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Christianity AND ROME’S LEGACIES Old Religions New Testament MARK MAKES HIS MARK NOT SO SIMPLE TEMPLES IN PARTNERSHIP WITH christianity_FC.indd 1 3/6/17 3:32 PM 2 Religions in Rome The earliest Romans saw their gods as spirits or powerful forces of nature. These gods did not have personalities or emotions or act in any other way like human beings. However, as Rome began to build an empire, the Romans were exposed to new ideas. Through contact with the Greeks, the Romans’ idea of gods and goddesses changed. The Greeks believed in gods and goddesses who behaved very much like human beings. Their gods could be jealous, angry, passionate, kind, foolish, or petty. The Romans borrowed this idea from the Greeks. They even borrowed some of the Greek gods and goddesses. No longer were the Roman gods spirits or forces of nature. They were now divine and human at the same time. u THE ROMANS honored their gods with more than 100 festivals every year. Quinquatria was a five-day festival honoring Minerva, the goddess of christianity_2-3_v2.indd 2 wisdom. During Cerealia, Romans honored the goddess of grain, Ceres. At Saturnalia, honoring the god Saturn, gifts were exchanged. On a festival day, priests performed rituals and sacrifices outside the temple of the god being honored. People did not have to work, and in par- u THE ROMANS honored their gods by building temples. Inside each temple was a statue of a god or goddess. ticular, no legal work was allowed. Celebrations included feasting, music, rest, and reflection. People did not go to a temple to worship the god. Rather, a temple was where priests made offerings of cakes and honey, burned sweet-smelling incense, and sacrificed animals to honor the god. u UNTIL THE 300s CE, the Roman religion was a state religion. The emperor was the leader of the government and of the religion. Everyone had to observe the Roman religion publicly. But in private people were free to think and say what they wanted to. Over time, the emperor came to be seen as a god who must be worshipped. Those who didn’t worship him could be punished by death. 3/6/17 3:33 PM 3 Some Roman Gods and Goddesses Roman Greek Counterpart Role Jupiter or Jove Zeus Chief god Juno Hera Chief goddess Mars Ares God of war Venus Aphrodite Goddess of love and beauty Mercury Hermes Messenger of the gods Apollo Apollo God of sun, music and poetry, healing r SOME ROMANS participated in mystery religions. These were secret groups that required a person to be initiated, or taken into the religion, during a ceremony. Mithraism was a mystery religion that began in Persia and spread to Rome. In Rome, r ROME WAS A large empire with people of many different cultures and religions. For the most part, the Romans allowed conquered people to practice any religion they chose, as long as they also publicly took part in the Roman religion. THE ROMANS WERE A very practical people. They believed that religious observances were a way of keeping on the good side of the gods, who had the power to christianity_2-3_v2.indd 3 the god Mithras was associated with loyalty to the emperor. Except for Earth, all of the known planets are named for Roman or Greek gods and goddesses. Why do you think people named planets after gods? Why do you think Earth is not named for a god? help or destroy them. Religion was not about how you treated other human beings. It was about making sure that the gods and goddesses treated you well. 3/6/17 3:34 PM 4 The Jewish People Under Roman Rule In 63 BCE, the Roman Empire took control of Syria and Judaea, the ancient homeland of the Jewish people. There were still many Jews living in Judaea at the time. However, because of past conquests and exiles, there were also Jews living all over the Roman Empire. Thousands lived in the city of Rome. Syria and Egypt also had large Jewish populations. Unlike most of Rome’s conquered peoples, the Jews believed in one God. Thus, the Roman belief in many gods and goddesses directly clashed with their beliefs. As a result, they refused to worship Roman gods. Since they did not discourage others from worshipping Roman gods, they were allowed to practice Judaism in peace for many years. Over time, however, conflicts about religion grew between the Jews and the Roman government. u IN 40 CE, THE Roman Emperor Caligula insisted that a statue of him be placed in the Jewish Temple at Jerusalem. Although he later withdrew this demand, it and other insults to christianity_4-5_v2.indd 4 their religion caused the Jews to rebel against Rome in 66 CE. Four years later, Titus – who later became the emperor of Rome – crushed the revolt and destroyed the temple. u FROM 37 TO 4 BCE, King Herod the Great was the local ruler of Judaea under the Romans. He was careful to deliver the required taxes to the Romans. As a result, Rome let the Jews practice their religion in peace. With the tax money that was left over, Herod rebuilt the Temple at Jerusalem, which had originally been destroyed by the Babylonians in about 586 BCE. r AFTER THE destruction of the temple in 70 CE, Jewish troops at the mountaintop fortress of Masada made a last stand. It took 15,000 Roman soldiers almost two years to defeat 1,000 Jewish fighters. 3/6/17 3:35 PM 5 d JEWS REVOLTED again in 115 CE because of their treatment by the Romans. This time the revolt was not limited to Judaea. Jews living in Egypt, Cyprus, and other parts of the empire attacked Roman soldiers and towns. It took the Romans two years to put down this rebellion. HADRIAN r IN 132 CE, THE Jews in Judaea revolted against the Romans for the third time. The Roman response was more brutal than ever. One ancient writer reported that half a million Jews had been killed. After the revolt was put down, the Emperor Hadrian forced the Jews to leave Jerusalem. The Romans changed the name of Judaea to SyriaPalaestina. Many Jews moved to other parts of the empire. JESUS l AFTER THE END of the third Jewish revolt, missionaries from a new religion called Christianity began to carry christianity_4-5_v2.indd 5 their message outside of Judaea. Christianity had begun as a sect, or division, of Judaism. By 135 CE, when the third Jewish revolt was put down, it had become a separate religion. 3/6/17 3:35 PM 6 The main source of information about Jesus and his teachings is the New Testament of the Bible, a text sacred to the followers of the Christian religion. According to the New Testament, Jesus didn’t preach rebellion against the Romans. In fact, he told people to pay their taxes to Rome. The New Testament says that Jesus reminded his followers of basic Jewish beliefs, such as believing in one God and following the Ten Commandments. He also told them that God loved them and would forgive them if they turned away from sin. He urged them to love God and to love one another. Christianity’s Beginnings The Roman rulers of Judaea were worried. A Jew named Jesus had been traveling around the province preaching in temples. He had started to attract crowds so large that sometimes he preached outside. Some people were taking him seriously, and a group of disciples, or followers, began to travel with him. It wasn’t so much what Jesus said that bothered the Romans. It was what others began to say about him. Some people called him the Messiah. For years, the Jews had been expecting a messiah, or savior. They believed this messiah would free them from Roman rule, and the Romans were not about to allow that. Not all Jews believed Jesus was the Messiah, however, so he became a source of conflict among the Jewish people. christianity_6-7.indd 6 u IN THE NEW Testament, Jesus teaches by telling parables, simple stories with lessons about life. Jesus used the parable of the Good Samaritan to teach people what it meant to be a good neighbor. In the story, a man is robbed, beaten, and left lying by the side of the road. All those who pass him ignore him. Finally, a stranger from Samaria – an unfriendly land – stops to help. Jesus said that the stranger who stopped to help was the good neighbor, or Good Samaritan. 3/6/17 3:36 PM 7 d SOME OF JESUS’S followers began to call themselves apostles, which comes from a Greek word meaning “messenger.” They traveled to different places in the Roman Empire, u BECAUSE THE Romans saw Jesus and his teachings as a threat, they looked for ways to silence him. Around 30 CE, Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor of Judaea, ordered that Jesus be put to death by cruci- proclaiming that Jesus was the Messiah. They talked about Jesus’s resurrection after the Romans had crucified him. Many people joined the new religion. The Greek-speaking fixion. This means tying or nailing a person to a cross. According to the New Testament, after Jesus was buried, his disciples said that he had been resurrected, or brought back to life, and that they had seen him. followers of Jesus called him Jesus Christ, meaning Jesus the Messiah. Thus, the followers of Jesus came to be known as Christians and their religion was called Christianity. d A JEW NAMED Saul tried to stop the apostles from saying that Jesus was the Messiah. Then one day, Saul had a vision of Jesus that changed his mind. He became an apostle and began to preach that Jesus was the Messiah. Soon, he became known as Paul. Most of what is known about Paul comes from letters he wrote to Christians in different places. These letters are called epistles and appear in the New Testament. d WHEN ROME caught fire in 64 CE, many Romans blamed the Emperor Nero. He in turn falsely accused the Christians of starting the fire. In the following years, many Christians were killed. They became martyrs, people who choose to die rather than give up their beliefs. u THE CHRISTIANS worried the Romans. Not only did they refuse to worship the Roman christianity_6-7.indd 7 gods, but they also encouraged others not to worship them. Since the Roman gods were part of a state religion, this was seen as an act of rebellion against the Roman govern- ment. This led to the Christians being persecuted, or punished for having different beliefs. 3/6/17 3:40 PM 8 Christianity Catches On in Rome How did a small group of Jesus’s followers, located in a remote outpost of the Roman Empire, become an empire-wide state religion? It took almost 400 years, but Christianity slowly spread and grew in power. In the early days, Rome’s reaction to the new religion was mixed. Under some emperors, Christians were persecuted for their beliefs. Other emperors ignored the new religion. The Roman official Pliny the Younger wrote to the Emperor Trajan, who ruled from 98 to 117 CE, asking how to treat Christians. The emperor replied in part, “They are not to be sought out; if they are denounced and proved to be guilty, they are to be punished, with this reservation, that whoever denies that he is a Christian and quite clearly proves it – that is, by worshipping our gods – he shall gain pardon.”* Despite persecution, the religion grew, especially in the eastern part of the empire, where it had begun. Large cities in the western empire also had churches. They started as small groups that met secretly in private homes. Even in Rome, under the nose of the emperor, the apostle Paul started a church in 50 CE. *From The Romans: From Village to Empire. M.T. Boatwright, D.J. Gargola, and R.J. Talbert, eds. Oxford University Press, 2004. christianity_8-9_v2.indd 8 u IN 312 CE, THE Roman Empire was divided. Constantine the Great set out to conquer the Italian Peninsula and reunite the empire under his rule. Before a battle for the city of Rome, Constantine claimed to have had a vision. He said he saw the Greek sign for Christ, the ChiRho, appear in the sky with the words: “In this sign, conquer.”* Believing this to be a sign from God, Constantine ordered his soldiers to paint Christian symbols on their shields. Constantine won the battle, and as a result, his support for Christianity grew. *From Ancient History by Philip Van Ness Myers. Ginn & Company, 1904. r A YEAR AFTER his successful battle for Rome, Constantine signed the Edict of Milan, giving Christians and all others the right to follow whatever religion they chose. By 324 CE, Constantine controlled all Roman lands. Thus, Christianity and all other religions were tolerated across the Roman Empire. 3/6/17 3:38 PM 9 r AS EMPEROR, Constantine established close connections between the Christian church and the state. In 325 CE, he called for the Christian Council of Nicaea to settle a dispute among Christians about the nature of Jesus. The council ruled that u CHRISTIANITY soon became an important part of Roman culture. In 391 CE, Emperor Theodosius I made Christianity the state religion of the empire. He banned the practice of the old Roman religion and closed its temples. At the same time, he made it clear that the power of the emperor was greater than that of church leaders. Jesus was part of a Trinity, or one God composed of a Father, a Son, and a Holy Spirit. Before he died in 337 CE, Constantine was baptized, or symbolically purified of sins, in a Christian ceremony. His support of Christianity helped make the Roman Empire a Christian state. l WHEN Christianity became the state religion of the empire, the government built large churches to replace the temples of the old gods. Each large city had a church headed by a bishop. The government gave the bishops money to run the churches. Because r AT FIRST, ALL bishops had equal authority. The bishop of Rome became known as the pope, from the Greek word for father. Eventually, the pope gained more authority than the other bishops and became known as the leader of the Christian church. Peter, one of the apostles, is considered the first pope. According they controlled church money, some bishops amassed great wealth. The people looked to the bishops to tell them what was right and wrong. This gave the bishops political power. If a ruler displeased a bishop, the bishop could turn the people against the ruler. to Roman Catholic tradition, Jesus had given Peter the “keys of the kingdom of heaven,” making him the leader of the disciples. The Spread of Christianity r THIS MAP shows the spread of Christianity throughout the Roman Empire. N 0 0 in e er Riv D a n ube Riv E er Black Sea Cas p ian Sea Constantinople er gus Riv A s i a M i n o r Granada Antioch Carthage Mediterranean Sea Cyrene F R I C A Alexandria Rive r Christian areas before Constantine, about 312 CE Christian areas after Constantine, about 400 CE – 600 CE Roman Empire, about 400 CE Edessa Damascus Jerusalem Nile A christianity_8-9_v2.indd 9 W E U R O P E Rome Ta 500 km. S Rh A TLA NTIC OC EA N In the United States, all people have the right to religious freedom. Why is it important to respect the beliefs of others when they are different from your own? 500 mi. Re d Se a A S I A Per s ian Gu lf 3/6/17 3:39 PM 10 The Gospel of Mark Historians believe that Mark’s Gospel was first written down in Jerusalem sometime in the 60s CE. These pages from the Gospel of Mark were created between 720 and 730 CE, somewhere in the British Isles. The image shows Mark. christianity_10-11.indd 10 3/6/17 3:41 PM 11 christianity_10-11.indd 11 3/6/17 3:41 PM 12 The Decline of the Roman Empire The Roman Empire was at the height of its glory in 117 CE. Its territory stretched as far west as the Atlantic Ocean and as far north as what is now England. It extended as far east as places that are now part of Iraq. A group of leaders known as the Five Good Emperors ruled from 96 to 180 CE. But the glory days were not to last. In the 200s CE, there were problems both inside and outside the empire. Enemies from outside attacked the borders. Clashes among leaders led to political disorder, corruption, and civil war inside the empire. The trouble began under the rule of the last of the Five Good Emperors, Marcus Aurelius, and continued under his son, Commodus. Then came a period of civil wars in which leaders fought one another for power, with the winner becoming emperor. In the 49 years between 235 and 284 CE, more than 60 leaders held the title of emperor. r SOME ROMANS were well aware of the empire’s difficulties. The historian Dio Cassius, who died in 235 CE, wrote, “Our history now descends from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust.”* *From Dio’s Annals of Rome by Herbert Baldwin Foster. Pafraets Books Company, 1906. christianity_12-13_v2.indd 12 ALL CITIZENS HAD to pay taxes. In 212 CE, to raise more tax money, the government gave citizenship to all free people living in the empire. But soon the rights of citizenship became weaker. Dishonest leaders gave more rights to wealthy citizens and took rights away from poorer citizens. This made people angry and caused social unrest. Problems in the empire caused news to travel slowly between the provinces and the city of Rome. Many Romans started to lose respect for their government. 3/6/17 3:43 PM 13 ONE PROBLEM FACING the Roman Empire was its vast size. A large army was needed to protect thousands of miles of borders. Citizens had to pay taxes to support this army. Many farmers could not afford the heavy taxes. They were forced to leave their farms. Some sold them to large landowners. Others turned to robbery or joined invading armies. Even soldiers defending the frontiers, or borderlands, felt little loyalty Roman Empire 117 to the empire. Instead, they supported their generals, who often acted independently of Rome’s government. CE 0 0 500 mi. 500 km. N BRITAIN E U R O P E Danube AT L ANTIC O CEA N Riv Caspian Sea Black Sea Rome iver E S er P S A L R Ta gus W A S I A Byzantium GREECE Athens Ti g Zama M e d i t e r r a n e a n Alexandria Jerusalem EGYPT rat es er Persian G u lf Nile Riv er Roman lands ph v Cyrene Eu S e a Ri A F R I C A Carthage ri sR Antioch ive r New Carthage (Cartagena) Red Sea INDIA THE BERBERS, WHO LIVED IN NORTHERN Africa, had become part of the Roman Empire a few centuries earlier. They began to raid Roman cities all along the coast of northern Africa, where the Roman army was weak. OCEAN christianity_12-13_v2.indd 13 THE GOTHS, A GERMANIC PEOPLE, repeatedly claimed lands along the northern borders of the Roman Empire. Once Germanic peoples had coexisted peacefully with the Romans. Some even fought in the Roman army, and some became military leaders. Still, the Romans called these Germanic people “barbarians” because they were not educated in Roman ways. Today, the word barbarian means a person who is considered to have rough manners. IN 256 CE, KING SHAPUR I OF PERSIA attacked the Roman Empire from the east. He captured the Emperor Valerian in 260 CE and put him in prison. The emperor died the same year. 3/6/17 3:43 PM 14 Christianity and the Two Empires How many Roman Empires were there? One? Two? None? The answer to that question depends on what year you are talking about. As early as 253 CE, the Emperor Valerian thought the empire was too large for him to rule successfully. He divided it into western and eastern halves, and gave the western half to his son to rule, while he ruled the eastern half. When Valerian died in 260 CE, his son ruled the entire empire. In 284 CE, a general named Diocletian became emperor. He too thought the empire was too large to be ruled by one person. He gave control of the western half to a trusted officer. When their rule collapsed, civil wars again divided Rome. But in 324 CE, Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor, managed to reunite the whole empire. In 395 CE, almost 60 years after Constantine’s death, the Roman Empire again split in two, with the Eastern Roman Empire based in Constantinople and the Western Roman Empire based in Rome. This time the division was permanent. christianity_14-15.indd 14 u IN 330 CE, Constantine moved the capital of the unified empire eastward from Rome to Byzantium, which was renamed Constantinople in his honor. Today, the city is known as Istanbul, Turkey. Constantinople was an ideal location for a capital city. Almost surrounded by water, it was a good spot for trade. The location also made the city easy to defend. Constantinople soon replaced Rome as the most important city in the empire. u BEGINNING IN THE 300s CE, Germanic tribesmen, whose own lands were being taken by Huns from the east, invaded both western and eastern parts of the Roman Empire. In 410 CE, the Germanic tribe known as the Visigoths, led by Alaric, captured Rome. In 455 CE, Rome was attacked again, this time by the Vandals. They destroyed monuments and stole items of value. Today we use the word vandal to describe someone who destroys property on purpose. 3/6/17 3:44 PM 15 r IN 476 CE, A Germanic chief named Odoacer captured Rome, defeated the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, and became the first Germanic king of Italy. The date is considered by many to mark the end of the Western Roman Empire. u AS GERMANIC kingdoms spread in Europe, the Christian church grew. Because of its charitable work among the poor, the church attracted converts, people who changed their religion, to Christianity. Missionaries were also able to convert christianity_14-15.indd 15 u VARIOUS Germanic people invaded and conquered lands that had been part of the Western Roman Empire. some rulers. Clovis became a Christian in 496 CE, bringing all of Gaul into the church. As the only organized institution in Europe, the Christian church grew in power. It preserved some Roman culture, including Latin, the language of Rome. r AS THE WESTERN Roman Empire crumbled, the Eastern Roman Empire prospered. It continued for almost 1,000 years. Historians now refer to it as the Byzantine Empire. Justinian I, who became emperor in 527 CE, used many Roman ideas to build the empire. Roman laws were the basis for the Justinian Code, which is the foundation of laws in many countries today. With money from taxes and trade, he constructed public buildings, roads, and aqueducts to make Clovis, leader of the Franks, conquered Gaul, which came to be called France in honor of the Franks. Constantinople a new Rome. His wife, Theodora, was a trusted adviser. THE CHRISTIANS IN THE Byzantine Empire and those in the Germanic kingdoms had different ideas about church and state. The Byzantines felt the state had the highest powers in matters of government, while the Germanic kingdoms gave greater power to the church. This caused divisions between Christians living in the two places. In 1054 CE, the conflicts caused the Christian church to split in two. The church in the Byzantine Empire became the Eastern Orthodox Church. The church in the Germanic kingdoms became the Roman Catholic Church. Some Roman emperors thought the empire was too large for one person to rule. Do you think the size of the Roman Empire was the main reason that it did not last? Or do you think other factors were more responsible for its end? 3/6/17 3:44 PM 16 Rome’s Legacies Language Latin, the language of ancient Rome, is often called a dead language because no one has spoken it for centuries. But in one sense, millions of people speak Latin every day. Do you ever play video games? Do you go to your doctor for an annual physical exam? Do you try to solve problems? Do you study science? If so, you are using words with Latin roots. The Latin language is just one of many legacies the modern world has from ancient Rome. SEVERAL countries in Europe speak Romance languages, which are based on Latin, the language of Rome. French, Italian, Portuguese, Government and Law d ROMAN LAW is the basis of legal systems in many parts of the world. The Roman judge Ulpian wrote, “Justice is a steady and enduring desire to give every man his due. The basic principles of law are these: to live honorably, not to injure any other person, and to render to each his own.”* Modern ideas of equal rights for all and justice are rooted in these ideals. *From Why We’re All Romans by Carl J. Richard. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2010. CICERO Spanish, and Romanian are all Romance languages. The Roman, or Latin, alphabet is the most widely used system of writing in the world today. THE EARLY ROMANS created a form of government known as a republic, in which power is shared among different leaders and u MANY ROMAN AUTHORS HAVE HAD a big influence on modern world literature. A small sample: • CICERO – speeches • TACITUS – history • VIRGIL – an epic poem about the founding of Rome • HORACE – odes, or poems of praise • OVID – myths, love poems groups. The word republic comes from the Latin res publica, meaning “public matters.” The United States and other modern republics owe their form of government to Rome. The Romans even had a governing body called the Senate, as does the United States. ROMAN EMPEROR CONSTANTINE GEORGE WASHINGTON LADY JUSTICE christianity_16-17_v2.indd 16 3/6/17 3:53 PM 17 Science PANTHEON JEFFERSON MEMORIAL SCIENTISTS, engineers, and architects living in the Roman Empire left a lasting legacy of discoveries and inventions. PTOLEMY WAS A Greek living in Alexandria, Egypt, under Roman rule. His insights about astronomy guided sailors for 1,500 years. Galen, also a Greek living in the Roman Empire, was a doctor who understood that blood circulated in the body. Doctors followed his teachings for hundreds of years. Art ROMAN EMPEROR ANTONINUS PIUS u MANY ROMAN artists made sculptures of the emperors. These christianity_16-17_v2.indd 17 ROMAN ENGINEERS devised new technologies to make cities cleaner and safer. Their aqueducts brought clean water to cities, and their sewers removed wastes. Some Roman roads and bridges are still used today. The Romans invented concrete as a building material. It is still made much the same way today as it was in ancient Rome. ROMAN ARCHITECTS adopted styles from other cultures and passed them on to future generations. From the Etruscans they took arches, which they used in new ways. From the Greeks they adopt- ed columns and developed them into new forms. The Jefferson Memorial in Washington, D.C., uses a hollow-dome design, as seen on the ancient Pantheon in Rome. THE ROMANS learned the art of mosaics from the Greeks and passed it on to modern artists. statues encouraged patriotism, or loyalty to one’s home country. 3/6/17 3:53 PM 18 Activities MAKE A TABLE Roman Gods and Goddesses There were so many Roman gods and goddesses! It can be hard to keep track of the powers and areas of influence connected to each one. A table can help organize the information. Create a table of the important Roman gods and goddesses. Include columns for their power and areas of influence. Then, choose one god or goddess to research further. Make a poster using your table and research findings. WRITE AN EXPOSITORY ESSAY The legacies of Rome are all around us, affecting the way we live and speak every day. Select several of Rome’s legacies to write about. Then, draft an essay explaining how they affect your life today. Be sure to write an introductory paragraph and a paragraph about each legacy. In your conclusion, summarize your main points and name the legacy you think is the most important. christianity_18-19.indd 18 3/6/17 3:58 PM 19 MAKE CONNECTIONS WITH THESE RELATED TITLES Roman Empire Early Romans Ancient Hebrews Ancient Rome may be long gone, but its legacy lives on in the Western world in just about every area of life. From the birth of law to major contributions in engineering and language, the Roman Empire’s influence endures today. It began as a collection of farming villages and grew to become a city that ruled over a vast empire. Along the way, a king was overthrown, a republic begun, and a government of checks and balances created. Learn the details behind Rome’s early people and the empire’s extraordinary place in history. Much of what we know about the Ancient Hebrews comes from the Hebrew Bible, or the Torah. Follow the journey of Abraham from Mesopotamia to Canaan, the birthplace of Judaism, and meet heroes like King David and Deborah, who paved the way for a storied religion that lives on today. CALIFORNIA STANDARDS HSS 6.7 Students analyze the geographic, political, economic, religious, and social structures during the development of Rome. LEARN MORE ONLINE! • Many philosophies started in Greece and were borrowed by the Romans. Stoicism was founded by Zeno of Citium in the late 200s BCE. • Four main sources tell about the life of Jesus and the beginnings of Christianity. They are the first four books of the New Testament, and they are called the Gospels. christianity_18-19.indd 19 • Life became much harder for ordinary citizens during the decline of Rome. Without new lands being conquered, wealth no longer flowed into the empire. • The Roman custom of minting coins with images of leaders on them continues around the world today. 6.7.5 Trace the migration of Jews around the Mediterranean region and the effects of their conflict with the Romans, including the Romans’ restrictions on their right to live in Jerusalem. 6.7.6 Note the origins of Christianity in the Jewish Messianic prophecies, the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as described in the New Testament, and the contribution of St. Paul the Apostle to the definition and spread of Christian beliefs (e.g., belief in the Trinity, resurrection, salvation). 6.7.7 Describe the circumstances that led to the spread of Christianity in Europe and other Roman territories. 6.7.8 Discuss the legacies of Roman art and architecture, technology and science, literature, language, and law. HSS 7.1 Students analyze the causes and effects of the vast expansion and ultimate disintegration of the Roman Empire. 7.1.1 Study the early strengths and lasting contributions of Rome (e.g., significance of Roman citizenship; rights under Roman law; Roman art, architecture, engineering, and philosophy; preservation and transmission of Christianity) and its ultimate internal weaknesses (e.g., rise of autonomous military powers within the empire, undermining of citizenship by the growth of corruption and slavery, lack of education, and distribution of news). 7.1.2 Discuss the geographic borders of the empire at its height and the factors that threatened its territorial cohesion. 7.1.3 Describe the establishment by Constantine of the new capital in Constantinople and the development of the Byzantine Empire, with an emphasis on the consequences of the development of two distinct European civilizations, Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic, and their two distinct views on church-state relations. Historical and Social Sciences Analysis Skills: Chronological and Spatial Thinking 3. Students use a variety of maps and documents to identify physical and cultural features of neighborhoods, cities, states, and countries and to explain the historical migration of people, expansion and disintegration of empires, and the growth of economic systems. 3/6/17 3:58 PM hmhco.com EDITOR: Jennifer Dixon ART DIRECTION: Brobel Design DESIGNERS: Ian Brown, Ed Gabel, David Ricculli, Jeremy Rech PHOTO RESEARCH: Ted Levine, Elisabeth Morgan ACTIVITIES WRITER: Marjorie Frank PROOFREADER: Margaret Mittelbach FACT-CHECKER: David Stienecker AUTHOR: Lois Markham AUTHOR TEAM LEAD: Barak Zimmerman PRESIDENT AND CEO: Ted Levine CHAIRMAN AND FOUNDER: Mark Levine GRADE 6 TITLES World’s Early People Ancient India Mesopotamia Indian Empires Ancient Egypt Ancient China Archaeology Early Romans Language Roman Empire Ancient Hebrews Christianity and Rome’s Legacies Early Greeks Olmec and Maya Golden Age of Greece Civil Rights Ancient Persia ON THE COVER: St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome by the Via della Conciliazione. Shutterstock: TTstudio. PICTURE CREDITS: Alamy: Lebrecht Music and Arts Photo Library: p.2 bottom left (Roman festival); Archivist: p.3 center (Rome’s conquered peoples worshipping); The Print Collector: p.5 lower right (Second Jewish Revolt), p.7 right (Paul); FineArt: p.5 upper right (Jesus); David Barnett: p.6 (Jesus and disciples); Lebrecht Music and Arts Photo Library: p.6 middle right (The Good Samaritan); Peter Horree: p.7 top left (Christ on the cross); Mary Evans Picture Library: p.7 center (apostles); Sonia Halliday: pp.10–11 (The Lichfield Gospels, 720–730 CE); INTERFOTO: p.12 lower left (Dio Cassius); Ivy Close Images: p.13 lower right (King Shapur I of Persia); Oldtime: p.13 lower left (Berbers); North Wind Picture Archives: p.13 lower center (Goth); Mary Evans Picture Library: p.14 lower right (Germanic tribesman), p.15 lower right (Justinian I and Theodora); Lanmas: p.15 middle left (Odoacer); Edwin Mullan: p.15 upper right (Clovis invades); robertharding/Godong: p.15 lower left (page of Latin text from an old manuscript); Ira Berger: p.17 center right (modern mosaic, NYC subway); Erin Babnik: p.16 lower center (sculpture of Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius [r. 138–161 CE]); ACTIVE MUSEUM: p.19 top center (Cincinnatus receiving the ambassadors); Classic Image: p.19 bottom (Zeno of Citium). Getty Images: Cris Foto: p.2 lower right (Ceasar Augustus); Leemage / Universal Images Group: p.3 right (Mithras); Fototeca Storica Nazionale.: p.7 lower right (Nero and the burning of Rome); Lefteris Papaulakis: p.8 lower right (Constantine); UniversalImagesGroup: p.9 left (Theodosius I). Granger Collection: Gustave Doré: p.19 top right (Moses at Mt. Sinai). iStock: stevenallan: p.4 lower right (aerial view of Masada, Israel). North Wind Picture Archives: p.12 lower right (Roman opulence); p.12 top right (Roman poverty); pp.4–5 (Herod’s Temple). Shutterstock: takepicsforfun: p.2 top right (Roman temple); PLRANG ART: p.4 right (Caligula); Gilmanshin: p.5 lower left (ancient Roman sculpture of Emperor Hadrian); Renata Sedmakova: p.9 top right (Council of Nicaea); photoshooter2015: p.9 center (Santa Maria in Trastevere); Luis Santos: p.9 lower right (St. Peter with keys); Seqoya: p.14 upper right (Istanbul, Turkey); TTstudio: p.15 top (St. Peter’s in Rome); Dimos: p.14 top (Saint Sophia in Constantinople); Fedor Selivanov: p.16 upper center (ancient Roman inscription); StudioPortoSabbia: p.16 top center (Romance language – French); Cris Foto: p.16 top right (Cicero); Patrick Poendl: p.16 bottom left (statue of Lady Justice); M DOGAN: p.17 top left (Jefferson Memorial); Viacheslav Lopatin: p.17 top right (Pantheon in Rome); steve estvanik: p.17 lower right (example of Roman mosaics ); Vladimir Korostyshevskiy: p.17 lower left (sculpture of Roman emperor); Zack Frank: p.16 lower right (sculpture of George Washington); stoyanh: p.18 top (table icon); GraphicsRF: p.18 bottom (girl writing); vvoe: p.19 top left (Colosseum). ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS: Brobel Design: Some Roman Gods and Goddesses, p.3; Map of Rome from 274 BCE, p.9; Map of Roman Empire 117 CE, p.13. Michael Kline Illustration: Cartoons, cover. Copyright © by Kids Discover, LLC All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying or recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner unless such copying is expressly permitted by federal copyright law. Requests for permission to make copies of any part of the work should be submitted through our Permissions website at https://customercare.hmhco.com/ contactus/Permissions.html or mailed to Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company, Attn: Intellectual Property Licensing, 9400 Southpark Center Loop, Orlando, Florida 32819-8647. Printed in the U.S.A. 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