamental and Realized Niches • • An organism’s niche is the total of all ways it utilizes the resources of its environment. – fundamental - entire niche potentially available to an organism – realized - actual niche utilized by an organism Habitat is the place where an organism lives. 3 Realized Niche • Interspecific competition - Occurs when different species attempt to utilize the same resource. – interference - individuals fighting over the same resource – exploitative - individuals utilizing shared resources 4 • Principle of Competitive Exclusion The principle of competitive exclusion states that no two species utilizing the same niche can coexist indefinitely. – one will eventually eliminate the other Gause’s Paramecium experiments 5 Detecting Interspecific Competition • Negative effects of one species on another do not automatically indicate competition. – Presence of one species may attract a predator that consumes both, causing one species to have a lower population size than the other. must always look at underlying ecological mechanisms 6 Predation and Prey Populations • Predation occurs when one organism consumes another. – provides strong selective pressure on prey populations Any physiologic characteristic or behavior that would decrease the probability of capture should be strongly favored. increased fitness 7 Plant Defenses Against Herbivores • • • Morphological – thorns, spines, etc. Chemical – secondary chemical compounds Evolutionary response of herbivores – Certain groups of herbivores are associated with each group of plants protected by a particular secondary compound. coevolution 8 Animal Defenses Against Predators • Some animals that feed on plants rich in secondary compounds receive an extra benefit. – caterpillars that feed on members of the milkweed family 9 Animal Defenses Against Predators • • Chemical defenses – poisons and stings Defensive coloration – aposematic coloration (warning coloration) individuals advertise poisonous nature – cryptic coloration camouflage (blending coloration) 10 Mimicry • Batesian mimicry – • Palatable insects resemble brightly colored, distasteful species. Mullerian mimicry – Unrelated protected species resemble one another. predators learn more quickly 11 Coevolution and Symbiosis • Coevolution involves long-term mutual evolution of two or more species. – predator-prey interactions – symbiotic relationships two or more kinds of organisms live together in permanent relationships commensalism, mutualism, and parasitism 12 Commensalism • One species in symbiotic relationship benefits while the other is neither helped or hurt. – tropical fish and sea anemones 13 Mutualism • Both species in relationship benefit. – mutual cooperation ants and acacias 14 Parasitism • Parasite benefits while inflicting some form of harm to the prey. – ectoparasites external parasites - lice – endoparasites internal parasites 15 Interactions Among Ecological Processes • Keystone species – Species that have a particularly strong effect on community composition. top predators 16 • Succession Succession is the process of ecosystems changing from a simple to a more complex structure. – – • primary succession - occurs in bare areas secondary succession - occurs following disturbance Succession occurs because species alter the habitat and available resources in ways that favor other species. 17 An ecosystem includes all the organisms living in a particular place, and the abiotic environment in which they interact. Producers Autotrophs - capture light energy and manufacture own chemical energy Consumers Heterotrophs - must obtain organic molecules from autotrophs 18 Trophic Levels - Food Chain Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Primary producer Primary Secondary Tertiary consumer consumer consumer 19 Trophic Levels • • Trophic level refers to the feeding level of an organism. Organisms from each trophic level constitute a food chain. 20 The Energy in Food Chains Second Law of Thermodynamics food chains are generally limited to 3 or 4 steps (trophic levels) ultimately determined by the amount of sunlight • On average, 10% of the organic matter (energy) transfers from one trophic level to the next. • 21 Interactions Among Trophic Levels Trophic cascading effect of one trophic level flows down to lower levels. (top-down effects) • Bottom-up effects productivity of an ecosystem is low, herbivore populations will be too small to support any predators. 22 Vegetation Herbivores Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Productivity 23 Interconnected food chains constitute a food web. 24