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CLASS SIX:
SELF, MORAL DEVELOPMENT, PEER RELATIONSHIPS: MIDDLE CHILDHOOD TO EARLY ADOLESCENCE
TODAY’S AGENDA
• READING CHECK
• CHAPTERS 7-8
• HOMEWORK
SELF AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT:
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD—EARLY ADOLESCENCE
• MORAL DEVELOPMENT
• BEHAVING IN ACCORDANCE WITH MORAL VALUES (HONESTY, DEPENDABILITY,
KINDNESS, FAIRNESS, RESPECT, SELF-CONTROL, TRUTHFULNESS, DILIGENCE) IS
WIDELY AGREED TO MAKE THE WORLD A BETTER PLACE
• SPECIFICS OF VALUES SUBJECT TO MORE DISAGREEMENT
• SELF CONCEPT
• ACQUIRING MORAL SENSE IS CRITICAL FOR SELF-CONCEPT
• CENTRAL TO SUCCESSFUL ADULT FUNCTIONING
DEVELOPMENT OF SELF CONCEPT
• SELF-CONCEPT CONSTRAINED COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
• MULTIDIMENSIONAL SELF-SYSTEM IS DYNAMIC AND
CHANGES THROUGHOUT DEVELOPMENT
• PRESCHOOL AGE: BEGIN TO DESCRIBE THEMSELVES
• EARLY-ELEMENTARY AGE: ORGANIZING
CHARACTERISTICS OF “ME-SELF” INTO COHERENT
CATEGORIES
• MIDDLE CHILDHOOD, EARLY ADOLESCENCE: ABSTRACT
TRAIT-LIKE CONCEPTS OF SELF, MULTIPLE DOMAINS
 SOCIAL COMPARISON BUILDS ON PERSPECTIVE TAKING
STRUCTURE OF SELF CONCEPT
• SELF-CONCEPT AND SELF-ESTEEM ARE SEPARATE BUT CLOSELY
INTERTWINED
 SELF-ESTEEM IS OUR FEELINGS ABOUT OURSELVES
• SELF ASSESSMENTS OF SPECIFIC COMPETENCIES, AND
GENERALIZED PERCEPTION OF THEMSELVES
• CHILDREN’S GENERAL SELF-CONCEPT DIVIDED INTO DOMAINS
• ACADEMIC SELF-CONCEPT
• SUBDIVIDED BY SUBJECT AREAS, MATH, SCIENCE, ETC.
• NONACADEMIC SELF-CONCEPT
• SUBDIVIDED INTO SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, PHYSICAL
INFLUENCES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF
SELF-CONCEPT
• GLOBAL SELF-ESTEEM DEPENDENT ON COMPETENCE IN AREAS OF PERSONAL
IMPORTANCE
• INFLUENCED BY SOCIAL PROCESSES
• INTERNALIZING THE ASSESSMENTS OF OTHERS
• SOCIAL COMPARISON
• TEND TO BE MOTIVATED BY A SELF-ENHANCING BIAS
• CHILDREN’S SELF-APPRAISALS BECOME MORE CONGRUENT WITH OTHERS’
APPRAISALS AS THEY GET OLDER
INFLUENCES ON SELF-CONCEPT
APPLICATIONS: SELF-ESTEEM AS
CAUSE OR CONSEQUENCE
• A STRONG SENSE OF SELF-WORTH AND A STURDY MORAL COMPASS ARE WIDELY
VIEWED AS IMPORTANT FOR PARTICIPATING IN A CIVIL SOCIETY
• SELF-ESTEEM TOUTED AS HOLY GRAIL OF MENTAL HEALTH
• LOW SELF-ESTEEM IS A CORRELATE OF MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS, NOT
NECESSARILY CAUSAL
• NO COMPELLING EVIDENCE THAT HIGH SELF-ESTEEM IS PRECURSOR FOR
COMPETENCE
• MORE EVIDENCE COMPETENT PERFORMANCE RESULTS IN HIGH SELF-EFFICACY
• EVIDENCE ARGUES FOR SHIFT TO “SKILLS-FIRST” APPROACH
GENDER, RACE, ETHNICITY AND SELF-ESTEEM
DIFFERENCES IN NORTH AMERICA
• OLDER VIEWS THAT MARGINALIZED GROUPS HAVE LOWER SELF-ESTEEM IS NOT
SUPPORTED BY CURRENT RESEARCH
• STRONG AND POSITIVE RACIAL OR ETHNIC IDENTITY CORRELATES POSITIVELY
WITH GLOBAL SELF-ESTEEM
• SMALL BUT STABLE GENDER DIFFERENCE IN SELF-ESTEEM FAVORING MALES, LITTLE
EVIDENCE OF SELF-ESTEEM SLIDE FOR GIRLS
• GREAT WITHIN-GROUP VARIATION
CROSS-CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE SELF
• CONSTRUCTION OF THE SELF IS A SOCIAL PROCESS
• CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN BELIEFS, VALUES, EXPECTATIONS
• INDIVIDUALISTIC CULTURES VALUE INDEPENDENCE MORE THAN COLLECTIVIST CULTURES
• INDIVIDUALIST CULTURES VALUE BEING PROUD OF ONESELF, MORE CENTRAL TO SELFESTEEM
• COLLECTIVIST CULTURES VALUE HARMONIOUS RELATIONSHIPS, MORE CENTRAL TO SELFESTEEM
• PARENTING PRACTICES REFLECT THESE CULTURAL VALUES
• AFFECTS OF NEGATIVE SELF-EVALUATION VARY DEPENDING ON CULTURAL VALUES AND NORMS
APPLICATIONS: WHERE DO WE START?
• SELF-WORTH RESIDES INSIDE US BUT DEPENDS ON APPRAISALS OF SIGNIFICANT
OTHERS
• CREATE A SUPPORTIVE COUNSELING RELATIONSHIP, WITH EMPATHY,
ENCOURAGEMENT, RESPECT, AND INTEREST
• TARGET SKILLS AND AWARENESS THAT LEAD TO INCREASED SOCIAL SELF-EFFICACY
• HELP CHILDREN GENERATE INTERPRETATIONS, SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS, INCREASE
PERSPECTIVE-TAKING SKILLS
• HELP PARENTS UNDERSTAND THE POWERFUL LOOKING GLASS THEIR WORDS
CREATE
• SUBSTANTIVE CHANGES DO NOT HAPPEN OVERNIGHT
THE MORAL SELF
• ACQUIRING MORAL VALUES IS AN IMPORTANT ELEMENT OF SELF-DEVELOPMENT
• ELEMENTS OF MORALITY
• CAPACITY TO MAKE JUDGMENTS OF RIGHT VS. WRONG
• PREFERRING TO ACT IN WAYS JUDGED TO BE RIGHT
 MORALITY REQUIRES THREE ELEMENTS TO BE PRESENT
• EMOTIONS
• COGNITIONS
• BEHAVIOR
CLASSIC THEORIES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
• FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC
THEORY OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT
• INBORN IMPULSES OF THE ID
ARE ENTIRELY SELF-SERVING
• SUPEREGO EMERGES IN
PRESCHOOL PERIOD
• SOURCE OF MORAL
EMOTIONS (PRIDE, SHAME,
GUILT)
CLASSIC THEORIES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
• DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES IN MORAL REASONING
• PIAGET: PREMORAL, HETERONOMOUS, AUTONOMOUS
CLASSIC THEORIES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
• KOHLBERG:
PRECONVENTIONAL,
CONVENTIONAL,
POSTCONVENTIONAL
 MORAL THEORIES TEND TO
UNDERESTIMATE THE VERY
YOUNG, DO NOT
DISTINGUISH MORAL,
CONVENTIONAL, AND
PERSONAL RULES
MORAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
MORALITY AS AN EDUCATIONAL GOAL
• HISTORICALLY CENTRAL TO FORMAL EDUCATION, PERIODIC SURGES IN INTEREST
BASED ON SOCIAL CONCERNS
• MANY PACKAGED PROGRAMS AVAILABLE TO TEACHERS, BUT DIFFICULT TO
IMPLEMENT, LITTLE EVIDENCE MORAL TRAINING HAS AN IMPACT
• RECENT POSITIVE RESULTS FOR CHARACTER EDUCATION
• PROGRAMS NEED CLEAR GOALS AND SOUND TECHNIQUES FOR IMPLEMENTING
GOALS
• CAN BE EFFECTIVE IN ENCOURAGING ASPECTS OF MORAL THINKING, FEELING,
AND BEHAVIOR
• CONTINUING CONCERN AND CRITICISM AROUND PROGRAMS
APPLICATIONS: PROMOTING MORALITY
• MORAL DEVELOPMENT IS NOT JUST MORAL REASONING, ALSO INVOLVES EMOTIONAL
UNDERSTANDING
• MORALITY COMPOSED OF THREE INTERLOCKING SYSTEMS:
• EMPATHY
• IDENTIFICATION WITH MORAL OTHERS
• PRINCIPLES OR STANDARDS OF RIGHT AND WRONG
• HOW DO THESE SYSTEMS DEVELOP?
• EMPATHY DEVELOPS THROUGH CARING RELATIONSHIPS
• IDENTIFICATION DEVELOPS WITH EXPOSURE TO CARING AND JUST MODELS
• PRINCIPLES AND STANDARDS EVOLVE THROUGH EXPOSURE TO IDEAS IN SCHOOL,
HOME, COUNSELING, FRIENDSHIPS
CHILDREN’S PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR
• PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR OR ALTRUISM IS TO ACT IN WAYS THAT INTENDED TO BENEFIT SOMEONE
ELSE
• TENDS TO INCREASE WITH AGE
• INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES STABLE ACROSS AGE
• MULTIPLE FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR
• EMOTION: EMPATHY (“FEELING WITH” ANOTHER), SYMPATHY (“FEELING FOR” ANOTHER)
• COGNITION: NEEDS-BASED REASONING, WEIGHING OWN NEEDS AGAINST THOSE OF
OTHERS
• TEMPERAMENT AND PERSONALITY: SOCIAL COMPETENCE, BEHAVIORAL INHIBITION
• PARENTING PRACTICES AND PEER RELATIONSHIPS
CHILDREN’S ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR
• ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR DISTINGUISHED BY INTENT TO HARM OR INJURE ANOTHER OR
DISREGARD FOR THE HARM
• INCLUDES PHYSICAL, VERBAL, OR SOCIAL AGGRESSION
• INSTRUMENTAL AGGRESSION: USING FORCE OR THREAT TO OBTAIN POSSESSION
• PERSON-DIRECTED, SOCIAL, OR RELATIONAL AGGRESSION: BEHAVIOR AIMED AT
DAMAGING PEER RELATIONSHIPS
• OVERALL AND INSTRUMENTAL AGGRESSION DECREASES WITH AGE, NATURE OF
AGGRESSION MORE SOCIAL
• SOCIAL INFORMATION-PROCESSING PLAYS A KEY ROLE
• HOSTILE ATTRIBUTIONAL BIAS CHARACTERIZES AGGRESSIVE INDIVIDUALS
FOCUS ON DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY:
CONDUCT PROBLEMS
• OPPOSITIONAL DEFIANT DISORDER (ODD) OR CONDUCT DISORDER (CD) DIAGNOSED IN
CHILDREN, ADOLESCENTS
• DIAGNOSIS OF ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER (APD) TYPICALLY RESERVED FOR ADULTS
• DIFFERENT PATHWAYS OF ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR
• LIFE-COURSE PERSISTENT (LCP), ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR BEGINS EARLY, PERSISTS, DIVERSIFIES,
GROWS SERIOUS
• ADOLESCENCE-LIMITED (AL), DIFFICULT OR EXAGGERATED REACTION IN ADOLESCENT PERIOD
 EMPHASIS ON PREVENTION AND EARLY INTERVENTION
 SOME OPPOSITIONAL BEHAVIOR NORMAL IN YOUNG CHILDREN
FOCUS ON DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY:
WHEN SHOULD A PARENT SEEK HELP?
• WHEN CHILD REFUSES TO DO WHAT PARENT ASKS THEM TO DO 8 OUT OF 10 TIMES
• WHEN A TEACHER OR DAY CARE PROVIDER REPORTS CHILD HAS A PROBLEM WITH
AGGRESSION TOWARD PEERS, HAS DIFFICULTY MAKING FRIENDS
• WHEN PARENTS FEEL THEY AREN’T SUCCESSFUL IN HELPING CHILD REDUCE
AGGRESSION
• WHEN CHILD HAS DEVELOPMENTAL PROBLEMS MAKING IT DIFFICULT FOR HIM OR
HER TO LEARN SOCIAL SKILLS
ACTIVITY
• IN GROUPS OF 2-3, CREATE A HANDOUT OF TIPS YOU COULD SHARE WITH PARENTS FOCUSING
ON HOW PARENTS CAN PROMOTE SELF-CONCEPT, MORAL DEVELOPMENT, AND PRO-SOCIAL
BEHAVIOR IN CHILDREN.
• USE YOUR TEXT, CLASS POWERPOINTS AND ANY OTHER RESOURCES YOU’D LIKE TO CREATE THIS
ONE-PAGE HANDOUT THAT SHOULD INCLUDE:
• A TITLE
• SUGGESTIONS APPROPRIATE FOR MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
• AT LEAST 5 TIPS FOR PARENTS FOCUSED ON EACH OF THE FOLLOWING:
• PROMOTING SELF-CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT
• PROMOTING MORAL DEVELOPMENT
• PROMOTING PRO-SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
• LIST OF REFERENCES CONSULTED
• UPLOAD YOUR HANDOUT TO BLACKBOARD (IN THE ‘ASSIGNMENTS’ LINK)
THE BIOLOGY OF SEX
• 23 PAIRS OF CHROMOSOMES
• 23RD PAIR CALLED SEX CHROMOSOMES
• FEMALES HAVE TWO LARGE X CHROMOSOMES
• MALES’ PAIR MISMATCHED, ONE X AND ONE SMALLER Y
 X AND Y CHROMOSOMES ALSO DIFFER IN FUNCTION
• SRY GENE, THE SEX-DETERMINING REGION OF Y
• TRANSFORMS “INDIFFERENT” GONADS INTO TESTES
 SEX DIFFERENTIATION BEGINS AT ABOUT 5 WEEKS
• FETUS FIRST DEVELOPED INDIFFERENT, UNISEX GONADS
• CAN BECOME EITHER OVARIES OR TESTES
• TESTES THEN PRODUCE MASCULINIZING HORMONES
• TESTOSTERONE, ANTI-MULLERIAN HORMONE (AMH)
SEX ROLE DEVELOPMENT
• USE OF TERMS SEX VS. GENDER
• SEX RESERVED FOR BIOLOGICALLY DETERMINED PROCESSES
• GENDER USED FOR SOCIALLY INFLUENCED CHARACTERISTICS
• DIFFICULT TO APPLY THESE CONVENTIONS CONSISTENTLY
• EARLY GENDER IDENTITY
• LEARN TO LABEL SELF AS MALE OR FEMALE BY ABOUT 2½
• GENDER STABILITY BY 3 OR 4 YEARS, REALIZING GENDER DOESN’T FLUCTUATE OVER
TIME
• GENDER CONSTANCY MAY NOT EMERGE UNTIL 6 OR 7, REALIZING THAT GENDER
CANNOT CHANGE
GENDER IDENTITY
• THE ROLE OF SOCIAL PROCESSES IN GENDER IDENTITY
• ACTIVE TEACHING OF GENDERED BEHAVIOR BY OTHERS
• DIFFERENT BEHAVIOR TOWARD GIRL AND BOY BABIES
• THE ROLE OF COGNITION IN GENDER IDENTITY
• LOGICAL THINKING MAY HELP A CHILD UNDERSTAND GENDER CONSTANCY
• ACCURATE INFORMATION IS HELPFUL
• THE ROLE OF BIOLOGY IN GENDER IDENTITY
• BIOLOGICAL SEX MAY INFLUENCE GENDER IDENTITY, EVEN WHEN SOCIAL INPUT
IS INCONSISTENT
• SOME GENDER-ATYPICAL INDIVIDUALS REJECT ASSIGNED IDENTITY, ADOPT
IDENTITY CONSISTENT WITH BIOLOGY
SEX DIFFERENCES
• BEHAVIOR, PERSONALITY, PREFERENCES VARY BETWEEN MALES AND FEMALES
• SOME DIFFERENCES FOUND ACROSS LIFE SPAN
• SOME TYPIFY SPECIFIC DEVELOPMENTAL PERIODS
• SOME HAVE CHANGED HISTORICALLY
• AVERAGE DIFFERENCES USUALLY QUITE SMALL
• LARGEST FACTORS: BOYS AND GIRLS SPEND THEIR TIME DIFFERENTLY, IN
SEGREGATED GROUPS
• GROUPS OF BOYS MORE ACTIVE, AGGRESSIVE PLAY
• GROUPS OF GIRLS MORE COOPERATIVE, COLLABORATIVE
 AVERAGE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GENDERS MUCH SMALLER THAN THE RANGE OF
DIFFERENCES WITHIN EACH GENDER
THE ROLE OF BIOLOGY IN
GENERATING SEX DIFFERENCES
 HORMONES
• MASCULINIZING HORMONES (ANDROGENS)
• LINK BETWEEN BOYS’ ANDROGEN LEVELS AND AGGRESSIVENESS
• HORMONAL CHANGES AT PUBERTY MAY CAUSE SOME
BEHAVIORAL DIFFERENCES
• EXPERIENCES MAY CHANGE HORMONE LEVELS
• BRAIN STRUCTURES
• GREATER LATERALIZATION IN MALES THAN FEMALES
• EXPERIENCES MAY CHANGE BRAIN STRUCTURES
THE ROLE OF COGNITION
GENERATING SEX DIFFERENCES
• ADVANCES IN REASONING
• GENDER IDENTITY PARTLY A FUNCTION OF LOGICAL THINKING
• SELF-SOCIALIZATION, INTRINSIC MOTIVATION TO LEARN WHAT IT MEANS TO BE
MALE OR FEMALE
• INFORMATION PROCESSING EMPHASIZES GENDER SCHEMAS
• A GENDER SCHEMA IS A NETWORK OF EXPECTATIONS AND BELIEFS ABOUT MALE
AND FEMALE CHARACTERISTICS
• GENDER SCHEMAS AFFECT HOW CHILDREN EVALUATE BEHAVIOR, AND KINDS OF
BEHAVIORS THEY CHOOSE
• KNOWLEDGE OF STEREOTYPES INFLUENCES CHILDREN EVEN WHEN THEY ARE
UNTRUE
THE ROLE OF PARENTING IN
GENERATING SEX DIFFERENCES
• FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
• IDENTIFICATION WITH THE SAME-SEX PARENT TO RESOLVE THE
OEDIPUS/ELECTRA COMPLEX
• IDENTIFICATION INVOLVES IMITATION
• SOCIAL LEARNING THEORIES
• DIFFERENT PARENT BEHAVIOR WITH BOYS AND GIRLS
• DIRECT TEACHING OF GENDERED BEHAVIORS
• REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS FOR GENDERED BEHAVIORS
THE ROLE OF PEER INTERACTIONS IN
GENERATING SEX DIFFERENCES
• GIRLS SPEND MUCH OF THEIR UNSTRUCTURED TIME WITH GIRLS, AND BOYS WITH
BOYS
 SEX-SEGREGATED PEER GROUPS MAGNIFY DIFFERENCES
• WITHIN GENDERED PEER GROUPS, CHILDREN DEVELOP MORE DIFFERENTIATED
INTERACTION STYLES THAN PREDICTED BY BIOLOGY OR PARENTING
• EVIDENCE OF SOCIAL DOSAGE EFFECT; MORE TIME IN SAME-GENDER GROUPS
RELATED TO INCREASES IN GENDER-RELATED BEHAVIORS
• ADOLESCENTS BEGIN TO BUILD CROSS-GENDER GROUPS, BUT DIFFERENT
INTERACTION STYLES CAN CREATE DIFFICULTY
A MULTIDIMENSIONAL THEORY OF
SEX DIFFERENCES
• SEX ROLE DEVELOPMENT IS MULTIDIMENSIONAL
• EMPIRICAL SUPPORT FOR SEVERAL EXPLANATIONS
• EACH HAS IMPORTANT LIMITATIONS
• THREE CATEGORIES OF VARIABLES INTERACT RECIPROCALLY
• PERSONAL INFLUENCES; CONCEPTS OF GENDER, AFFECTIVE AND BIOLOGICAL FEATURES
• BEHAVIORAL INFLUENCES; LEARNING AND EXECUTION OF ACTIVITIES THAT ARE LINKED TO
GENDER
• ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES; FAMILY, PEER, SOCIETAL
 INFLUENCES INTERACT TO MOLD MOTIVATIONAL AND SELF-REGULATORY STRUCTURES THAT
DETERMINE BEHAVIOR
PEER RELATIONSHIPS
• THE PEER GROUP
• EMERGENT PROPERTIES OF GROUPS (E.G., NORMS) DEFINE
RELATIONSHIPS AND INTERACTIONS
• DISTINCT FROM SOCIAL INTERACTIONS OR FRIENDSHIPS
• SOCIAL COMPETENCE
• AFFECTIVE RESPONSES (E.G., EMPATHY)
• COGNITIVE PROCESSES (E.G., PERSPECTIVE TAKING)
• ABILITY TO MAKE MATURE MORAL JUDGMENTS
• IMPORTANT CRITERION FOR PEER GROUP ACCEPTANCE
• SOCIAL SKILLS
• DISCRETE, OBSERVABLE BEHAVIORS (E.G., MAKING EYE CONTACT,
USING APPROPRIATE LANGUAGE)
• IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTORS TO SOCIAL COMPETENCE
ANALYSIS OF THE WORLD OF PEERS
• SOCIOMETRY: MEASUREMENT OF INDIVIDUAL
STATUS WITHIN THE PEER GROUP
• METHOD OF ASSESSING SOCIAL COMPETENCE
• USES CHILDREN’S NOMINATION OF THEIR PEERS
TO EVALUATE PEER STATUS
• COMBINES POSITIVE FORCES (ATTRACTION),
NEGATIVE FORCES (REPULSION), AND
INDIFFERENCE (ABSENCE OF ATTRACTION OR
REPULSION)
• SOCIAL PREFERENCE SCORE = COUNT OF POSITIVE
VS. NEGATIVE PEER NOMINATIONS OR MENTIONS
• SOCIAL IMPACT SCORE = TOTAL OF BOTH POSITIVE
AND NEGATIVE NOMINATIONS
SOCIOMETRIC STATUSES
• POPULAR CHILDREN ARE THOSE WHO RECEIVE MANY POSITIVE NOMINATIONS AND FEW
NEGATIVE
• REJECTED CHILDREN ARE THOSE WHO RECEIVE MANY NEGATIVE NOMINATIONS AND
FEW POSITIVE
• NEGLECTED CHILDREN ARE THOSE WHO RECEIVE FEW NOMINATIONS, EITHER POSITIVE
OR NEGATIVE
• AVERAGE CHILDREN ARE THOSE WHO RECEIVE AN AVERAGE NUMBER OF POSITIVE AND
NEGATIVE NOMINATIONS (NEAR THEIR GROUP MEAN)
• CONTROVERSIAL CHILDREN ARE THOSE WHO RECEIVE MANY NEGATIVE AND MANY
POSITIVE NOMINATIONS
INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS RELATED TO
SOCIOMETRIC STATUS
 POPULAR: GREATER PERSPECTIVE-TAKING SKILLS, SELF-REGULATION, SELF-CONTROL, PROBLEMSOLVING ABILITY
 REJECTED: LEAST SOCIALLY SKILLED OF ALL GROUPS
• REJECTED-AGGRESSIVE: NEGATIVITY, DISRUPTIVENESS
• REJECTED-WITHDRAWN: SOCIALLY ANXIOUS AND INEPT
 NEGLECTED: LESS AGGRESSIVE AND LESS SOCIABLE, BUT NOT ESPECIALLY ANXIOUS
 AVERAGE: LOWER SOCIAL COMPETENCE THAN POPULAR, BUT LESS AGGRESSION THAN REJECTEDAGGRESSIVE
• CONTROVERSIAL: DIFFICULT TO TYPIFY BECAUSE THEY ARE FEW IN NUMBER, STATUS LACKS
MEASUREMENT STABILITY
SOCIOMETRY
• GENDER AND CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
• LESS TOLERANCE OF GENDER-INCONSISTENT BEHAVIOR BY MALES, SOCIALLY
WITHDRAWN GIRLS LESS REJECTED
• AGGRESSION ASSOCIATED WITH PEER REJECTION, AND HELPFULNESS IS
ASSOCIATED WITH POPULARITY, ACROSS WESTERN AND NON-WESTERN CULTURES
• SOME DIFFERENCES IN HOW ADULTS INTERVENE
• STABILITY OF CATEGORIES AND OUTCOMES
• POPULAR AND REJECTED, MOST EXTREME CATEGORIES, ALSO THE MOST STABLE
• NEGLECTED AND CONTROVERSIAL STATUS CATEGORIES SHOW MOST INSTABILITY
MEASUREMENT OF THE PEER GROUP: ANOTHER
LEVEL OF ANALYSIS
• CLIQUES AND CROWDS ARE NETWORKS OF INDIVIDUALS ASSOCIATED WITH A SET OF
NORMS, DRESS, AND BEHAVIORS
• TERMS PEER GROUP AND CLIQUE INTERCHANGEABLE
• CROWDS ARE LARGER COLLECTIVES OF MULTIPLE CLIQUES
• SOCIAL CATEGORY RATHER THAN ACTUAL FRIENDSHIP GROUPS
• MORE SIGNIFICANT IN LATE CHILDHOOD, EARLY ADOLESCENCE
• WHY DO CLIQUES FORM? SATISFY IMPORTANT SOCIAL NEEDS
• NEED TO ESTABLISH AN IDENTITY
• NEED FOR ACCEPTANCE AND BELONGING
• PEER GROUP INFLUENCES ARE BOTH POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE
PEER GROUPS’ INFLUENCE ON BEHAVIOR
• PEER GROUPS ARE IMPORTANT SOCIAL CONTEXTS THAT REINFORCE WAYS OF
THINKING AND BEHAVING
• BENEFICIAL AS WELL AS POTENTIALLY HARMFUL ASPECTS
• PEER RELATIONSHIPS ARE IMPORTANT PROTECTIVE FACTORS
• PEER PRESSURE OFTEN INDIRECT RATHER THAN COERCIVE
• PEER GROUPS CAN LIMIT RANGE OF OPPORTUNITIES
• GROUPS FORM THROUGH BOTH INFLUENCE AND SELECTION
• INFLUENCE: PEER GROUPS CAUSE AN INDIVIDUAL TO CONFORM TO THE
NORMS OF THE GROUP
• SELECTION: INDIVIDUALS CHOOSE TO AFFILIATE WITH OTHERS WHO SHARE
SIMILAR BEHAVIORS OR ATTRIBUTES
APPLICATIONS: GOOD PEER RELATIONSHIPS
• AS CHILDREN MATURE, FRIENDSHIPS, PEER GROUPS, OTHER EXTRAFAMILIAL SETTINGS ARE
INCREASINGLY IMPORTANT
• PROTECTION AND RISK FACTORS ARE PERVASIVE
• GOOD PEER RELATIONSHIPS ARE POWERFULLY PROTECTIVE
• POOR PEER RELATIONSHIPS PLAY A PROMINENT ROLE IN DEVELOPMENT OF ANTISOCIAL
BEHAVIOR
• ASSESS CAREFULLY
• MORE THAN ONE ROUTE TO PEER REJECTION
• CAREFUL OBSERVATION AND EVALUATION REQUIRED
• SKILLS ARE NOT ENOUGH
• REJECTED CHILDREN HAVE DEFICITS IN SOCIAL SKILLS
• INDIVIDUAL TRAINING INEFFECTIVE, INCLUDE PEER GROUP
APPLICATIONS: GENDER AND RISK
• CHALLENGES FACED BY BOYS AND GIRLS DIFFER
• RISKS OF INTERNALIZING DISORDER GREATER FOR GIRLS
• SOME CLINICAL SYNDROMES MORE FREQUENT AMONG BOYS (E.G., ADHD, LEARNING
DISORDERS)
• INFLUENCED BY GENDER-ROLE EXPECTATIONS
• COUNSELORS URGED TO EXAMINE THEIR OWN SCHEMAS
• MEETING THE SPECIAL NEEDS OF BOYS
• BOYS BEGIN TO HIDE FEELINGS OF SADNESS AND FEAR MORE THAN GIRLS BY 3 TO 4
YEARS OLD
• OLDER BOYS WELL SCHOOLED IN “BOY CODE”
• PARENTS, TEACHERS, AND OTHERS NEED TO SUPPORT THE FULL RANGE OF BOYS’ EMOTIONAL
EXPRESSION
DISCUSSION
• SUZANNA IS CONSIDERED WEIRD BY HER 3RD GRADE CLASSMATES. SHE SEEMS
TO HAVE FEW SOCIAL SKILLS. ON A SOCIOMETRIC ANALYSIS, SUZANNA
RECEIVED NO POSITIVE NOMINATIONS FROM HER CLASSMATES, AND A LARGE
NUMBER OF NEGATIVE NOMINATIONS. WHAT STRATEGIES MIGHT YOU USE TO
HELP SUZANNA DEVELOP PEER RELATIONSHIPS?
• COUNSELING YOUNG BOYS REQUIRES SENSITIVITY TO SOCIETY’S “BOY CODE”
AND MAY REQUIRE SPECIAL STRATEGIES FOR PUTTING BOYS AT EASE IN THE
COUNSELING CONTEXT. WHAT STRATEGIES MIGHT BE HELPFUL FOR WORKING
WITH BOYS IN COUNSELING SETTINGS?
HOMEWORK:
• COMPLETE MID-TERM (WILL BE AVAILABLE FOR DOWNLOADING THROUGH BLACKBOARD STARTING ON
SUNDAY, MARCH 13TH)
• UPLOAD YOUR COMPLETED EXAM TO BLACKBOARD BY FRIDAY, MARCH 18TH AT 11:59 P.M.
• WE WILL NOT MEET ON MONDAY, MARCH 14TH ALTHOUGH YOU MAY CHOOSE TO USE THE
CLASSROOM TO WORK ON YOUR MID-TERM DURING THAT TIME
• THE HONOR CODE APPLIES TO THE MID-TERM EXAM
• YOU MAY USE TEXTBOOK, PPT, AND OTHER CLASS RESOURCES FOR YOUR MID-TERM; ANY OTHER
OUTSIDE REFERENCES USED SHOULD BE FULLY CITED
• GROUP TWO PROJECT: SUBMIT VIDEO AND QUESTIONS TO BLACKBOARD BY MARCH 18TH
• EVERYONE: READ CHAPTER 9 & 10 BEFORE THE NEXT CLASS
• HAVE A GREAT WEEK AND SPRING BREAK!