Download The Iowa Electronic Markets Personal Finance, Stock Market and IEM

Iowa Electronic Markets
Personal Finance and Portfolio
Management Strategies
Personal Finance Curriculum
using the
Federal Reserve Monetary Policy Market
and Computer Industry Returns Market
Personal Finance and
Portfolio Management Strategies
by
Jan E. Christopher
Delaware State University
and
Juliet U. Elu
Spelman College
August 2001
Learning Objectives
 Objectives -- Students should be able to:
– Understand how the IEM can be used to make rational investment
decisions
– Explain the relationship between the IEM, financial responsibility,
and mortgage and asset acquisition
– Explain how the IEM predicts the movement of financial markets
such as the stock, bonds and alternative investment markets
– Use the IEM as a framework to track existing portfolios and
predict movements in the equity markets
Lecture Outline
Personal Finance and Portfolio Management Strategies
1.
2.
3.
4.
Introduction:
Personal Finance Planning
Budgeting and Cash – flow Management
Money Management Strategy
Credit and Debt Management
Tax Planning
Providers of Financial Services and availability of Funds Banking Services and
Savings Plan
Mortgage and Tangible Assets Financing
Interest Rate Fundamentals
Stocks, Bonds and Mutual Fund Quotations
Insurance Services and Hedging Strategies
Investment Decisions
Understanding the Relationship between Personal Finance and Investment
Using the IEM to make Rational Investment Decisions
Trading and Tracking Stocks using the IEM
Predicting Future Trades Based on Historical Trends
Understanding Risk and Return
Summary
Lecture Notes
Personal Finance and Portfolio Management Strategies
Introduction
The Personal Finance and Portfolio Management Strategies module seeks
to define the correlation of money management strategies with
economic and political activities using the IEM. Students will be
introduced to classroom materials that enable them to understand the
impact of consumer credit and debt as they apply to personal financial
management strategies. The IEM will be used to predict and forecast
market outcomes.
Upon completing a series of assignments, students will be able to
understand the importance of personal financial planning and
economic activities. In addition, Internet activities will be assigned to
explain why banking services, developing personal savings plans, and
interpreting payment accounts are paramount to personal financial
management strategies.
Why Financial Planning Is
Beneficial
 Personal financial planning is the process of managing
your money to achieve personal economic satisfaction.
 There are several advantages of personal financial
planning:
– Increased effectiveness in obtaining, using, and
protecting financial resources.
– Increased control over one’s financial affairs.
– Improved personal relationships.
– A sense of freedom from financial worries.
The Financial Planning Process
 Assess your current financial situation
 Set financial goals
 Identify alternative courses of action
 Evaluate alternatives
 Create and implement a financial action
plan
 Reevaluate and revise your plan regularly
What Variables Affect the
Financial Planning Process?
 Opportunity cost of money – the trade-off between present and future





consumption
Risk assessment variables – such as inflation risk, interest rate risk,
loss of income, personal risks, and liquidity premium
Realistic financial time frames – near-tern, short run, long run – for
investments based on financial needs
Personal values – size of households, marital status, divorces, general
norms and ethics
Economic forces – Federal Reserve policy, global influences, and
market forces
Changing economic conditions– Consumer prices, spending habits,
interest rates, Gross Domestic Product (GDP), balance of trade, and
fluctuations in stock market indexes
Significant Terminology Used in
the Financial Planning Process
The “time value of money” is the increase in an amount of
money that results from interest earned on an investment.
The time value of money is usually categorized into two
components: the present value and the future value.
The “future value of money” is a compounding process over
time, i.e., the amount to which a sum invested can increase
over time based on the number of years invested.
The “present value of money” is the reverse of the future
value and involves a discounting process that reflects what
the investment is worth in current dollars.
Example of the Compounding
Process Using Future Value
FV = PV(1 + i)n
where n = number of years
The future value of $100 at an 8% interest rate to be
received in 1 year is:
FV = 100(1+.08)1 = $108
Note: to take advantage of the compounding process,
present consumption must be sacrificed.
Example of the Discounting
Process Using Present Value
PV =
FV
(1 + i)n
where n = number of years
The present value of $100 to be received at the end of one
year at an 8% interest rate is:
PV =
100
(1+.08)1 = $92.59
Example of the Future Value
Interest Factor for an Annuity
n
FVIFAi ,n 
 (1  i )
t 1
t 1
The future value interest factor for a one-dollar annuity discounted at i
percent for n periods of $1000 to be received at the end of three year at
an 6% interest rate is:
FVIFA 6%,3 =
(1+.06)2 + (1+.06)1 +
(1+.06)0
1.1236
+
1.06
+
1
=
3.1836
FV of the Annuity = PMT(FVIFAi,n)= $1,000 x 3.184
= $3,184
Example of the Present Value
Interest Factor for an Annuity
n
1
PVIFAi ,n  
t
t  1 (1  i )
The present value interest factor for a one-dollar annuity discounted at i
percent for n periods of $1000 to be received at the end of three year at
an 6% interest rate is:
PVIFA 6%,3 = ___1___ + __1__
+ ___1___
(1+.06)1
(1+.06)2
(1+.06)3
.9433
+ .88999
+
.83961 =
2.673
PV of the Annuity = PMT(PVIFAi,n) = $1,000 x 2.673
= $2,673
Budgeting and
Cash Flow Management
Budgeting
 Budgeting is the process of projecting, organizing,
monitoring, and controlling future income and
expenditures. Items such as cash, credit purchases,
savings, transportation, homeownership and living
arrangements are within the parameters of the budgeting
process. A budget should project actual income and
expenditures, which are presented on an income statement.
Financial planning consists of creating a balance sheet
showing assets, liabilities, and net worth. Effective
financial management requires reconciliation of the
income statement and balance sheet.
 Financial planning and budgeting are positively correlated,
and are paramount to personal financial planning process.
Cash-Flow Management
 Cash Management is the task of maximizing interest
earnings and minimizing fees and other costs of living.
Cash management involves those funds that are kept
readily available and relatively liquid for household
expenses, investment opportunities, and emergencies.
 The primary providers of cash management services are
banks, non-bank financial institutions, mutual funds, stock
brokerages, licensed lenders, and other financial services
institutions.
 Tools of cash management include interest-bearing
checking accounts, savings accounts that compound
interest daily, certificates of deposits, U.S. government
bonds, government securities, and money market accounts
such as super NOW accounts, money market mutual funds,
and asset management accounts.
Money Management Strategies
 Effective money management strategies include organizing and
maintaining personal financial records, overseeing the household
budget, handling the checkbook, and achieving financial goals based
on careful planning through the balance sheet and cash flow
statements.
– A cash-flow statement summarizes all cash receipts and payments
for a given time frame. The cash flow statement provides
information on income and spending behavior.
– A balance sheet, also known as the net worth statement, lists all
items of value and all amounts owed. These are referred to as
assets and liabilities, respectively. The balance sheet illustrates
projected savings and expenses.
– A budget assesses the current financial situation, provides
direction for achieving financial goals, creates budget allowances,
and provides feedback for evaluating planned objectives.
Key Variables in Asset
Management Strategies
 Asset Management, also known as Money Management, is the
individuals’ ability to select from different investment alternatives
(tangible assets) that will allow the achievement of financial goals.
The main goal of Asset Management is to maximize the wealth of the
individual, including the ability to minimize risk, hedge against
inflation, obtain financial stability and provide for one’s family.
Tangible Assets include:
– Personal and Employment Records
– Tax Records
– Credit Records
– Consumer Purchase Records
– Housing or Rent Records
– Investment Records
– Items of Value
– Automobile Records
Key Indicators of Good Financial
Management
 Debt Ratio – Liabilities/Net Worth
 Current Ratio – Liquid Assets/Current Liabilities
 Liquidity Ratio – Liquid Assets/Monthly Expenses
 Debt Payment Ratio – Monthly Credit Payments/Take Home Pay
 Savings Ratio – Amount Saved Per Year/Gross Annual Income
The Debt-to-Equity Ratio
 Equity, also known as Net Worth, is the value of the items that individuals
own. In general, Net Worth is the equity that remains when the individual
owners calculate the sum of their assets minus the sum of their liabilities.
 Liabilities are the claims to Equity from owing to creditors more than the sum
of one’s current income and existing Net Worth. For example, liabilities can
include car payments, credit card balances, charge card balances, insurance
premiums, student loans, bank loans, small personal loans, alimony, child
support, retroactive taxes, and loans promised to repay family members and
friends. From a societal point of view, an individual’s liabilities do not include
the value of the home and the amount of the house payments.
 The Debt-to-Equity Ratio calculates the amount of consumer debt as a ratio of
the assets an individual owns. For example, a person with $24,000 in debts
and $60,000 in assets has equity of $36,000 ($60,000-$24,000); or a Debt-toEquity Ratio of 0.67 ($24,000/$36,000), which is considered high by financial
solvency standards. If the Debt-to-Equity Ratio is close to 1 then the
individual has reached an upper limit in debt obligations. As a rule of thumb,
the Debt-to-Equity Ratio should not be more than 0.33.
The Current Ratio
 The Current Ratio is the proportion of Current Assets to Current
Liabilities. In personal finance, monthly utilities can be regarded as
part of current liabilities. Individuals should know their current
liabilities on a regular basis to understand the impact of their utility
bills (e.g., gas, electric, water and sewage, telephone and wireless
communications, trash collection, Internet and cable) on disposable
income, in order to maintain payments on one’s remaining liabilities.
 For example, with rising natural gas and heating oil prices, an
individual’s consumption could have increased from $650 per month
in December 2000 to $1,150 for the month of January 2001. If current
liabilities were $2000 per month in December and $2,500 in January,
then the current ratio will be 20% ($2,000/$5,000x100) in December;
and 50% ($2,500/$5,000x100) in January.
Liquidity Ratios
 The Liquidity Ratio is the ability of individuals to turn their assets into
cash with minimum or no transactions costs. The basic liquidity ratio
calculates the number of months a household can continue to meet its
expenses from monetary assets after a total loss of income.
 Examples of liquid assets include, Certificates of Deposit, interest and
dividends earned from assets, mutual funds, and the selling of assets,
including the selling of stocks and bonds.
 For example, if total expenses for the month of January 2001 were
$2,500 and monetary liquid assets necessary to pay the January
expenses were $4,000, then the basic Liquidity Ratio would be 1.6
($4,000/$2,500). This ratio shows that the individual only has
monetary assets to support about one and one-half month’s expenses.
Research demonstrates that individuals should have at least three
months in monetary cash reserves for emergency purposes.
Consumption patterns may vary; however, the higher the liquidity
ratio, the better.
Debt Service-to-Income Ratio
 The amount of total monthly debt payments an individual makes is
considered to be the individual’s debt service. The debt service is
calculated on gross income when mortgage payments are taken into
consideration, yet are calculated on net income when house payments
are excluded (since mortgages are classified as long-term liabilities).
 When the debt service amount is compared to the individual’s
disposable income, a benchmark of 20% or less is used. Individuals
who spend more than 20% of their monthly income on debt obligations
have no flexibility in their monthly budget expenses.
 For example, in January 2001 an individual’s monthly debt payments
were $2,500 and income was $5,000; the debt service-to-income ratio
is 50% ($2,500/$5,000).
The Savings Ratio
 From an economic perspective, saving is the difference between
disposable income and consumption. In other words, income not spent
on current consumption is saved.
 The savings ratio is the proportion of the total annual amount of
savings to total annual disposable income. A high savings ratio
indicates lower debt service. A high income does not necessarily
indicate a high savings ratio, however. High income individuals may
spend additional income on tangible assets or investments; and low
income individuals may spend a disproportionate amount on debt
service. At low incomes most individuals have a zero savings ratio.
 Hence, the savings ratio may depend on individual consumption
patterns. On a monthly basis, the savings ratio is the amount saved
each month divided by total monthly gross income. Individuals should
save at least 10% of their income. For example, if total gross income
is $5,000 per month, then the expected savings should be $500 for that
month.
Credit and Debt Management
Develop a Debt Management
Plan to Control Credit Usage
Develop a plan to manage debt.
The major sources of consumer credit are financial institutions such
as commercial banks, building and loan associations, licensed
lenders, credit unions, credit card banks, risk managers, and
insurers. Other sources of credit are non-financial, including
governmental agencies, families, friends, and community-based
organizations.
Debt management is the ability to meet debt obligations in both the
short term and the long term.
Credit Management
 The cost of credit includes the finance charge quoted as the Annual
Percentage Rate (APR).
– Interest payments represent part of the finance charge. Other
components of the finance charge can include service charges,
appraisal fees, credit-related insurance premiums, and punitive
interest rates levied on certain borrowers.
– The Annual Percentage Rate (APR) reflects the actual rate of
borrowing. It expresses the relative cost of credit on a yearly basis
and is the key to comparing costs between and among lenders.
– Approximate APR = 2 x n x I
P(N + 1)
• where, n=Number of payment periods in one year
•
P=Principal, net amount of the loan
•
I=Total dollar cost of credit
•
N=Total number of payments to pay off loan
Debt Management
 Debt can be a serious problem if not controlled properly. Evidence of
debt mismanagement can include, but is not limited to:
– Emotional problems
– Loss of income
– “Keeping up with Jones;” “Keeping Ahead of the Smith”
– Overindulgence
– Instant gratification
– Using money to punish or to comfort
– Sickness and Long-term Illness
– Unemployment
– Overextending
– Miscommunication and misunderstanding of finance charges
Signals of Debt Mismanagement
 According to the Consumer Credit Education Foundation, some of the
warning signals of a potential debt problem:
– Paying only the minimum balance on a credit card bill each month
– Missing payments
– Paying late
– Paying some bills this month and others next month
– Intentionally using the overdraft or automatic loan feature on a
checking account
– Putting off medical and dental visits because you cannot afford
them right away
– Unable to handle unexpected expenses
– Depending on overtime or moonlighting to meet everyday
expenses
– Taking frequent cash advances on credit cards
Tax Planning
Tax Planning Strategy is the ability of an individual to effectively
reduce, defer, or eliminate some taxes. Tax planning can influence an
individual’s spending, savings, borrowing, and investment decisions.
An understanding of the tax laws and maintenance of appropriate
records can assist an individual to take advantage of some tax
shelters. To successfully achieve this goal, it is essential to
determine one’s current tax liability and the impact of the liability on
financial transactions. Personal income tax is assessed on taxable
income and the objective is to legally pay your fair share of taxes
while taking advantage of the tax benefits appropriate to your
personal financial situation.
Tax Planning (continued)
 Administration and Classification of Taxes - Taxes are compulsory
charges imposed by the Federal, State, and Local governments on
citizens. Taxes are major sources of revenue for the government and
as such are mandatory and affect one’s personal finance decision.
 There are four distinct types of taxes:
– Taxes on Purchase - These are taxes imposed by state and local
governments that are added to the purchase price of the product
such as a sales tax. With the exceptions of (Alaska, Delaware,
Montana, New Hampshire, and Oregon) all states have a sales tax.
Another form of purchase tax is the excise tax that is a tax levied
on specific goods and services, such as gasoline, cigarettes,
alcoholic beverages, air travel, and tires.
– Taxes on Property - These are taxes imposed by local governments
on real estate and serve as a major source of revenue for the
municipality.
Tax Planning (continued)
– Taxes on Wealth - This can be an estate or inheritance tax. The
estate tax is imposed on the value of a person’s property at the time
of his or her death, while the inheritance tax is levied on the
property bequeathed by a deceased person.
– Taxes on Earnings - These are taxes imposed by the Federal
government on income earned from wages, interest earnings from
bonds, dividend earnings from stocks, all capital gains from
tangible and non-tangible assets, and any other income received
from miscellaneous employment. The income tax levied by the
Federal government is the largest tax component paid by
individuals, and it serves as a major source of revenue for the
Federal government and, as such, is based on the ability-to-pay
concept. The federal income tax is progressive in nature which
means that the higher an individual’s or household’s income, the
higher the percentage of tax that individual or household must pay.
See tax rates table below:
Tax Rate Table
Rate on
Taxable Income
Single
Taxpayers
Married
Taxpayers
Heads of
Household
15%
Up to $26,250
Up to $43,850
Up to $35,150
28
$26,250-$63,550
$43,850-$105,950
$35,150-$98,800
31
$63,550-$132,600
$105,950-$161,450
$98,800-$147,050
36
$132,600-283,350
$161,450-$283,350
$147,050-$283,350
39.6
Over $283,350
Over $283,350
Over $283,350
______________________________________________________________________________
Source: 2000 Tax Tables of the U.S. Internal Revenue Service
Marginal and Average Tax Rates
 The concepts of marginal and average tax rates explain why some
individuals choose to maximize income, whereas others choose to
remain in lower tax brackets to minimize their overall tax liabilities.
 The marginal tax rate is the tax paid on additional income earned and it
is used to ensure the progressive nature of the income tax. The
average tax rate is the total tax liability as a percentage of income. As
a rule, the marginal tax rate will be greater than the average tax rate. If
the average tax rate is greater than the marginal tax rate, then it is a
regressive tax which implies that the higher one’s income, the lower
one’s tax liability.
 Example: A single individual with a taxable income of $45,000 will
pay a tax of $5,390 [(45,000 - 25,750(.28)] (Refer to tax the table
above.) The average tax rate is 12% [(5,390/45,000 x 100)].
 The marginal tax is 28% and the average tax is 12%.
The Ways Taxes Are Paid
 Taxes are paid through payroll withholding and estimated taxes. The
most common is the payroll withholding method which is where the
employee authorizes the employer to withhold a portion of the
employee’s income for tax purposes. The amount withheld is based on
the amount of income earned, the number of exemptions, the number
of dependents reported by the employee on Form W-4 (the Employee’s
Withholding Allowance Certificate), and the possible estimated tax
liability. The estimated tax method is for self-employed individuals
where tax liability is estimated and paid in quarterly installments. Form
1040-ES (Estimated Tax for Individuals) must be filed.
Calculating Adjusted Income
 The federal income tax is based on the earned taxable income, adjusted
for allowable deductions, from which net taxable income is computed.
Gross income includes, but is not limited to, wages, profits, interest
payments, dividends, alimonies, child support, gaming and lottery
incomes, commissions, property rentals, and all other monetary
awards. Deductions include standard deductions and exemption, or
itemized deductions and exemptions. The gross income less
deductions is equal to the net taxable income (see tax table above for
tax brackets).
 Example: Brenda Charles had earnings from her salary of $40,000,
interest on savings of $800, a contribution to an Individual Retirement
Account (IRA) of $1,500, and dividend earnings of $600. What is
Brenda’s adjusted income?
Salary Earnings
$40,000
Interest on Savings
Dividend Earnings
800
600
Total Gross Income
Less IRA
$41,400
1,500
Adjusted Income
$39,900
Tax Shelter Strategies
 The objective of tax strategy is to legitimately reduce one’s tax burden
and concurrently not to evade paying tax. Some of the strategies
related to tax planning include, but are not limited to:
 Consumer purchasing strategy - In personal finance, one of the biggest
tax shelters for consumers is the purchase or ownership of real estate
(residential and otherwise). The cost of financing which is the same as
the interest payment for real estate property and mortgages is tax
deductible (as itemized deductions). People with equity in their homes
can consolidate their finances by obtaining home equity loans (second
mortgages) to purchase other tangible items, such as cars, furniture,
and even payoff credit card bills, while taking advantage of the low
interest rates on second mortgages and the ability to deduct taxes paid
at the end of the year. Individuals are allowed to deduct interest on
loans of up to $100,000 secured by their primary or secondary home
up to actual dollar amounts invested in the home.
Tax Shelter Strategies (continued)
 Job-Related Expenses as itemized deductions. The current tax law
allows individuals to deduct business-related expenses such as travel
expenses, membership dues, education costs, job search expenses, and
miscellaneous expenses associated with professional development
activities.
 Investment Decisions
– Tax-exempt Investment Instruments. Most municipal bonds that
are issued by state and local governments are tax exempt. Even
though they have lower interest rates, for people in the 28 percent
tax bracket and above, the after-tax income may be higher when
compared to investing in a taxable instrument. For example, a
$200 investment owned by an individual in the 28 percent tax
bracket would be worth more than a taxable investment of $250.
The $250 would have an after-tax value of $180: $250 less $70 (28
percent of $250) for taxes.
Tax Shelter Strategies (continued)
 Investment Decisions (continued)
– Tax-Deferred Investment Instruments. These are investments
whose incomes can be taxed at a later date such as treasury bonds
and retirement plans. For example, capital gains (profits from the
sale of stocks, bonds, and real estate) can be deferred. Taxes are
not due until the asset is sold and taxes are based on the income
bracket and how long the assets are held. Effective January 2001,
individuals in the 15 percent tax bracket with capital gains on
assets held for a year or less are taxed at the ordinary income tax
rate of 15 percent, gains on assets held for more than 1 year but
less than 5 years are taxed at 10 percent, and gains on asset held
for more than 5 years are taxed at 8 percent. For individuals in the
28 percent to 39.6 percent tax bracket with capital gains on assets
held for a year or less, capital gains are taxed at the ordinary
income tax rate, gains on assets held for more than 1 year but less
Tax Shelter Strategies (continued)
 Investment Decisions (continued)
– than 5 years are taxed at 20 percent, and gains on asset held for
more than 5 years are taxed at 18 percent. Capital gains of
$500,000 (couple filing jointly) and $250,000 (for singles) on the
sale of a home may be excluded if used as a primary resident;
however, this is allowed only once every two years.
– Self-Employment. Business owners such as sole proprietors and
partnerships have tax advantages because they can deduct
expenses such as health and life insurance as business expenses.
But they also have to pay self-employment tax, in addition to their
regular income tax.
Tax Shelter Strategies (continued)
 Investment Decisions (continued)
– Children’s Investment. Investment incomes passed over to
children (provided they are under 14) are tax exempt. Investment
income over $1,300 is taxed at the parent’s rate, however, $650 is
deductible, and the next $650 is taxed at the child’s rate of 15
percent.
 Retirement Plans. The use of tax-deferred plans such as IRAs, Roth
IRAs, Keogh plans, and 401(k) plans are highly encouraged for those
people who do not participate in employer-sponsored retirement plans.
People with adjusted gross income of $41,000 for singles and $61,000
for couples can establish the traditional IRA account of $2,000 per year
which is tax deductible. Only in cases of emergencies such as death or
disability, medical expenses, and qualified higher education expenses,
will there be an exception to the rule, otherwise early withdrawals
(before age 60) are subject to a 10 percent penalty.
Tax Shelter Strategies (continued)
 The Roth IRA also has limited adjusted gross income guidelines. Roth
IRAs are not tax deductible, but the earnings are tax deductible after
five years and individuals can withdraw from it before retirement. The
advantage of the Roth IRA is that the investment grows in value on a
tax-free basis, and withdrawals are exempt from federal and state
taxation.
 The Keogh Plan is for self-employed individuals who are allowed to
contribute up to 25 percent (maximum of $30,000) of their annual
income on a retirement plan. The 401(k) plan authorizes a taxdeferred retirement plan sponsored by the employer. The employer
contributes about 50 cents for each dollar to the employee’s retirement
plan, and the employee is allowed to match it, if desired.
 The retirement plan is a good way to minimize tax liability for people
in low and middle income brackets. For people in the high income
bracket, tax-deferred investments are the appropriate strategy for tax
shelter.
Providers of Financial Services
and Availability of Funds
Banking Services and
Savings Plans
 Banks provide four basic types of services
–
–
–
–
Savings accounts
Payment accounts and transfer of funds
Loans and credit alternatives
Other services, such as funds available for real estate, insurance,
portfolio or investment management, tax assistance, financial
planning, trust fund management, and asset management services.
 The categorization of banks consists primarily of full service banks,
wholesale banks, credit card banks, federal savings banks, state
savings banks, trust companies, and non-deposit trust companies.
 Cyberbanking provides computerized financial services using
multimedia such as the telephone, the personal computer, and the
Internet. Electronic banking includes such services as direct deposit,
electronic funds and wire transfers, transfers of funds between
accounts, electronic payments, point-of-sale transactions, stored-value
cards, Automated Teller Machines (ATM), electronic cash (cybercash),
and applying for loans online.
Savings Plans
 Savings plans are financial services offered by commercial banks,
building and loan associations, federal savings banks, credit unions,
mortgage companies, life insurance companies, and mutual savings
banks.
 Types of savings plans include, regular savings accounts, certificates of
deposit, money market savings accounts, money market mutual funds,
annuities, U.S. government securities, flexible and whole life insurance
policies, and Negotiated Order of Withdrawal (NOW) accounts.
Mortgage and Tangible Asset
Financing
Mortgage Financing
 Mortgage financing has evolved to include mortgage-backed
securities, Real Estate Investment Trusts (REITs), security debt and
other financial instruments used to make home mortgages more
affordable.
 Other innovations in the mortgage markets include standardized
mortgage documents, automated underwriting, automated tools to
determine credit risks, and the creation of a market for conventional
mortgage securities.
Real Estate Investment and
Cash Flow
 Real Estate Investments are a form of savings and are expected to
generate positive cash flow when the amount received is greater than
the expenses paid.
 If rental property is owned, the amount of rental income remaining
after paying all operating expenses including repairs and mortgage
expenses is also called Cash Flow.
 Positive cash flow is determined by current income. It is analogous to
cash dividends received by owners of common stock and mutual
funds.
Direct and Indirect Real Estate
Investment
 Direct Real Estate Investment
– The investor holds the title to the property.
– Home ownership is the major form of direct investment. Homeownership
is a major asset of most households.
– There are tax advantages and possible hedging against inflation with direct
real estate investment.
– Other forms of direct real estate investment can include land ownership,
ownership of commercial rental property, and ownership of vacation
homes and time shares.
 Indirect Real Estate Investment
– Real estate syndicates are usually organized as a corporation, trust, or
limited partnership.
– Real Estate Investment Trusts (REITs), which are similar to mutual funds,
are a real-estate based investment tool.
– First and second mortgages may be packaged as investments.
– Participation certificates are equity investments in a pool of mortgages
that have been purchased by a government agency.
Interest Rate Fundamentals
 The Interest Rate is the payment made to borrowers or lenders to




compensate them for the costs of money that is borrowed or lent.
The Present Value is a discounting process comparing a dollar
received today with a dollar received at some point in the future.
The Future Value of money is the compounded sum when the current
value is increased by an amount of interest based on a certain interest
rate over a specific time frame.
There is an inverse relationship between the Present Value and the
Future Value.
The effective rate of interest is determined by the frequency of
compounding. Loans that are compounded more frequently have a
higher finance charge. Savings and Investments that are compounded
more frequently have a higher yield.
Present Value
 To calculate the present value of money it is necessary to know the





current interest rate. In addition, the dollar amount to be borrowed or
saved, also known as the Principal; and the length of time, are required
to complete the calculation. To calculate the Present Value, the
Principal and the interest rate must be known.
The Present Value is equal to the Future Value
(1 + r)n
The present value of $1,000 to be received two years from today based
on a 7 percent interest rate is $873.44:
$873.44 =
1,000
(1 + .07)2
At 7%
At 9%
At 11%
$873.44
$841.68
$811.62
Future Value
 To calculate the Future Value of money it is necessary to know the
current interest rate. In addition, the dollar amount to be borrowed or
saved, also known as the Principal; and the length of time, are required
to complete the calculation. To calculate the Future Value, the face
value of the amount plus the interest and the number of compounding
periods must be known.
 The Future Value is equal to the Present Value times (1 + r)n
 The Future value of $1,000 to be received two years from today based
on a 7 percent interest rate is $1,144.90:
 $1,144.90 = 1,000(1 + .07)2


At 7%
$1,144.90
At 9%
$1,188.10
At 11%
$1,232.10
The Present Value of an Annuity
 An annuity is a series of equal dollar payments for a specific number
of years. The present value of a series of equal amounts is also known
as the Present Value of an Annuity. An ordinary annuity requires
payment at the end of each period. A deferred annuity requires
payment at the beginning of the period.
 To calculate the present value of an annuity: PVa =PMT[ 1- (1 + i)n]
I
 Alternatively, the Present Value Interest Factor of an Annuity (PVIFA)
may be used, where PVa = PMT (PVIFAi, n)
 The Present Value for a $1,000 annuity discounted at 7% at the end of
two years would be $1,808.

At 7%
$1,808
At 9%
$1,759
At 11%
$1,713
The Future Value of an Annuity
 The Future Value of a series of equal amounts is also known as the
Future Value of an Annuity.
 To calculate the Future Value of an annuity: FVa=PMT [ (1 + I)n - 1]
i
 Alternatively, the Future Value Interest Factor of an Annuity (FVIFA)
may be used, where FVa = PMT (PVIFAi, n)
 The Future Value for a $1,000 annuity compounded at 7% at the end
of two years would be $2,070.

At 7%
$2,070
At 9%
$2,090
At 11%
$2,110
Determining a Car Payment
 Let us assume that the amount borrowed is $22,000 with a $4,000
down payment. If you borrow with an 8 percent interest rate to be
repaid in 48 equal monthly payments, the payments will be $452.88.
 Payment=PV/Present Value Interest Factor for an Annuity(PVIFA8%, 4)
 Annual Payments ($18,000/3.3121)=$5,534.62 per year
 Monthly Payments = $5,534.62/12=$452.88
 Total Payment = $21,738.24
 Total Interest = $ 3,738.24
Determining a Mortgage
Payment
 Let us assume that the amount borrowed is $120,000 with a $6,000
down payment. If you borrow with an 8 percent interest rate to be
repaid in 30 years, the payments will be $844 per month.
 Payment=PV/Present Value Interest Factor for an Annuity(PVIFA8%, 30)
 Annual Payments ($114,000/11.2578)=$10,126 per year
 Monthly Payments = $10,126.21/12=$844
 Total Payment = $303,840
 Total Interest = $189,840
Computing Present and Future
Values
FVi ,n  (1  i )
n
FVIFAi ,n 
 FV=The future value for one
n

(1  i ) t 1
t 1
1
PVi ,n 
(1  i ) n
n
1
PVIFAi ,n  
t
(
1

i
)
t 1
dollar compounded at i percent
for n periods.
 FVIFA=The future value
interest factor for a one-dollar
annuity compounded at i
percent for n periods.
 PV=The present value for one
dollar discounted at i percent
for n periods.
 PVIFA=The present value
interest factor for a one-dollar
annuity discounted at i percent
for n periods.
Stocks, Bonds, and Mutual Funds
Stocks
 The interest rate is a major determinant of the direction of the stock




market.
A stock represents ownership (equity) in a corporation. Stocks are
issued to potential investors by different companies who are trying to
raise capital (money) for investment purposes.
The amount of assets owned by the company determines its standing
as classified by the Standard & Poor (S & P) Stock Index.
Stocks are bought and sold in the primary market consisting of newly
issued securities; and the secondary markets, consisting of existing
securities.
Organized exchanges, such as the New York Stock Exchange, the
Chicago Mercantile Exchange, and the American Stock Exchange,
provide a means by which investors can buy and sell efficiently
matched orders that the brokers buy and sell on their behalf.
Investment Bankers
 In most cases, Investment Bankers (such as Goldman Sachs and
Salomon Brothers) act as middlemen on behalf of investors and
corporations. The investment banker assists the corporation as an
intermediary in the buying and selling of securities in an attempt to
raise capital.
 Stocks may be issued in the primary markets through investment
bankers as Initial Public Offerings (IPOs), which are newly issued
securities sold to the public.
 Mortgage bankers also use the secondary markets for resale of existing
securities.
 An investment banker must be registered with the Security Exchange
Commission (SEC) to have access to, or be a part of, the exchange.
Individual Investors
 Individual investors can purchase stocks in three ways:
 Full Service Brokerage - employed by one of the investment bankers.
All pertinent (relevant) information about the company will be
provided by the broker. The broker will provide the investor a Prodigy
and trend analysis about the stock. A 6 percent fee is assessed on such
transactions based on the number of shares purchased or the amount
spent.
 Discount Brokerage - employed by one of the investment bankers. All
pertinent (relevant) information about the company will be done by the
investor. The broker will only act as an intermediary and purchase the
stock for the investor. A two-to-three percent fee is assessed on such
transactions based on the number of shares purchased or amount spent.
 E-trade - investors can purchase stocks directly from the company for a
flat fee of $29, but for most companies, the investor must have an
account with the company before they can trade and there is also a
minimum trade allowed.
Portfolio and Investment
Management
 A portfolio is the number of different stocks held by an individual or a
club. The risk determines the return. A stable stock, usually belonging
to a large corporation, is usually less risky because it can rebound in a
volatile market. On the other hand, “mini caps,” usually very small
companies, are very risky but with higher return. Rational investors
diversify their portfolios with different stocks from different industries.
For a well-diversified portfolio, an individual investor needs about
seven to ten stocks in their portfolio. A well-diversified portfolio,
however, has about forty stocks from different industries.
 Risk (probability of default) is assessed using the debt-to-equity ratio
as compared to the industry average, the coverage ratio (the ability of
the company to make interest payments), and with general cash flow
analysis. These ratings are conducted by Moody’s using an Aaa to Baa
scale; and Standard & Poor’s (using the AAA to BBB to F scale).
Such information is available through Value Line, Morningstar,
Moody’s, S&P, and on the Internet.
Bonds
 A bond is an interest-bearing debt instrument that promises to pay the




bondholder interest payments over the life of the loan provided there is
no call-provision, and to repay the face (par) value, at maturity. The
quality and the risk of the bond are rated by Moody’s Investors Service
and Standard and Poor’s Corporation.
The two main types of bonds issued are government bonds and
corporate bonds.
Government bonds are issued by the Federal government, States, and
municipalities and are usually zero-coupon bonds. These bonds have
low yields, low risk, and are attractive because they can provide a tax
shelter for investors in the high income brackets.
Bonds issued by corporations provide higher returns based on their
risks. The higher the risk, the higher the return.
Bonds that are traded above par value are regarded as premium bonds,
and those that are traded below par value are regarded as discount
bonds.
Bond Valuation
 Bonds are issued in three ways: at face value, which is the amount the





investor will receive when the bond matures; at a discount below face
value; and at a premium above face value.
Bond Value = Interest x Present Value Interest Factor of an Annuity
(PVIFA i,n) + the Face Value x (PVIF i,n)
For example, IEM Industries, Inc. has outstanding a $1,000 par-value
bond with an 8% coupon interest rate. The bond has 12 years
remaining to its maturity. If the interest is paid annually, find the value
of the bond when the required return is 7%, 8%, and 10%.
Bond Value = Yield x (PVIFA 7%,12) + Par Value x (PVIF 7%,12)
Using the present value interest factors for an annuity of 7.9427,
7.5361, and 6.8137; and the Present Value Interest Factors of 0.4440,
0.3971, and 0.3186 for 7%, 8% and 10%, respectively; with the yield
to maturity of $80 ($1,000 x 8%), the bond values are:
At 7%
At 8%
At 10%
$1,079
$1,000
$ 864
Premium
Par
Discount
Mutual Funds
 Mutual funds are managed by financial intermediaries that channel the
funds of savers into a variety of assets. These funds allow small
investors to purchase shares in a diversified portfolio of stocks, bonds,
or other types of assets.
 Money Market Mutual Funds are investments in various kinds of
short-term debt of businesses and governments as well as investments
in certificates of deposit.
Classification of Mutual Funds
 Mutual funds can be classified as closed-end or open-end. A closed-
end fund’s shares are issued by the investment company only when the
fund is originally organized. Consequently, only a certain number of
shares of these funds are available to the general public. After the
initial offering, an investor can purchase a share only if the original
owner is willing to sell. Closed-end mutual funds tend to appreciate
faster.
 Open-end fund’s shares are issued and redeemed by the investment
company at the request of the investors. Investors buy and sell net
asset values at will. The net asset value is equal to the current market
value contained in the mutual fund’s portfolio minus the mutual fund’s
liabilities divided by the number of shares outstanding.
 A no-load fund is a mutual fund where investors pay no sales charges
or commissions. The investor trades directly with the investment
company. A load-fund in when investors pay commission each time
they purchase shares.
Insurance Services and Hedging
Strategies
Insurance and Hedging Strategies
 Insurance Services and Hedging Strategies are individuals’ abilities to
minimize risk and uncertainty. They are used to guide against
unforeseen circumstances and financial loss. Investors are exposed to
potential financial loss from either speculative risk or pure risk.
Speculative risk is the probability of some gain, whereas pure risk is
when there is no potential gain. Risk management is the ability to
identify, foresee and evaluate potential risk through advanced
awareness, planning, and effectively minimizing the impact. The risk
management process requires that an individual identify sources of
risk, evaluate potential losses, identify strategies to handle risk such as
risk avoidance, risk transfer, risk reduction, risk assumption, and risk
shifting; administer a risk management program, and evaluate the
program.
Risk and Insurance
 Risk and the need for insurance are positively correlated. Pure risk is
based on uncertainty and insurance is meant to protect against
uncertainty and possible financial loss resulting from risk. Insurance is
designed to transfer and reduce risk through shared collective financial
losses suffered by members of the group. Each individual in the
group (the insured or policy holder) is required to pay a premium that
reflects the share of their losses to an insurance company (the insurer).
Insurance companies offer policy holders peace of mind knowing that
all will not be lost in case of unexpected occurrences such as a hazard
(peril which leads to a possible loss) or a moral hazard (when an
individual causes a peril). Individuals must have an insurable interest,
i.e., they must stand to suffer a loss. The principle of indemnity
always applies, which states that insurance will pay no more than the
actual financial loss suffered. Examples of perils include, but not are
limited to, fire, lightening,windstorms, hail, smoke damage, vandalism,
malicious mischief, theft, glass breakage, volcanic eruption, and so on.
Policy holders can choose between full coverage (100 percent), partial
comprehensive coverage (80 percent coverage), or simple liability
coverage.
Types of Insurance
 Homeowners Insurance
• Homeowners Insurance is designed to protect homeowners in
case of losses incurred to their dwelling and its content.
Homeowners insurance is a combination of property insurance,
personal liability insurance, supplemental living expense
coverage, replacement cost coverage, and medical expense
coverage. There are three major types of homeowners
insurance - for people who own homes, for owners of
condominiums, and for renters. The objective is to protect all
individuals from liability and property losses. Some examples
of liability coverage include personal comprehensive liability
insurance, no-fault medical payments, and no-fault property
damage. Examples of property coverage include the home and
any other attached buildings, detached buildings, personal
property, loss of use, marine coverage, and itemized personal
articles insurance.
Types of Insurance (continued)
– Renters Insurance
The main purpose is to protect renters against financial loss
due to damage or loss of personal property. The coverage
includes personal property protection, additional living
expenses, and personal liability related coverage. Renters
Insurance is typically a peril policy that covers 17 major peril
items with liability protection. It is reasonably less expensive
and also provides protection from losses to dwelling contents
and personal property.
– Condominium Insurance
Condominium Insurance covers losses to contents and personal
property, losses due to additional living expenses that may
arise if one of the covered perils occurs, and liability losses.
The condominium owner can provide coverage for dwelling
and losses resulting from structural alterations such as book
shelves, electrical fixtures, and wall or floor coverings.
Types of Insurance (continued)
 Homeowners insurance usually covers dwelling, peril, liability, and
personal property such as furniture, appliances, and furnishings.
Homeowners insurance can have 80 or 100 percent coverage with
replacement cost and actual cash value for property damage. Some of
the variables that affect the cost of homeowners insurances are: the
location of the property, the policy type and coverage, accessories in
the home such as smoke detectors, fire alarm system, burglary alarm
system, and competition among the insurance companies. As a policy
holder, it pays to compare prices and choose the best policy for your
personal need. In case of property loss, replacement is based on the
value of the asset, with the applicable deductible taken into
consideration.
Types of Insurance (continued)
The replacement-cost-requirement can be estimated as:
R = (L – D) x 1/(RV x 0.80 or 1.00)
where,
R = reimbursement payable
L = the amount of loss
D = deductible, if any
I = amount of insurance actually carried
RV = replacement value of dwelling
Actual Cash value (ACV) is estimated as:
ACV = P - [CA x (P/LE)]
where,
P = purchase price of the property
CA= current price of the property
LE = life expectancy of the property in years
Types of Insurance (continued)
For example: What amount would Vivian Jones receive with cash
value coverage for a two-year-old T.V. destroyed by fire? The T.V.
would cost $1,000 to replace today and had an estimated life of five
years.
ACV = $1,000 - [($1,000 / 5) x 2] = $600
The insurance premium reflects the homeowners’ policy choice, but
standard policies typically provide $100,000 of personal liability
coverage, $1,000 of no-fault medical expenses coverage, and $250 of
no-fault property damage coverage. It is advisable for policyholders to
purchase supplemental coverage depending on need.
Types of Insurance (continued)
 Automobile Insurance
Driving an automobile exposes individuals to disastrous financial
losses. Automobile insurance protects consumers from financial losses
that might result from accidents. In some states it is mandatory to have
automobile insurance to cover motorists in case of an accident. The
different types of coverage include liability insurance such as bodily
injury, liability and property damage, medical coverage for passengers,
uninsured or under-insured motorist, and physical damage such as
collusion and comprehensive insurance.
 Insurance quotes reflect the premium paid by the policy holder. The
coverage may be 50/100/250/300 that is a $50,000, $100,000,
$250,000, or $300,000 per accident limit that will be paid for all bodily
injury. Uninsured or under-insured motorists coverage protects the
insured motorist from bodily and property damage in case of an
accident and is either 50/100 that is $50,000 or $100,000 coverage for
one or multiple bodily injury resulting from one accident.
Types of Insurance (continued)

Automobile Insurance (continued)
– Comprehensive automobile insurance also protects against property
damage and is written on an open peril other than collusion.
Comprehensive insurance usually has a deductible ranging from $100 to
$500.
– Other coverage includes towing where a disabled car can be transported to
a repair location, and rental reimbursement which provides car rental with
a limited amount of $20 to $30 a day for the insured when the car is been
repaired.
– The coverage can be a family automobile policy where members of the
family or household are covered under the policy, or personal automobile
policy designed for an individual who is insured as the only driver.
Types of Insurance (continued)
 Property Liability Insurance protects individuals from
property and liability losses that are not covered by homeowners or
automobile policies. Some of the property liabilities include, but are
not limited to:
– Floater Policies provide insurance coverage for theft losses to
movable personal property irrespective of where the loss occurred.
Personal properties such as clothing, camera, and miscellaneous
items are covered under this plan. Unscheduled floater policies
cover all movable property transported from automobiles owned
by the insured.
– Professional Liability or malpractice insurance protects
professionals such as doctors, accountants, etc. who provide
services to consumers. Professional liability insurance varies in
coverage, deductible, liability, and premium depending on the
profession involved.
Types of Insurance (continued)
 Property Liability Insurance (continued)
– Comprehensive Personal Liability insurance protects from liability
and from losses that might arise out of activities that are unrelated
to business or the use of an automobile such as accidents occurring
in recreational areas that might harm a third party or the individual
directly.
– Umbrella Liability insurance covers all aspects of general
catastrophes such as automobile, homeowners, and professional
liabilities. These policies cover above and beyond the basic
stipulations of the original policies and help to shield individuals
from unexpected financial losses.
Types of Insurance (continued)
 Health and Disability Insurance
Health Insurance is the ability of an individual to protect themselves
against economic loss due to illness, accident, or disability. With rising
health care costs, the purpose of health insurance is to alleviate
financial burdens suffered by individuals in the form of medical
expense coverage and disability income.
Health and medical insurance can be purchased directly or is provided
by employers through private insurance companies and Blue Cross and
Blue Shield organizations. Most health insurance coverage comes
from companies operating as HMOs, PPOs, or under a system of
deductibles and copayments made directly to private physicians and
hospitals.
Types of Insurance (continued)
 There are several basic types of health insurance coverage:
– Individual health care insurance covers either one person or a
family and coverage varies from employer to employer.
Individuals may receive coverage under a basic medical expense
insurance plan or a major medical insurance plan.
– Group health care insurance varies from plan to plan and provides
blanket coverage to the members of the group.
– Supplemental group insurance is needed when an individual’s
major insurance fails to cover major components of the
individual’s medical bill, hospital charges, or surgical charges,
primarily due to pre-existing conditions.
– Disability income, Medicare supplement and long-term care are
also classified as health and medical insurance.
Types of Insurance (continued)
 Health care providers are managed differently. For example, the Health
Maintenance Organizations (HMOs) have contracts with selected physicians to
provide individuals with health care services for a fixed prepaid monthly
premium. Preferred Provider Organizations (PPOs) offer health services at
discount rates. Blue Cross and Blue Shield plans are statewide organizations
similar to commercial health insurance companies. These providers cover
different types of health care coverage which includes, but is not limited to:
– Hospital expense insurance where the insurance covers all or part of
hospital bills for room, board, and other charges.
– Surgical expense insurance pays all or part of the surgeon’s bill for an
operation.
– Physician expense insurance pays physicians’ bills that do not involve
surgery.
– Major medical insurance protects against large expenses of a serious
injury or a long-term illness.
– Comprehensive major medical insurance has a lower deductible and is
offered without a basic plan.
– Hospital indemnity policies cover benefits only when a person is
hospitalized.
Types of Insurance (continued)
 Dental expense provides reimbursement for the expense of dental
services.
 Vision care insurance covers part of the expenses incurred from eye-
related health care.
 For personal finance purposes, individuals’ needs differ tremendously,
and for full protection, combination or supplemental policies might be
necessary to minimize risk especially with the rising costs of health
and medical care.
Types of Insurance (continued)
 Disability Insurance
Disability Insurance is designed to protect individuals from loss of
income due to unforeseen circumstances such as accident, illness, or
pregnancy. Disability affects one’s ability to earn income and this
insurance provides regular cash income to the insured. Disability can
be short or long term and disability insurance usually is provided by
the employer, under Social Security, and through workers’
compensation.
As a rule, if the Social Security and other disability benefits provided
by the employer are insufficient to support your family, it is advisable
to buy additional disability insurance to make up the difference.
Types of Insurance (continued)
 Life Insurance
The purpose of life insurance is to protect loved ones who depend on
you from financial loss caused by death. The insurance company
promises to pay a sum of money at the time of the policyholder’s death
in return for the insured’s agreement to pay periodic premiums. Age
and gender reflect the premium that one pay.
 Types of Life Insurance:
– Term life insurance is protection for a specified period of time,
usually 1, 5, 10, 20 years or up to age 65. There are provisions for
renewal, convertibility into whole life, and decreasing term
coverage over the life of the policy.
Types of Insurance (continued)
– Whole life insurance is the most commonly purchased form of life
insurance policy, where there are specified premiums on an annual
basis as long as the insured lives. There is provision for Cash
Value which gives the insured the right to receive the increases in
the amount paid over time if the insured decides to give up the
insurance.
– There is also the Non-forfeiture clause which allows the insured to forfeit
all accrued benefits, but retain the cash value of the life insurance policy
upon surrender. Under the Whole Life classification there are various
types of policies available to individuals such as the:
• Limited payment policy - premiums are paid for a stipulated
period of time, but the insured remains insured for life.
• Variable life insurance policy - the cash values of a variable
life insurance policy can fluctuate with the prevailing market
rate of interest.
• Adjustable life insurance policy- allows for changes to be
made as financial needs change.
Types of Insurance (continued)
– Flexible Premium Life Insurance
• Universal life insurance policy- is a flexible version of the life
insurance policy where individuals can combine term
insurance and investment elements for maximum return.
– Life insurance is imperative if your death will cause financial
stress for your spouse, children, parents, or anyone you want to
protect. The amount of life insurance is subjective and should be
based on personal need and life style.
Making a Claim
 The advantage of having any kind of insurance is the fact that one is
certain that the insurance company will reimburse or alleviate some or
all of their financial losses. For insurance companies to adequately
compensate you for your losses, you must provide proper
documentation such as pictures and all relevant verifications, file your
claim with the insurance company, and finally sign a release affirming
the settlement amount.
Investment Decisions
Keys to Choosing an Investment
 A variety of investment options are available. The investor must
decide whether he or she wants to lend money or own an asset.
Investors must also decide whether they want to make short-term
investments or long-term investments.
 When investors lend money, they receive some promise of future
income. Investments of this type include depositing money in a
savings account in commercial banks, credit unions, and other
financial institutions that offer certificates of deposit. Investors may
lend to governments by purchasing treasury bonds, treasury notes,
savings bonds, and state and local municipal bonds. Investors may
lend to businesses through corporate bonds. They may also lend by
investing in mortgage-backed securities and life insurance company
annuities. These lending investments usually offer a fixed maturity
repayment date and a fixed rate of return for use of the principal. The
return to these investments are somewhat assured. The investor only
receives the fixed return promised at the time of the initial investment,
however.
Investing through Ownership
 Investors can buy assets outright or purchase them on credit. These
types of investments are called equities. Equity ownership can be
obtained through purchasing common or preferred stock, shares in a
mutual fund, real estate, commodity futures, or investment-quality
collectibles. This can also include starting one’s own business and
becoming an entrepreneur. There is no limit to the potential returns in
this case.
Purchasing Short- or Long-Term
Investments
 Investments that are made for less than one year are referred to as
short-term investments. Most gains from short-term investments are
offset by commissions, fees and penalties. Short-term investments can
include NOW accounts, savings accounts, money market accounts,
certificates of deposits (CDs), treasury notes, savings bonds, and
corporate bonds that mature in less than two years.
 Long-term investments, on the other hand, can be for two or more
years. Long-term investments can include corporate bonds, Ginnie
Mae bonds, stocks paying high dividends, long-term bonds, long-term
CDs, growth funds, mutual funds, growth stocks, precious metals,
commodities, options, aggressive growth funds, and income mutual
funds.
 Investments that have the potential for higher returns but high risk to
the investor are: futures contracts, call options, speculative stocks, junk
bonds, collectibles, limited partnerships, put options, real estate, and
aggressive-growth mutual funds.
Understanding the Relationship between
Personal Finance and Investments
 Learning the language of personal finance will help the investor
understand the complexities of life today as well as alleviate the
burden of making poor financial decisions. The lack of knowledge of
personal finance is evident in those persons who have excessive
consumer debt, spend money frivolously, are victims of financial
scams, purchase the wrong kind of insurance, or are unable to reach
their financial goals. To understand the intricacies of personal finance,
one needs to have a basic understanding of the economy, including a
knowledge of interest rates, inflation, government, and the general
political and economic environment, including an understanding of the
time value of money, taxes, costs and benefits. Personal finance,
therefore, is the process of managing one’s money with the goal of
safeguarding and investing one’s financial resources through tax
management, budgeting, cash management, risk management,
retirement and estate planning, the use of credit cards, and borrowing
for major expenditures. Investments are merely one component of
personal finance.
Using the IEM to make Rational
Investment Decisions
 The Iowa Electronic Market (IEM for short) is a series of
computerized markets on which financial contracts can be traded
(bought or sold).
 The Federal Reserve Monetary Policy Market is a real-money futures
market where contract payoffs are determined by monetary policy
decisions made at regularly scheduled meetings of the Federal
Reserve’s Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC).
 The practice of the FOMC, initiated on May 18, 1999, has been to
release a public announcement shortly after each regular meeting
describing the funds rate target decision. This public announcement
will be the official source of FOMC policy decisions for purposes of
making rational estimates of the prevailing interest rate.
Background on the FOMC
 The Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) is comprised of the
seven members of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve
System (Fed), the President of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York,
and four other Reserve Bank presidents. The committee meets at
frequent intervals to determine the Federal Reserve System’s open
market policy. To carry out its policy, the Committee directs the
purchase or sale of U.S. Government securities in the open market to
influence the supply and availability of money and credit in the
economy. The Committee designates the Federal Reserve Bank of
New York to act as its agent in executing transactions for the Federal
Reserve System. Typically the Fed adjusts interest rates to influence
demand in the economy. By targeting asset-based demand the Fed is
able to quickly affect consumption, the money supply, and credit. The
most effective tool that the Fed has to adjust interest rates is the
FOMC-controlled federal funds rate. In general, the federal funds rate
is the price banks charge each other for overnight loans.
Background on the FOMC
(continued)
 Overnight loans between banks are often used to maintain the
appropriate level of reserves that are required by the Fed through
mandated Reserve Requirements.
 When the Fed buys and sells U.S. Treasury Securities in the open
market, it guides the level of the federal funds rate. The federal funds
rate is the benchmark for all short-term borrowing and is the basis for
each individual bank’s prime lending rate.
 When the FOMC “tightens” interest rates, this implies that it is
increasing the federal funds rate, and ultimately the prime rate and
other rates of credit to consumers. On the other hand, when it lowers
interest rates, this implies a “loosening” of money, credit, and resulting
monetary economic activity.
 The Fed did not officially target the federal funds rate until the late
1980s. Prior to that time, Open Market Operations were used to
establish an acceptable range for the funds rate. Presently, the funds
rate is a good indicator of the Fed’s monetary policy goals and results.
FOMC Policy Decisions and the
IEM
 The Federal Reserve Monetary Policy Market consists of three basic
contracts. After every FOMC meeting, existing contracts in the series
are liquidated and payments are made based on the decisions reached
regarding the federal-funds rate target—to raise the target, to lower the
target, or to leave it unchanged.
 If the decision of the FOMC remains unclear even after three
consecutive Wall Street Journal issues following the lack of an official
press release by the Fed, the outcome “fed-funds target remains
unchanged” will be declared the result for purposes of determining
liquidation values.
 Trading in a set of contracts on the IEM will continue for as much as
two days beyond the end of the meeting on which those contracts are
based. If an official announcement of the FOMC decision is made at
the end of the meeting or within two days thereafter, the market will
close and contracts will be liquidated as soon as is possible after the
Fed Policy Contract Description
CODE
Contract Description/Liquidation Value
FRupMMYY
$1.00 if the fed-funds rate target rises;
$0 otherwise
FRsameMMYY
$1.00 if the fed-funds target remains
unchanged; $0 otherwise
$1.00 if the fed-funds rate target falls;
$0 otherwise
FRdownMMYY
Note: Contracts will be designated using a ticker symbol and a letter denoting up, down, or the same
and the month of contract liquidation. The contracts traded in this market for liquidation will have a
unique date denoted by month “MM” and year “YY”.
Assignment One
 Calculating Present and Future Value of Money
 In this assignment, you will study how to determine the time value of
money using present and future values. You will study simple interest
calculations, compounding and discounting, as well as annuities.
 Conduct at least one trade in the FedPolicy market between
___________ and __________. At the end of each liquidation date, if
the federal funds rate increases, this means that the prime rate will also
increase. Adjust the rate on the previous variables used in Assignment
One based on the appropriate increase or decrease in the federal funds
rate.
Assignment Two
 Calculating Mortgage Investments
 In this assignment, you will study how to calculate mortgage
investment strategies. Many frequently asked questions can be
explored using this assignment, such as: Am I better off renting or
buying? What home can I afford? How much will my payments be?
Which is better, a 15 or 30 year mortgage? Is it better to own or rent if
I am only going to stay in a location for less than five years? What is
my required down payment?
 Conduct at least one trade in the FedPolicy market between
___________ and __________. At the end of each liquidation date, if
the federal funds rate increases, this means that the prime rate will also
increase. Adjust the rate on the previous variables used in Assignment
Two based on the appropriate increase or decrease in the federal funds
rate.
Trading and Tracking Stocks
using the IEM
Trading on the IEM
You can access the IEM through its web-site address:
http://www.biz.uiowa.edu/IEM/
In the Federal Reserve Monetary Policy Market (i.e., FRupMMYY,
FRsameMMYY, and FRdownMMYY), a bundle can be purchased
from or sold to the IEM system at any time at the price of $1.00
per bundle. A unit portfolio is a set of bundles, such as AAPLm,
IBMm, MSFTm and SP500m, where the investor purchases one
share of each stock in the bundle. You can always buy or sell such
portfolios for $1.00 each. Thus, when you start to trade and do not
own any contracts, you can buy a unit portfolio and then start to
trade. (To do this, select the appropriate contract under “Buy
Bundles” or “Sell Bundles” in the “Market Order” drop down
menu. Enter a quantity and press the “Market Order” button.)
Note that, regardless of the settlement value of stocks in the
bundle, the liquidation values of the contracts in a bundle will total
$1.00, the same as the price at which the bundles can be bought or
sold. The bundles will be designated FR1$MMYY, where the
suffix MMYY identifies the month of the FOMC meeting.
Tracking Shares on the IEM
 Investors can also purchase individual contract shares on the IEM.
 Investors can buy or sell using a "Market Order." On the market
screen, you will see that some individuals have posted an order to buy
or to sell a contract (e.g., MSFTg, the contract for July liquidation in
the Computer Industry Returns Market) at a specific price. If you
believe that a posted order represents a good deal, you can buy or sell
at the posted price.
 To place a market order, select the appropriate contract under “Buy at
Best Ask” or “Sell at Best Bid” in the “Market Order” drop down
menu. Enter a quantity and press the “Market Order” button.
Buying and Selling Limit Orders
on the IEM
 Investors can buy or sell using a "Limit Order." To do so, you state the
price at which you are willing to buy or sell a contract and post a limit
order on the screen.
 In doing so, you are waiting for someone who is willing to buy or sell
at your stated price. In this manner, when your order executes, it will
execute at your stated price, not at somebody else’s. The negative is
that the order may never execute because nobody likes your price
because it is too high or low.
 To place a Limit Order, select the appropriate contract under “Post a
Bid” or “Post an Ask” in the “Limit Order” drop down menu. Enter a
price, quantity and expiration date and press the “Limit Order” button.
Accessing Contracts on the IEM
 Access to contracts on the IEM can be achieved via the “Market
Selection” pull down menu.
 Funds in a trader’s cash account are fungible across all contracts, so
new investment deposits are not required to trade in more than one
market.
Predicting Future Trades Based
on Historical Trends
Charting Trends
 Stocks may be charted on such web sites as http://www.valueline.com
by knowing the stock ticker symbol. If the ticker symbol is not
known, then Value Line, for example, gives the investor the ability to
look up the ticker symbol before requesting a quote or charting. It is
recommended that all publicly traded stocks be charted, so that the
investor can look at the historical trends over time.
 Stocks may also be charted by using such software as EXPO, that is
located in many university trading rooms, or through self-charting
using Microsoft Excel.
Assignment Three
 Budgeting to Achieve Financial Success
 In this assignment, you will study how to budget in order to enhance
your investment strategies. The Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago’s
Web site on consumer finances is the best place to begin. Go to
 http://www.chicagofed.org/consumerinformation/projectmoneysmart
 Use the worksheet provided to create your own monthly budget.
 Conduct at least one trade in the Computer Industry Returns Market
between ___________ and __________. At the end of each
liquidation date, if the returns are higher for IBM, Microsoft, Apple or
if the S&P500 market index is the highest, then purchase shares of the
winning stock at the market price listed in the Wall Street Journal or
the average price as quoted on ValueLine.com. Analyze and chart past
liquidation values for the winners of the Computer Industry Returns
Market for the months of March, April, May, and June, 2001. Adjust
the savings and income categories of your budget accordingly.
Computer Industry Returns
Contract Description
CODE
Underlying
Asset
Contract Description/Liquidation Value
AAPLm
Apple
Computers
$1.00 if AAPL Returns Highest
IBMm
IBM
$1.00 if IBM Returns Highest
MSFTm
Microsoft
$1.00 if Microsoft Returns Highest
S&P500m S&P 500
Market Index
$1.00 if S&P500 Returns Highest
Understanding the Relationship
between Risk and Return
 In personal finance, understanding risk and return is an important
decision for investment purposes. Return on investment is earned from
current income such as interest payments, dividends, rent, and capital
gains which results from an increase in the value of an investment.
Investment is pivotal to achieving financial goals such as a down
payment on a home, a car, education and other tangible assets,
increasing current income, future consumption, unexpected
expenditures, wealth accumulation and financial security. Individuals
can invest only if they make rational consumption and financial
decisions such as:
 Living within their budget, i.e., daily and monthly operating expenses
must not exceed income. In this aspect, maintaining proper budget and
financial control is imperative.
Risk and Return (continued)
 Establishing a savings program, which implies sacrificing present
consumption for future investment. The ability to save regularly, build
emergency funds, and invest periodically accrued savings can
maximize wealth in the long-run.
 Maintaining a good credit rating and having an adequate line of credit
to cover emergencies can help facilitate investment strategy and
decision. In other words, using credit cards to pay for emergencies can
minimize the amount of liquid cash held in the form of savings and
increase investment.
 Having adequate liability insurances such as property, health, and life
insurance for protection of your assets and lifestyle in the event of
unexpected financial burdens.
 Establishing investment goals as a priority and working towards that
goal.
Determining Your Own Investment
 An individual investment is based on how speculative risk is
perceived. Risk represents the uncertainty that the yield on an
investment will deviate from what is expected and speculative risk is
built on the potential for gain or loss resulting from an investment.
There are two types of risk in the market, namely systematic and
unsystematic risks.
 Systematic or unavoidable risk, also known as market risk, is
inherent in the market and is independent of an investor’s decision.
Systematic risk is caused by events such as economic, social, and
market conditions. For example, increases in inflation will
automatically affect the value of securities and the real return on the
investment.
Determining Your Own Investment
(continued)
 Unsystematic or avoidable risk is when an investor has the ability to
diversify risk and can determine the outcome of the return provided
that the investor has more than one security in the portfolio. A welldiversified portfolio can minimize risk, however, an investor’s attitude
toward risk will reflect the return. High risk will yield high return and
low risk will yield low return. An investor is either risk averse
(conservative investment philosophy), risks neural (moderate
investment philosophy), or risk seeking (aggressive investment
philosophy).
 If you are a risk averse investor who wants minimum risk, it will be
appropriate to invest in low yield securities such as government
securities (e.g., treasury bills, notes, and bonds, and municipal bonds),
high quality (blue-chip) corporate stocks and bonds, balanced mutual
funds (combination of stocks and bonds), certificates of deposit, and
fixed annuities.
Determining Your Own Investment
(continued)
 A risk neutral investor will invest in securities such as dividend-paying
common stock, growth and income mutual funds, high quality
corporate bonds, government bonds, variable annuities, and real estate.
 A risk seeking investor will invest in securities such as common stocks
of new or fast-growing companies, high yield junk bonds, aggressivegrowth mutual funds, limited real estate partnerships, underdeveloped
land, precious metals, gems, commodity futures, stock index futures,
and other collectibles.
 The appropriate strategy is to have a well-diversified portfolio with a
combination of low, medium, and high risk of assets and securities so
as to minimize risk and maximize the rate of return.
Strategies for Portfolio Management
 Investors invest for short-term or long-term, however, most people try
to invest for the long-term which is usually five years or more. Longterm investment requires discipline and possibly employing a
professional to manage your portfolio. But recently, small investors
are forming investment clubs and are managing their portfolios by
pooling their resources together. Some of the investment clubs have
succeeded in effectively diversifying their portfolios. If you are
planning to be a long-term investor, a moderate or conservative
investment strategy must be implemented. In addition, some
understanding of the securities markets such as the bear market (when
prices of securities are falling) and the bull market (when prices of
securities are rising) is essential. Some of the major strategies for
portfolio management include, but are not limited:
Strategies for Portfolio Management
(continued)
 Business-Cycle Timing is when an investor recognizes the phases of
the business cycle (peak, recession, trough, and recovery) and takes
advantage of the market when prices are falling. The timing of the
business cycle is important and the investor wants to be in the market
for the long haul and, as such, can acquire stable stocks at a reasonable
price. The problem is that most investors are skeptical during a
recession and it takes courage to buy at this time.
 Dollar-Cost Averaging is when an investor invests a fixed amount of
money in the same stock or mutual funds at regular intervals over a
long period of time regardless of price. The objective is to collect
more shares at lower prices and fewer shares at higher prices
depending on the business cycle, and eventually most of the shares will
be accumulated at below-average costs.
Strategies for Portfolio Management
(continued)
 Portfolio Diversification is the selection of different investment
instruments such as stocks, bonds, mutual funds, and real estate that
are negatively correlated and have dissimilar risk-return characteristics.
This is an effective long-term strategy because it minimizes the
volatility of individual investment returns.
 Asset Allocation is deciding what portion of the investment portfolio to
allocate to various categories of assets: stocks, bonds, and cash. As a
part of portfolio diversification, it is rational to increase return and
decrease risk by allocating a fixed proportion of your asset to different
investment instruments.
Making the Right Decision
 Making the right decision when to sell your investment can increase
your earnings and portfolio. The decision to sell considering the
volatility in the market is based on individuals’ intuition and risk
assimilation. As a rule of a thumb, it is safe to sell when you feel that
you have earned a satisfactory profit. Minimize losses by selling
securities that you do not feel comfortable within your portfolio. A
temporary drop in price does not necessarily indicate a bad investment,
however, it may be better to sell at a loss rather than hold on to a loser.
A well-diversified portfolio can always minimize risk, and as you
review your portfolio, eliminate securities that are positively correlated
and use the proceeds to purchase another security.
 Generally speaking, risk and return are positively correlated. An
individual’s portfolio reflects the willingness to undertake risk and, as
such, rates of return; however, a well-diversified portfolio can
minimize risk and maximize return.
INDEX























Learning Objectives (Slide 3)
Lecture Outline (Slide 4)
Personal Finance and Portfolio Management Strategies Lecture Notes (Slide 5)
Introduction (Slide 6)
Why Financial Planning Is Beneficial (Slide 7)
The Financial Planning Process (Slide 8)
What Variables Affect the Financial Planning Process? (Slide 9)
Significant Terminology Used in the Financial Planning Process
(Slide 10)
Example of the Compounding Process Using Future Value
(Slide 11)
Example of the Discounting Process Using Present Value
(Slide 12)
Example of the Future Value Interest Factor for an Annuity
(Slide 13)
Example of the Present Value Interest Factor for an Annuity
(Slide 14)
Budgeting and Cash Flow Management (Slide 15)
Budgeting (Slide 16)
Cash-Flow Management (Slide 17)
Money Management Strategies (Slide 18)
Key Variables in Asset Management Strategies (Slide 19)
Key Indicators of Good Financial Management (Slide 20)
The Debt-to-Equity Ratio (Slide 21)
The Current Ratio (Slide 22)
Liquidity Ratios (Slide 23)
The Debt Service-to-Income Ratio (Slide 24)
The Savings Ratio (Slide 25)



























Credit and Debt Management (Slide 26)
Developing a Debt Management Plan to Control Credit Usage
(Slide 27)
Credit Management (Slide 28)
Debt Management (Slide 29)
Signals of Debt Mismanagement (Slide 30)
Tax Planning (Slides 31-33)
Tax Rate Table (Slide 34)
Marginal and Average Tax Rates (Slide 35)
The Ways Taxes Are Paid (Slide 36)
Calculating Adjusted Income (Slide 37)
Tax Shelter Strategies (Slides 38-43)
Providers of Financial Services and Availability of Funds
(Slide 44)
Banking Services and Savings Plans (Slide 45)
Savings Plans (Slide 46)
Mortgage and Tangible Asset Financing (Slide 47)
Mortgage Financing (Slide 48)
Real Estate Investment and Cash Flow (Slide 49)
Direct and Indirect Real Estate Investment (Slide 50)
Interest Rate Fundamentals (Slide 51)
Present Value (Slide52)
Future Value (Slide 53)
The Present Value of an Annuity (Slide 54)
The Future Value of an Annuity (Slide 55)
Determining a Car Payment (Slide 56)
Determining a Mortgage Payment (Slide 57)
Computing Present and Future Values (Slide 58)
Stocks, Bonds, and Mutual Fund (Slide 59)
Index (continued)























Stocks (Slide 60)
Investment Bankers (Slide 61)
Individual Investors (Slide 62)
Portfolio and Investment Management (Slide 63)
Bonds (Slide 64)
Bond Value (Slide 65)
Mutual Funds (Slide 66)
Classification of Mutual Funds (Slide 67)
Insurance Services and Hedging Strategies (Slides 68-69)
Risk and Insurance (Slide 70)
Types of Insurance (Slide 71)
Types of Insurance - Homeowners (Slides 71-75)
Types of Insurance - Automobile (Slides 76-77)
Types of Insurance - Property Liability Insurance
(Slides 78-79)
Types of Insurance - Health and Disability Insurance
(Slides 80-83)
Types of Insurance - Disability Insurance (Slides 84)
Types of Insurance - Life Insurance (Slides 85-87)
Making a Claim (Slide 88)
Investment Decisions (Slide 89)
Keys to Choosing an Investment (Slide 90)
Investing through Ownership (Slide 91)
Purchasing Short- or Long-Term Investments (Slide 92)
Understanding the Relationship between Personal Finance and
Investments (Slide 93)























Using the IEM to make Rational Investment Decisions
(Slide 94)
Background on the FOMC (Slides 95-96)
FOMC Policy Decisions (Slide 97)
Fed Policy Contract Description (Slide 98)
Assignment One (Slide 99)
Assignment Two (Slide 100)
Trading and Tracking Stocks on the IEM (Slide 101)
Trading on the IEM (Slide 102)
Tracking Shares on the IEM (Slide103)
Buying and Selling Limit Orders on the IEM (Slide 104)
Accessing Contracts on the IEM (Slide 105)
Predicting Future Trades Based on Historical Trends
(Slide 106)
Charting Trends (Slide 107)
Assignment Three (Slide 108)
Computer Industry Returns Contract Description (Slide 109)
Understanding the Relationship Between Risk and Return
(Slide 110)
Risk and Return (Slide 111)
Determining Your Own Investment (Slides 112-114)
Strategies for Portfolio Management (Slides 115-117)
Making the Right Decision (Slide 118)
Index (Slides 119-120)
Internet Resources (Slide 121)
Works Consulted (Slide 122)
Internet Resources

www.calcbuilder.com/cgi-bin/calcs/SAV1.cgi/financenter.
This interactive Web-site provides product
analysis for financial services, banking, lending, insurance, and employee benefits.

www.chicagofed.org/consumerinformation/projectmoneysmart/. This web-site is sponsored by the Federal
Reserve Bank of Chicago and includes a budget worksheet, the keys to managing money wisely, financial
game planning, ways to make your money work harder, and the steps to making smart credit decisions.

www.federalreserve.gov/boarddocs/press/boardacts/2001/. This document provides the press releases of
the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System between 1996 and the present.

www.interest.com/calculators. The mortgage calculator provides a computer-based, interactive way to
determine mortgage eligibility, monthly payments, discount points, refinancing, and tax implications.

www.moneyadvisor.com/calc. Provides a series of interactive calculators, including an auto loan and
leasing calculator, loans and savings calculators, financial calculators, mortgage calculators, insurance
calculators, college education calculators, and tax calculators.

www.standardandpoors.com. Provides the tools that one needs to make educated investment and credit
decisions. Provides in-depth opinions and analyses on global equities, fixed-income credit ratings, risk
management, and market developments.
www.valueline.com. Provides daily updates on stocks, bonds, and mutual fund activity, stock quotes, news
and charting of stocks, the day in review, market indexes, and data and analysis on financial markets.

Works Consulted
 Garman, E. Thomas and Raymond E. Forgue. 2000. Personal Finance, Houghton Mifflin. Sixth
Edition. 577 p.
 Gitman, Lawrence J. and Jeff Madura. 2001. Introduction to Finance. Addison Wesley
Longman. 755 p.
 Hubbard, R. Glenn. 2002. Money, the Financial System, and the Economy. Addison Wesley.
Fourth Edition. 771 p.
 Kapoor, Jack R., Dlabay, Les R. and Robert J. Hughes. 2001. Personal Finance. McGraw-Hill
Irwin. Sixth Edition. 678 p.
 FOMC Alert. 2000. “Putting in the Fix?” Vol. 4(2), March 21, 2000. pp. 1-5.
 Freddie Mac. 2001. “Just the Facts: A Media Resource Guide to Housing, Community and
Freddie Mac.” Federal National Mortgage Association Public Relations.
 Matthews, John O. 1994. Struggle and Survival on Wall Street: The Economics of Competition
among Securities Firms. (New York: Oxford University Press). 251 p.
 Organization of the Federal Reserve System. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve
System, Washington, D.C. 20551.
 Radcliffe, Robert C. 1990. Investment: Concepts·Analysis·Strategy. Scott, Foresman/Little,
Brown Higher Education. Third Edition. 999 p.
 Dr. Joyce Berg, Dr. Thomas Rietz, and Ms. Jeanine Alcocer, University of Iowa, Henry B.
Tippee College of Business.