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PRONOUNS Personal pronouns Demonstrative pronouns Relative pronouns Interrogative pronouns Indefinite pronouns PERSONAL PRONOUNS Subject pronouns Object pronouns Possessive pronouns Possessive adjectives First – person pronouns I We Me Us Mine Ours My Our Second – person pronoun You You Yours Your Third – person pronouns They He She It Them Him Her it Thiers His Hers its Their His Her its DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS Demonstrative pronouns are pronouns point out specific person, place, or thing Near Far Singular This That Plural These Those *These look good. *Those belong to Linda. *This tastes delicious. *That will run for an hour. RELATIVE PRONOUNS Relative pronouns, which connect clauses to another clause. Relative pronouns who which whom *The science fair, which/that lasted all day, ended with an awards ceremony. *The house that Jack built is large. *The professor, whom I respect, recently received tenure. *It took me a while to get used to people who/that eat popcorn during the movie. *The family whose house burnt in the fire was immediately given a complimentary suite in a hotel. whose that INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS Interrogative pronouns are pronouns used to begin a question. Interrogative pronouns What which who whom Examples. What are you doing here? I liked the red blouse which one did you like? The door bell is ringing . Who is it? Whom did you give the rose to? Whose that book left on the desk? whose NOUNS (PROPER AND COMMON) Proper nouns are the names of specific things, people, or places, such as John, France. They usually begin with a capital letter. Common nouns are general names such as person, mansion, and book. They can be either concrete or abstract. NOUNS (COLLECTIVE) Nouns .sgniht dna ,secalp ,elpoep eman Collective nouns ,ssalc laiceps a , emangroups[ things fo desopmoc ]members yllausu[ people:woleb trahc eht tuo kcehC .] army audience board cabinet class committee company corporation council department faculty family firm group jury majority minority navy public school senate society team troupe NOUNS COMPOUND erom ro owt fo pu edam si taht nuon a si A compound noun snuon yb demrof era hsilgnE ni snuon dnuopmoc tsoM .sdrow sevitcejda ro snuon rehto yb deifidom For example: The words tooth dna paste ,thgir nwo rieht ni snuon hcae era - drow wen a mrof yeht rehtegot meht nioj uoy fi tubtoothpaste. The word black dna evitcejda na si board uoy fi tub ,nuon a si - drow wen a mrof yeht rehtegot meht niojblackboard. Click on the link for more examples http://www.learnenglish.de/basics/compoundwords.html COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS Countable nouns refer to things which can be counted (can be singular or plural) Uncountable nouns refer to some groups of countable nouns, substances, feelings and types of activity (can only be singular) UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS For example: There is some water in that pitcher. That is the equipment we use for the project. Usually non-count nouns Things Qualities Actions Fields of Study water stuff money advice proof equipment dust homework fun information ink luck dependability honesty loyalty sincerity integrity walking/to walk typing/to type jumping/to jump thinking/to think swimming/to swim psychology history social work economics biology English anatomy philosophy religion theology COUNTABLE NOUNS For example: She saw seven cows in the garden There is a cow in the garden. Every cow is an animal. Usually count nouns Persons Places Things child/ren teacher/s student/s plumber/s lawyer/s psychologist/s historian/s economist/s biologist/s reporter/s dean/s coordinator/s researcher/s store/s mall/s park/s bar/s office/s school/s home/s station/s church/es deli/s cafeteria/s shop/s airport/s shoe/s car/s door/s house/s key/s letter/s chair/s box/es cow/s poster/s glass/es ball/s ACTION AND STATIVE VERBS Action verbs describe actions we take (things we do) or things that happen. Stative verbs refer to the way things 'are' - their appearance, state of being, smell, etc. Verbs Showing Thought or Opinions know believe understand recognize Verbs Showing Possession have own belong possess Verbs Showing Senses hear smell see feel Verbs Showing Emotion love hate want need common stative verbs be hate like love need belong believe cost get impress know reach recognize taste think understand HELPING VERBS Helping verbs have no meaning on their own. They are necessary for the grammatical structure of a sentence, but they do not tell us very much alone. We usually use helping verbs with main verbs. They "help" the main verb (which has the real meaning). There are only about 15 helping verbs in English, and we divide them into two basic groups: HELPING VERBS Primary helping verbs (3 verbs) These are the verbs be, do, and have. Note that we can use these three verbs as helping verbs or as main verbs. On this page we talk about them as helping verbs. We use them in the following cases: be to make continuous tenses (He is watching TV.) to make the passive (Small fish are eaten by big fish.) have to make perfect tenses (I have finished my homework. do to make negatives (I do not like you.) to ask questions (Do you want some coffee?) to show emphasis (I do want you to pass your exam.) to stand for a main verb in some constructions (He speaks faster than she does.) HELPING VERBS Modal helping verbs (10 verbs) We use modal helping verbs to "modify" the meaning of the main verb in some way. A modal helping verb expresses necessity or possibility, and changes the main verb in that sense. These are the modal verbs: can, could may, might will, would, shall, should must ought to Here are examples using modal verbs: I can't speak Chinese. John may arrive late. Would you like a cup of coffee? You should see a doctor. I really must go now. LINKING VERBS Linking verbs do not express action. Instead, they connect the subject of the verb to additional information about the subject. Look at the examples below: Irene always feels sleepy after pigging out on pizza from Antonio's. A ten-item quiz seems impossibly long after a night of no studying. After drinking the old milk, Bladimiro turned green. Keila is a shopaholic. STATIVE VERBS you have a list of verbs with multiple personalities: appear, feel, grow, look, prove, remain, smell, sound, taste, and turn. Sometimes these verbs are linking verbs; sometimes they are action verbs. How do you tell when they are action verbs and when they are linking verbs? If you can substitute am, is, or are and the sentence still sounds logical, you have a linking verb on your hands. If, after the substitution, the sentence makes no sense, you are dealing with an action verb instead. Here are some examples: Sylvia tasted the spicy squid eyeball stew. Sylvia is the stew? I don't think so! Tasted, therefore, is an action verb in this sentence, something Sylvia is doing. The squid eyeball stew tasted good. The stew is good? You bet. Make your own! I smell the delicious aroma of a mushroom and papaya pizza baking in the oven. I am the aroma? No way! Smell, in this sentence, is an action verb, something I am doing. The mushroom and papaya pizza smells heavenly. The pizza is heavenly? Definitely! Try a slice! TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE Transitive Verbs : Transitive verbs take direct objects. The vast majority of verbs in English are transitive. Examples: I took my books to class. We played chess last night. Intransitive Verbs Intransitive verbs do not take direct objects. Examples: Peter's situation improved. They slept peacefully. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS Adjectives modify nouns. To modify means to change in some way. For example: "I ate a meal." Meal is a noun. We don't know what kind of meal; all we know is that someone ate a meal. "I ate an enormous lunch." Lunch is a noun, and enormous is an adjective that modifies it. It tells us what kind of meal the person ate. Adjectives usually answer one of a few different questions: "What kind?" or "Which?" or "How many?" For example: "The tall girl is riding a new bike." Tall tells us which girl we're talking about. New tells us what kind of bike we're talking about. "The tough professor gave us the final exam." Tough tells us what kind of professor we're talking about. Final tells us which exam we're talking about. "Fifteen students passed the midterm exam; twelve students passed the final exam." Fifteen and twelve both tell us how many students; midterm and final both tell us which exam. So, generally speaking, adjectives answer the following questions: Which? What kind of? How many? ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS The Basic Rules: Adverbs Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. (You can recognize adverbs easily because many of them are formed by adding -ly to an adjective, though that is not always the case.) The most common question that adverbs answer is how. Let's look at verbs first. "She sang beautifully." Beautifully is an adverb that modifies sang. It tells us how she sang. "The cellist played carelessly." Carelessly is an adverb that modifies played. It tells us how the cellist played. Adverbs also modify adjectives and other adverbs. "That woman is extremely nice." Nice is an adjective that modifies the noun woman. Extremely is an adverb that modifies nice; it tells us how nice she is. How nice is she? She's extremely nice. "It was a terribly hot afternoon." Hot is an adjective that modifies the noun afternoon. Terribly is an adverb that modifies the adjective hot. How hot is it? Terribly hot. So, generally speaking, adverbs answer the question how. (They can also answer the questions when, where, and why.) ADJECTIVES COMPARISON EXAMPLES OF IRREGULAR FORMS ADJECTIVES COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE MUCH/MANY MORE THE MOST FEW/LITTLE LESS THE LEAST GOOD BETTER THE BEST BAD WORSE THE WORST ADJECTIVES Regular forms requiring 'ER' or 'EST' IMPORTANT ADJECTIVE GRAMMATICAL POINTS S COMPARATIVE FORMS (........ER) SUPERLATIVE FORMS(THE .....EST) THIN THINNER THE THINNEST Adjectives ending in a single consonant which must be doubled FAT FATTER THE FATTEST Adjectives with one syllable, but ending in E FIERCE FIERCER THE FIERCEST FRIENDLY FRIENDLIER THE FRIENDLIEST Adjectives with one syllable only Adjectives with one syllable + Y (Y changes to I) ADJECTIVES Regular forms requiring 'MORE' or 'THE MOST' •Adjectives with more than one syllable •Adjectives ending with ED or ING ADJECTIVES COMPARATIVE FORMS (MORE/LESS ........) SUPERLATIVE FORMS(THE MOST/THE LEAST .......) DANGEROUS MORE/LESS DANGEROUS THE MOST/THE LEAST DANGEROUS BORED (even though only one syllable is pronounced) MORE/LESS BORED THE MOST/THE LEAST BORED INTERESTING MORE/LESS INTERESTING THE MOST/THE LEAST INTERESTING STANDARD CONSTRUCTION EXAMPLES 1. The black dog is fat 2. The fat dog is in the road. 3. The black dog is fatter than the white dog 4. The white dog is not as fat as the black dog 5. The black dog is friendlier than the white dog, but the brown dog is the fiercest. 6. The white dog is the thinnest and it is less dangerous than the brown dog. 7.a) Those books are very interesting and this one is the least interesting of them all. 7.b) Those books are not very interesting and this one is the most boring of them all. SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT 1-If the subject is singular (one), use a singular verb. (Generally, a singular verb ends in "s" or "es") 2. If the subject is plural, use a plural verb. Singular noun = cat, singular verb = takes; Plural noun = cats, plural verb = take. When the verb comes before the subject as in there or here sentences, it agrees with the subject that immediately follows the verb. There is a tree in the garden. There are many trees in the garden. There is a pine tree and some oaks in the garden. There goes the cat. There seems to be a relationship. There arise problems. There arises a problem. When every and each come before a singular subject joined by and, the verb is singular. Every man and woman has the right to vote. Each student and teacher was aware of the difficulty. Some nouns look plural with –s but they take a singular verb. Physics Mathematics Statistics Economics News Politics Ethics To form plurals of words with a hissing ending, add "es".i.e.after "s, x, z, sh, and ch".e.g. buses, foxes, buzzes, wishes and churches. if a word ends in a consonant plus "y", change the "y" to and "i", before adding any ending. Except: "ing“ .e.g. party – parties heavy – heaviness marry – married funny – funnily carry – carriage pretty – prettier but; cry – crying hurry – hurrying