Download Chapter 31: Fungi

Chapter 31: Fungi
 fungi are most closely related to ANIMALS
 body structure: made of tiny filaments called HYPHAE, cell walls are made out
of CHITIN, hyphae form a MYCELIUM
 septate: SEPTA form crosswalls in the hyphae; SEPTATE fungi are fungi with
septa
 coenocytic: fungi that lack crosswalls (lack septa)
 nutrition: fungi are absorptive heterotrophs (they secrete digestive enzymes
that partially digest their food so they can absorb it)
 reproduction:
o sexual reproduction: often go through this when environmental
conditions are poor
 can use spores for sexual reproduction (ex. asci, basidium,
zygosporangia)
 release of pheromones brings hyphae of fungi together, they
fuse
 plasmogamy: union of 2 cytoplasms
 karyogamy: fusion of 2 nuclei, forms diploid cell
 meiosis restores haploid condition
o imperfect fungi: only have asexual reproduction, ex. yeast
o asexual reproduction: can also be in form of spores (ex. conidia)
 haustoria: extensions of fungi present in some species of fungi, help the fungi
feed on plants and animals
 mycorhizzal fungi: fungi help plant roots take up phosphate, plant helps fungi
take up nutrients
Chapter 32: Intro to Animal Diversity
 reproduction/development: DIPLOID stage is dominant
o ZYGOTE undergoes CLEAVAGE to form a BLASTULA which undergoes
GASTRULATION to form a GASTRULA
 cleavage: cell division without growth
o protostome development: cleavage is SPRIAL and DETERMINATE, the
blastopore of the gastrula develops into the MOUTH
o Deuterostome development: cleavage is RADIAL and INDETERMINATE,
the blastopore of the gastrula becomes the ANUS
 ecdysozoans: shed through ECDYSIS (molting or shedding)
 lophotrochozoans: some have Lophophore (crown-shaped feeding structure)
or trocophore (larval stage)
 germ layers
o ectoderm: forms outer cover and central nervous system (ex. brain)
o mesoderm: forms muscles and organs
o endoderm: lines digestive tube
o Diploblastic: organism that has 2 germ layers (ectoderm and
endoderm)

o Triploblastic: organism that has 3 germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm,
and endoderm)
coelom: body cavity derived from the mesoderm
o acoelomate: lacking a coelom (body cavity)
o Pseudocoelomate: has a “fake coelom”, derived from mesoderm AND
endoderm (not just mesoderm)
o coelomate: has a true coelom, derived only from the mesoderm
o metamorphosis: change in FORM
Chapter 33: Invertebrates
 sponges: lack symmetry, lack true tissues, sedentary (don’t move)
o how do they feed? suspension feeders, use CHOANOCYTES to move
water to help find food
o how do they reproduce? hermaphrodites (produce both male and
female gametes)
 cnidaria
o body plan: sac with a central digestive compartment, single opening is
mouth and anus, 2 forms: polyp (sedentary) and medusa (mobile)
o use CNIDOCYTES for feeding
 Platyhelminthes
o FLATWORMS
o body plan: acoelomates, no organs for gas exchange, most are
parasites
 rotifers
o reproduction: PARTHENOGENESIS (female species don’t need males to
reproduce unless environmental conditions are poor)
 molluscs
o basic body plan: 3 main body parts (foot, mantle, visceral mass)
o torsion: developmental process where visceral mass twists so that
anus ends up above head
 annelids
o segmented worms
o reproduction: are hermaphrodites
 nematodes
o roundworms
o important parasites of humans and plants (importance is that they can
be harmful to us)
 arthropods
o majority of extant (living) animals are arthropods
o derived characteristics: exoskeleton made of chitin, segmented, have
an open circulatory system and organs specialized for gas exchange
 insects
o derived characteristics: have head, thorax, and abdomen, complex
digestive organs, and 3 pairs of legs
o incomplete metamorphosis: egg, nymph, adult


o complete metamorphosis: egg, larva, pupa, adult
o have a tracheal system
crustaceans
o have branched appendages specialized for feeding and movement
echinoderms (“spiny skin”)
o NO TERRESTRIAL SPECIES
o slow moving or sessile
o have a water vascular system and tube feet
Chapter 34: Vertebrates
 chordates
o derived characteristics:
 notochord: longitudinal
 dorsal-hollow nerve chord
 muscular post-anal tail
 pharyngeal slits
 craniates
o chordates with a head
o unique feature: NEURAL CREST
 vertebrates
o Deuterostomes
o bilaterians (bilateral symmetry)
o have a backbone
 gnathostomes
o vertebrates with true jaws
 jaws developed from skeletal supports of pharyngeal slits
o enlarged forebrain, enhanced sense of smell and vision
o tetrapod development: have limbs and feet, developed when fins
became more limb-like
 amphibians
o FIRST CHORDATE to spend a portion of their lives on land
o amphibian: “both ways of lives”
o rely on moist skin and moist environments
 reptiles
o derived characteristics:
 have scales to protect from drying and abrading
o development of an amniotic egg containing 4 specialized membranes
to protect the embryo
 allowed vertebrates to move to terrestrial environments
o endothermic: generates body heat through metabolism
o ectothermic: absorbs heat externally from the environment
 mammals
o derived characteristics: mammary glands, hair, are endothermic, have
diaphragms
 montremes: no nipples
 marsupials: have pouch

 eutherians: have placentas, longer period of pregnancy
evolution of humans
o humans are members of PRIMATE APE group
o human evolution is not a “ladder” leading directly from early humanlike groups to current species (Homo sapiens); it is branching
o hominin species:
 Homo habilis: oldest species of hominin groups
 Homo ergaster: first fully bipedal (walking upright on 2 feet)
 Homo erectus: first hominin to leave Africa
 Homo neanderthalensis: lived in Europe, large with prominent
brow
 Homo sapiens: originated in Africa, what is present today