Download CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE In accordance

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
In accordance with the problem and the purpose of study, this chapter
provides to review some related studies and study concerning with the concept of
language, grammar and sentence, translation, grammar–translation theory, and the
role of grammar in translation.
A. Related Studies
First, Matosa studied about the correlation between grammar mastery to
translation skill.10 The paper investigated the students skill to translate some
familiar tense in form of sentences was and the correlation between grammar
mastery to translation skill was. In observation of the fifth semesters' student of
English Department of Tarbiyah Faculty, this studied found that the percentage
mean of the students' capability in translation some familiar tenses in form of
sentences was 38,5 %. It meant that the capability of the fifth semester students
in English Department of Tarbiyah Faculty of The State Institute for Islamic
Studies in academic year 2003-2004 in translation some familiar tenses in form
of sentences was insufficient, because its percentage was under 60 %. To
overcome the students who had low score or the students who were very poor
category above, the lecturers should make innovative learning. For the students
should be able to understand and master all kinds of the tenses in form
10
Ghufran Ana Matosa, “The Correlation between Grammar Mastery to Translation
Skill”, Unpublished Thesis, Jambi: Islamic Studies Sultan Thaha Saifuddin Jambi Academic,
2007, http://www.indonesia-hijauhitam.com/pdf/correlation-between-grammar-mas..., accessed on
February 18, 2013.
9
10
sentences. For institution should add the professional English lectures who
qualified in English field.
Second, Fitria studied about the correlation between student’s grammar
ability and translating skill (a survey) at seventh semester of English Letter
Departent State Islamic University ‘Syarif Hidayatullah’ Jakarta.11 The paper
investigated the correlation between grammar ability and translation skill from
English into Bahasa Indonesia and vice versa was. Based on this study finding.
Fitria concluded that the alternative hypothesis (Ha) was accepted and the null
hypothesis (Ho) was rejected. The concluded hypothesis based on the the result
of rxy namely 0.582 and the degree of freedom namely 28. The result of rt on
the degree of significance of 5% was 0.361. From that values, rxy was bigger
than rt (0.582 > 0.361). From the comparison, it was known that there was
significant correlation between grammar ability and translating skill. The value
was positive, so the correlation was positive. Moreover the value of 0.582 had
strong relationship between two variables. According to the explanation above,
it was concluded that students of translation class at English Letters
Department, UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, would get high score in
translation course if they had high score in grammar. Otherwise, students who
had lower score in grammar, they would get lower score in translation course.
11
Fitria, “The Correlation Between Student’s Grammar Mastery And Translating Skill (A
Survey) At Seventh Semester of English Letter Departent State Islamic University ‘Syarif
Hidayatullah’ Jakarta”, Unpublished Thesis, Jakarta: State Islamic University ‘Syarif
Hidayatullah’ Jakarta, 2011, http://repository.uinjkt.ac.id/dspace/bitstream/123438789/.../FITRIAFAH.PDF, accessed on May 12, 2013.
11
The differences between the previous studies and this study were
explained as follows:
Matosa limited his study on simple present tenses that contain of simple
present, simple continuous, simple perfect, and simple perfect continuous
tenses. The design of his studied used qualitative and quantitative design or
mixing design. His studied was not only to know the correlation between
grammar mastery and translation skill, but also to explain about the lecturing
process of the grammar class of the fifth semester students of the State Institute
for Islamic Studies Sultan Thaha Saifuddin Jambi.
Fitria limited her study on grammar aspect focused in sentence patterns
and sentence types, whereas on translation aspect was focused in transposition,
modulation, and adaptation. Her study was survey and the method was
descriptive correlation. To get the data, Fitria used multiple choices for
knowing the grammar ability and essay form for translation test. In translation,
the students translated two texts, one was translating Bahasa Indonesia into
English, and another text was translating English into Bahasa Indonesia.
Fitria’s study was done at seventh semester of English Letters Department
State Islamic University ‘Syarif Hidayatullah’ Jakarta.
While in this study, the writer focused on the sentence construction
patterns. The writer used Pearson Product Moment’s r correlation with large
sample. The test instrument was essay form. The data were collected from
seventh semester students at English Education Study Program of STAIN
Palangka Raya.
12
The similarities between the previous studies and this study were the
design of the study and its variables. The two studies and this study used
correlation design. And the variables of the two studies and this study were
grammar and translation.
The writers of the two studies above suggested that the students must be
given some exercises about grammar to increase their grammar ability and the
students must practice to translate grammatically. From the suggested above,
the writer of this study continued the study about the correlation between
grammar mastery towards translation scores because some students still make
some mistakes in grammar mastery test and translation test between two
languages. From the result of this study was known that teachers and learners
must increase their grammar and translation.
B. The Concept of Language
Language is a system of arbitrary, vocal symbols which permits all
people in a given culture, or other people who have learned the system of that
culture, to communicate or to interact. 12 Other definitions, language is a
potentially self reflexive, structured of symbols which catalog the objects,
events, and relations in the world.13 Language is an oral symbolic system
which seen as arbitrary that used by human being to communicate and to
12
Mary Finocchiarno, English as a Second from Theory to Practice, New York: regents
Publishing Company, 1974, p. 3.
13
Joseph A. De Vito, The Psychology of Speech and Language: An Introduction to
Psycholinguistics, New York: Random House, 1970, p. 7.
13
interact with others, it is based on the culture of each languages.14 From these
definitions, language is a systematic means of communicating ideas or feeling
by the use of conventionalized signs, sounds, gestures, or marks having
understood meaning.
One of the crucial functions of any human language, such as Bahasa
Indonesia or English, is to convey various kinds of information from the
everyday to the highly academic. 15 There are thousands of languages in this
world and those are different, such as Bahasa Indonesia and English. These
languages have differences in language structures and words. It is like in
Bahasa Indonesia ‘Ayah Andi seorang dokter’, and in English ‘Andi’s father is
a doctor’. Two sentences above explained the same meaning and purpose but
different in language. Therefore, everyone must master another language to
communicate with other people who have different language. It is to avoid
misunderstanding what other people said about.
C. Grammar and Sentence
Sentences constitute the most essential part of grammar. Sentences
ought to have in a general system of grammar. The grammar of each language
constitutes a system of its own, each element of which stands in a certain
relation to, and it is more or less dependent on, all the others.16
14
Soenjono Dardjowidjojo, Psikolinguistik: Pengantar Pemahaman Bahasa Manusia,
Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia, 2005, p. 16.
15
Iwan Fauzi, A Preliminary Understanding of English Syntax, Palangka Raya, 2012, p. 1.
16
Otto Jespersen, Essentials of Englisah Grammar, p. 1.
14
1. Definition of Grammar
Grammar is the set of rules that allow us to combine words in our
language into larger units. 17 In another sense, grammar is the complete set
of rules needed to produce all the regular patterns in a given language. 18
Else explanation, Grammar is focused on mostly obscure rules of how
people are supposed to write and speak. For native speakers of any given
language, grammar often represents to them the great “mystery” of
language, known only to language specialists or those of older generations,
the ones who really know what is “right”.19 The process of describing the
structure of phrases and sentences in such a way that we account for all the
grammatical sequences in a language and rule out all the ungrammatical
sequences is also one way of defining grammar.20 What we have in our
heads is a (finite) set of rules which tell us how to recognise the
infinite number of expressions that constitute the language that we
speak. We might refer to this set of rules as a grammar, though there
are some linguists who would like to separate the actual set of rules existing
inside a speaker’s head from the linguist’s guess of what these rules are. 21
From these definitions, grammar is the structural properties or system of the
language.
17
Ibid., p. 1.
Paul R. Kroeger, Analyzing Grammar an Introduction, p. 5.
19
Andrea Decapua, Grammar for Teacher: A Guide to American English, p. 1.
20
George Yule, The Study of Language, Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2006,
18
p. 74.
21
Mark Newson, et al., Basic English Syntax with Exercises, p. 2.
15
2. Definition of Sentence
Sentence is the largest unit that is described in grammar. It is
sometimes said that a sentence expresses a complete thought. This is a
notional definition: it defines a term by the notion or idea it conveys.22 The
sentence represents an eventuality by separating out the type of eventuality
from the abstract or concrete things which are involved in the eventuality. 23
Therefore, sentence is a complete though expressing about the eventuality.
There are two fundamental parts of sentence, especially in Bahasa
Indonesia and English, are the subject and the predicate. A simple sentence
can also be described as a group of words expressing a complete though.
Subject can be described as the component that performs the action
describing by the predicate. A simple sentence must have a verb. A verb
shows an action or state of being. The subject tells who or what about the
verb.24 It is traditional to divide the sentence into two main constituents: the
subject and the predicate. The predicate consists of the verb and any other
elements of the sentence apart from the subject.25 In Bahasa Indonesia
‘subject + predicate = sentence’. And in English ‘subject + verb = sentence’.
From the two languages, Bahasa Indonesia and English, have resemblance
in the sentence structure.
22
Sidney Greenbaum and Gerald Nelson, An Introduction to English Grammar, London:
Pearson Education Limited, 2002, p. 13.
23
Nigel Fabb, Sentence Structure, London and New York: Routledge Taylor and Francis
Group, 2002, p. 41.
24
Siminto, Module for Structure IV, Palangka Raya: STAIN Palangka Raya, 2006, p. 1.
25
Sidney Greenbaum and Gerald Nelson, An Introduction to English Grammar, p. 21.
16
3. The Six Basic of Sentence Construction Patterns
There are six basic sentence contruction patterns. Those are no verb
complement, direct object verb complement, indirect and direct object verb
complements, predicative nominative verb complement, predicative
adjective verb complement, and direct object and objective complement.
a. No Verb Complement
Regular sentences consist of a subject and a predicate, and the
predicate contains at least a verb.26 The simplest structure is one without
a verb complement. In traditional grammar, all verb complements are
either nouns or adjectives. Here are some sentences consisting of just the
subject and the verb:
Subject
Verb
A door
opened.
The sun
is setting.
The baby
was crying.
You
must leave.
Many of us
have protested.
They
have been drinking. 27
Sentences usually contain more than just the subject and the verb.
Here are several examples, with the subject (S) and the verb (V)
italicized and labeled:
26
Ibid., p. 23-24.
Sidney Greenbaum and Gerald Nelson, An Introduction to English Grammar, p. 24.
27
17
His black boots (S) had (V) pointed toes and fancy stitching.
It (S) rained (V) every day of our vacation.
Every kind of medical equipment (S) was (V) in short supply.
The subject need not come first in the sentence:
Eventually the managing director (S) intervened (V) in the dispute.
Over the years she (S) had collected (V) numerous prizes for academic
achievement.28
Sometimes, a word or phrase comes between the subject and the
verb:
They (S) often stay (V) with us at weekends.
Or there is an interruption between parts of the verb:
We (S) can (V) never thank (V) this country enough.29
The basic sentence structure of this pattern is:
S-V: subject + verb.
b. Direct Object Verb Complement
If a main verb requires a direct object to complete the sentence, it
is a transitive verb. The term ‘transitive’ comes from the notion that a
person (represented by the subject of the sentence) performs an action
that affects some person or thing, there is a ‘transition’ of the action from
the one to the other. Indeed, the direct object (DO) typically refers to a
person or thing directly affected by the action described in the sentence:
28
Ibid.
Ibid., p. 25-26.
29
18
Helen received my email (DO).
They ate all the strawberries (DO).
I dusted the bookshelves in my bedroom (DO).
Anthony stroked his beard (DO).30
Some grammatical rules refer to the direct object.
1) The direct object normally comes after the verb.
Carter has been photographing (V) light bulbs (DO) lately.
2) Some pronouns have a distinctive form when they function as direct
object:
She phoned us (DO) earlier this evening.
We phoned her (DO) earlier this evening.
3) If the subject and direct object refer to the same person or thing, the
direct object is a reflexive pronoun:
The children hid themselves.
4) When we turn an active sentence into a passive sentence, the direct
object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive
sentence:
Active: The tests revealed traces of anthrax (DO).
Passive: Traces of anthrax (S) were revealed by the tests.31
The basic sentence structure of this pattern is:
S-V-DO: subject + (transitive) verb + (direct) object.
30
Ibid., p. 26.
Sidney Greenbaum and Gerald Nelson, An Introduction to English Grammar, p. 30-31.
31
19
c. Indirect and Direct Object Verb Complement
We have seen that a transitive verb requires a direct object to
complete the sentence. Some transitive verbs can have two objects: an
indirect object followed by a direct object. The indirect object (IO) refers
to a person indirectly affected by the action described in the sentence.
The person generally receives something or benefits from something:
(1)
Ruth gave my son (IO) a birthday present (DO).
(2)
I can show you (IO) my diploma (DO).
(3)
My friends will save her (IO) a seat (DO).
(4)
You may ask the speaker (IO) another question (DO).32
The indirect object is usually equivalent to a phrase introduced by
to or for, but that phrase normally comes after the direct object.
(1a) Ruth gave a birthday present to my son.
(2a) I can show my diploma to you.
(3a) My friends will save a seat for her.
(4a) You may ask another question of the speaker.
The structures in (1)–(4) and those in (1a)–(4a) differ somewhat
in their use, since there is a general tendency for the more important
information to come at the end. For example, if the son has already been
mentioned, but not the birthday present, we would expect (1) to be used
32
Ibid., p. 30.
20
rather than (1a), though in speech we can indicate the focus of
information by giving it prominence in our intonation.
We can question the indirect object in a way similar to the
questioning of the direct object:
1b] Who (IO) did Ruth give a birthday present to?
The grammatical rules that refer to the direct object also refer to
the indirect object:
1) The indirect object comes after the verb:
Ruth gave my son (IO) a birthday present (DO).
Notice that the indirect object comes before the direct object.
2) Some pronouns have a distinctive form when they function as indirect
object:
I paid her (IO) the full amount.
She paid me (IO) the full amount.
3) If the subject and indirect object refer to the same person, the indirect
object is generally a reflexive pronoun:
The managing director paid herself (IO) a huge salary.
When we turn an active sentence into a passive sentence, the
indirect object of the active sentence can become the subject of the
passive sentence:
The principal granted Tony (IO) an interview.
Tony (S) was granted an interview.
21
The direct object can also become the subject, but in that case the
indirect object (if retained) is generally represented by a phrase
introduced by to or for:
An interview was granted to Tony.33
The basic sentence structure of this pattern is:
S-V-IO-DO: subject + (transitive) verb + (indirect) object + (direct)
object.
d. Predicative Nominative Verb Complement
The predicate nominative verb complement is a noun or a
pronoun that redefines, renames, or classifies the subject of the sentence.
The verb in a predicate nominative sentence pattern is always a linking
verb, such as be, seem, or become.
If a verb requires a subject complement (SC) to complete the
sentence, the verb is a linking verb. The subject complement (underlined
in the examples that follow) typically identifies or characterizes the
person or thing denoted by the subject:
(1) Sandra is my mother’s name.
(2) Your room must be the one next to mine.
(3) The upstairs tenant seemed a reliable person.
(4) A university is a community of scholars.
33
Ibid., p. 30-31.
22
The most common linking verb is be. Other common linking
verbs (with examples of subject complements in parentheses) include
appear (the best plan), become (my neighbor).34
Subject complements are typically noun phrases, as in (1)–(4)
above. The basic sentence structure is:
S-V-SC: subject + (linking) verb + (subject) complement.
e. Predicative Adjective Verb Complement
Predicative adjective is an adjective that modifies the subject of
the sentence. The verb is always linking verb, such as be, seem, smell,
look, taste, and become. Subject complement of this pattern are typically
adjective phrases, as in (1)-(4) below.
(1) The receptionist seemed very tired.
(2) You should be more careful.
(3) The distinction became quite clear.
(4) The corridor is too narrow.35
f. Direct Object and Objective Complement
The verb complements are a direct object and an objective
complement. An objective complement is a noun or an adjective that
occurs after the direct object and describes the direct object. This pattern
34
Sidney Greenbaum and Gerald Nelson, An Introduction to English Grammar, p. 28.
Ibid.
35
23
consists of a subject, a transitive verb, a direct object, and a complement.
In both structures the complement is related to the direct object.36
In the first structure, the direct object is followed by an object
complement (OC):
(1) His jokes made the audience (DO) uneasy (OC).
(2) I declared the meeting (DO) open (OC).
(3) The heat has turned the milk (DO) sour (OC).
(4) They elected her (DO) their leader (OC).
The basic sentence structure of this pattern is:
S-V-DO-OC: subject + (transitive) verb + (direct) object + (object)
complement
D. Translation
No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as
representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies
live are distinct worlds, not merely the same world with different labels
attached.37 Therefore, language translation is needed to clarify the information
from different language.
1. Definition of Translation
Meetham and Hudson in As-Safi defined that translation is the
replacement of a text in one language by a replacement of an equivalent text
36
Ibid., p. 31.
Susan Bassnett, Translation Studies, New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis E-Library,
2002, p. 22.
37
24
in a second language. 38 And Catford defined that translation is the
replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual
material in another language (TL).39 In the other hand, Nord in
Shutttleworth and Cowie defined that translation is the production of a
functional target text maintaining a relationship with a given source text that
is specified according to the intended or demanded function of the target
text.40
From those definitions, translation is transferring a text or a message
from a language into another language following the TL style and without
changing the meaning.
2. Process of Translation
Halliday in Manfredi suggested that the process of translation
proceeded by three ‘stages’:
a. selection of the ‘most probable translation equivalent’ for each item
at each rank;
b. reconsideration in the light of the lexico-grammatical features of the unit
above;
c. final reconsideration in the light of the lexico-grammatical features of
the TL.
38
A. B. As-Safi, Translation Theories, Strategies, and Basic Theoretical Issues, Amman:
Petra University, 2011, p. 2.
39
J.C. Catford, A Linguistic Theory of Translation, London: Oxford University Press,
1965, p. 20.
40
Christiane Nord, Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches
Explained, Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 2007, p. 182.
25
He specified that these ‘stages’ were not meant as steps to be taken
necessarily one after another, but rather only as abstractions which could be
useful to understanding the process of translation.41
At the beginning, Halliday makes the reason for his title,
which avoids the expression ‘translation theory’, clear. As a linguist, he
means to offer a language theory that could be useful for the practice of
translation, through an analytical model of the translation process, i.e., of
what happens when translating. In his view, the kind of linguistic
theory which could serve this purpose is not a traditional formal
grammar, one
which
offers prescriptive rules, but rather must be a
functional grammar, conceived as an ‘explanation of potentiality’. All this is
strictly connected to his notion of ‘choice’, which involves what is possible
to mean, and, within this, what is more likely to be meant.42
The process of translation might be pictured in various ways. One
way could be as follows:
41
Ibid., p. 58.
Christiane Nord, Translating as a Purposeful Activity, p. 58.
42
26
Figure 2.1
Translation Process
Source Text
Dictionary
Context
Style
Translate
Cultural Background
43
Target Text
It is always worth considering whether a name is appropriate to what
it stands for, and whereas ‘source text’ is likely to be accurate, it may be
questioned on occasion whether a resulting text is in fact the same as the
target. In a heuristic process the resulting text might be well different from
the original target, and it also needs to be kept in mind that there may be
various different versions of a translation. 44
According to Suryawinata in M. Rudolf Nababan, the process of
translation consists of three stages, are 1) language text analysis of source
language, 2) message transferring, 3) restructuration.45
43
Richard K. Johnson, “Terms and Processes in Translation between Bahasa Indonesia
and English”, Unpublished Ph. D Dissertation, Sydney: University of New South Wales, 2006, p.
14, http://unsworks.unsw.edu.au/fapi/datastream/unsworks:832/SOURCE01, accessed on May 12,
2013.
44
Ibid., p. 24.
45
M. Rudolf Nababan, Teori Menerjemah Bahasa Inggris, p. 25.
27
Figure 2.2
Translation Process Based on Suryawinata
Based on the both processes of translation above, where source text
is processed to translate in target language as the translation process and
produced the target text as the translation product.
3. Bahasa Indonesia-English Translation
Bahasa Indonesia-English translation has been often done by
Indonesian students or translators, when they interact and communicate with
foreigner or when English learning process. A translator has to know the
equivalency and the shift of meaning in translating the source language to
the target one.
a. Grammatical Equivalence in Translation
Hatim and Munday mention that the term equivalence in
translation could be divided into two main divisions, i.e. the formal
28
equivalence and dynamic equivalence. The former refers to a relationship
which involves the purely ‘formal’ replacement of one word or phrase in
the SL by another in the TL, while the latter is used if in the translators’
judgement a form of words that is not sufficiently transparent in the TT is
likely to pose a threat to comprehensibility and therefore intervention on
the part of the translator becomes inevitable. This division of the term
equivalence is actually referring back to the principles of translatability
and comprehensibility in translation.46
Baker has made classification on the notion of equivalence in
translation. He mentions five levels of equivalence and one of them is
grammatical equivalence. Baker states that grammar can be said to be the
set of rules which determine the way in which units such as words and
phrases can be combined in a language and the kind of information
which has to be made regularly explicit in utterances. Baker claims that
differences in the grammatical structures of the source and the target
languages often result in some change in the information content of the
message during the process of translation. 47
This change may take the form of adding to the target text
information which is not expressed in the source text or omitting
information specified in the source text.
46
Basil Hatim and Jeremy Munday, Translation: An Advanced Resource Book, London:
Routledge, 2004, p. 40-42.
47
Mona Baker , In Other Words: A Course Book on Translation, London: Routledge.
1992, p. 83.
29
Baker mentions some grammatical categories which are intended
to illustrate the kinds of difficulties that translators often encounter
because of differences in the grammatical structures of the source and
target languages. Those are the categories of number, gender, person,
tense and aspect, and voice. This particular study, however, will not
concern all of those categories. It mainly discusses three of them, namely
the categories of person, tense and voice in Bahasa Indonesia- English
translation.
b. Shift in Translation
While a shift in Catford’s term or transposition is a translation
procedure involving a change in the grammar from source language to
target one. In Newmark, translation shift or transposition is a translation
procedure involving a change in the grammar from SL to TL.48 For
example is:
SL : kok gede banget?
TL : why was it so expensive?
The adjective phrase in SL kok gede banget means how big its
becomes a sentence in TL. The words gede banget means very big is
translated into so expensive.
The categories of shifts are divided into four sub-types are:
48
Peter Newmark, A Textbook of Translation, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign language
Education Press, 1988, p.55.
30
a. Structure-shifts, which involve a grammatical change between the
structure of the SL and that of the TL.
b. Class-shifts, when a SL item is translated with a TL item which
belongs to a different grammatical class, i.e. a verb may be translated
with a noun.
c. Unit-shifts, which involve changes in rank.
d. Intra-system shifts, which occur when SL and TL possess systems
which approximately correspond formally as to their constitution, but
when translation involves selection of a non-corresponding term in the
TL system, for instance, when the SL singular becomes a TL plural.49
E. The Role of Grammar in Translation
Grammar is the skeleton of a text. Grammar gives the general and main
facts about a text: statements, questions, requests, purpose, reason, condition,
time, place, doubt, feeling, certainty. Grammar indicates who does what to
whom, why, where, when, how. Grammar is one of important aspects in
language translation. It is because grammar affects the detailed of text. The text
will be received clearly when it is grammatical. Therefore grammar has an
important role in translation.
F. Grammar-Translation
Whether translation should be entirely into the native language of the
translator is a vexed question to which there will probably not be one clear,
49
Yulia Arfanti, The Equivalence and the Shift of Meaning in the Translation, p. 8.
31
definitive answer. Not all translation needs to be of literary quality, and
translation will often be a commercial undertaking where various other factors
are important. Comprehension in a first language may be superior to that in a
second language. Skill in composition does not necessarily equate with first
language competence, and it cannot always be assumed, even if a translator has
balanced bilingual skills, that either of the two translation languages are at a
very high level. Editing of a translation will often be carried out by someone
other than the translator. The question of second language competence may be
summed up by asserting that a well composed, natural target text is much
easier to achieve translating into the first language.50
Since translating always involves at least two different languages, it
was inevitable that a number of persons studying the issues of translation
would focus upon the distinctive features of the source and receptor languages.
Important studies of diverse linguistic structures by such persons as Sapir,
Bloomfield, Trubetskoy, and Jakobson laid the foundation for a systematic
study of the functions of language. Then the analysis of languages outside of
the Semitic and Indo-European families by linguist-anthropologists provided
the creative stimulus for seeing interlingual relations in new and creative ways.
Chomsky and his colleagues added a dynamic dimension to language structure
through the use of transformations. All this led to the publication of a number
50
Richard K. Johnson, “Terms and Processes in Translation between Bahasa Indonesia
and English”, Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation, p. 30.
32
of books on translating which have focused primary attention on the
correspondences in language structures.51
Nida suggests a three-stage model of the translation process. In this
model, ST surface elements (grammar, meaning, connotations) are analyzed as
linguistic kernel structures that can be transferred to the TL and restructured to
form TL surface elements.52
According to Shakur:
Grammar is the set of rules which determine the way in which units, such as
words and phrases, clauses and sentences can be combined in a language and the
kind of information which has to be made regularly explicit in utterances. The
grammatical system of a given language will determine the case with which
certain notions, such as time reference or gender, can be made explicit. The
variety of grammatical categories and structures affects decisions in the course of
53
translation.
Therefore, if everyone such as translators or students want to transfer or
to translate a language (SL) into another language (TL). The important aspect
that has to know is grammar of TL. From these theories above, the writer
investigated that grammar mastery of someone has correlation with the ability
of translation. For students who master the TL grammar accurately, their
language translation will be nothing or less in language structure mistakes.
51
Eugene A. Nida, Theories of Translation, Montreal: Université de Montréal , 1998, p.
23.
52
Ibid., p. 25.
Nighat Shakur, “Constructing Pathways to Translation: A Study in Translation
Pedagogy and Process (from English into Urdu and Vice Versa)”, Unpublished Ph.D
Dissertation, p. 60-61.
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