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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE In accordance with the problem and the purpose of study, this chapter provides to review some related studies and study concerning with the concept of language, grammar and sentence, translation, grammar–translation theory, and the role of grammar in translation. A. Related Studies First, Matosa studied about the correlation between grammar mastery to translation skill.10 The paper investigated the students skill to translate some familiar tense in form of sentences was and the correlation between grammar mastery to translation skill was. In observation of the fifth semesters' student of English Department of Tarbiyah Faculty, this studied found that the percentage mean of the students' capability in translation some familiar tenses in form of sentences was 38,5 %. It meant that the capability of the fifth semester students in English Department of Tarbiyah Faculty of The State Institute for Islamic Studies in academic year 2003-2004 in translation some familiar tenses in form of sentences was insufficient, because its percentage was under 60 %. To overcome the students who had low score or the students who were very poor category above, the lecturers should make innovative learning. For the students should be able to understand and master all kinds of the tenses in form 10 Ghufran Ana Matosa, “The Correlation between Grammar Mastery to Translation Skill”, Unpublished Thesis, Jambi: Islamic Studies Sultan Thaha Saifuddin Jambi Academic, 2007, http://www.indonesia-hijauhitam.com/pdf/correlation-between-grammar-mas..., accessed on February 18, 2013. 9 10 sentences. For institution should add the professional English lectures who qualified in English field. Second, Fitria studied about the correlation between student’s grammar ability and translating skill (a survey) at seventh semester of English Letter Departent State Islamic University ‘Syarif Hidayatullah’ Jakarta.11 The paper investigated the correlation between grammar ability and translation skill from English into Bahasa Indonesia and vice versa was. Based on this study finding. Fitria concluded that the alternative hypothesis (Ha) was accepted and the null hypothesis (Ho) was rejected. The concluded hypothesis based on the the result of rxy namely 0.582 and the degree of freedom namely 28. The result of rt on the degree of significance of 5% was 0.361. From that values, rxy was bigger than rt (0.582 > 0.361). From the comparison, it was known that there was significant correlation between grammar ability and translating skill. The value was positive, so the correlation was positive. Moreover the value of 0.582 had strong relationship between two variables. According to the explanation above, it was concluded that students of translation class at English Letters Department, UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, would get high score in translation course if they had high score in grammar. Otherwise, students who had lower score in grammar, they would get lower score in translation course. 11 Fitria, “The Correlation Between Student’s Grammar Mastery And Translating Skill (A Survey) At Seventh Semester of English Letter Departent State Islamic University ‘Syarif Hidayatullah’ Jakarta”, Unpublished Thesis, Jakarta: State Islamic University ‘Syarif Hidayatullah’ Jakarta, 2011, http://repository.uinjkt.ac.id/dspace/bitstream/123438789/.../FITRIAFAH.PDF, accessed on May 12, 2013. 11 The differences between the previous studies and this study were explained as follows: Matosa limited his study on simple present tenses that contain of simple present, simple continuous, simple perfect, and simple perfect continuous tenses. The design of his studied used qualitative and quantitative design or mixing design. His studied was not only to know the correlation between grammar mastery and translation skill, but also to explain about the lecturing process of the grammar class of the fifth semester students of the State Institute for Islamic Studies Sultan Thaha Saifuddin Jambi. Fitria limited her study on grammar aspect focused in sentence patterns and sentence types, whereas on translation aspect was focused in transposition, modulation, and adaptation. Her study was survey and the method was descriptive correlation. To get the data, Fitria used multiple choices for knowing the grammar ability and essay form for translation test. In translation, the students translated two texts, one was translating Bahasa Indonesia into English, and another text was translating English into Bahasa Indonesia. Fitria’s study was done at seventh semester of English Letters Department State Islamic University ‘Syarif Hidayatullah’ Jakarta. While in this study, the writer focused on the sentence construction patterns. The writer used Pearson Product Moment’s r correlation with large sample. The test instrument was essay form. The data were collected from seventh semester students at English Education Study Program of STAIN Palangka Raya. 12 The similarities between the previous studies and this study were the design of the study and its variables. The two studies and this study used correlation design. And the variables of the two studies and this study were grammar and translation. The writers of the two studies above suggested that the students must be given some exercises about grammar to increase their grammar ability and the students must practice to translate grammatically. From the suggested above, the writer of this study continued the study about the correlation between grammar mastery towards translation scores because some students still make some mistakes in grammar mastery test and translation test between two languages. From the result of this study was known that teachers and learners must increase their grammar and translation. B. The Concept of Language Language is a system of arbitrary, vocal symbols which permits all people in a given culture, or other people who have learned the system of that culture, to communicate or to interact. 12 Other definitions, language is a potentially self reflexive, structured of symbols which catalog the objects, events, and relations in the world.13 Language is an oral symbolic system which seen as arbitrary that used by human being to communicate and to 12 Mary Finocchiarno, English as a Second from Theory to Practice, New York: regents Publishing Company, 1974, p. 3. 13 Joseph A. De Vito, The Psychology of Speech and Language: An Introduction to Psycholinguistics, New York: Random House, 1970, p. 7. 13 interact with others, it is based on the culture of each languages.14 From these definitions, language is a systematic means of communicating ideas or feeling by the use of conventionalized signs, sounds, gestures, or marks having understood meaning. One of the crucial functions of any human language, such as Bahasa Indonesia or English, is to convey various kinds of information from the everyday to the highly academic. 15 There are thousands of languages in this world and those are different, such as Bahasa Indonesia and English. These languages have differences in language structures and words. It is like in Bahasa Indonesia ‘Ayah Andi seorang dokter’, and in English ‘Andi’s father is a doctor’. Two sentences above explained the same meaning and purpose but different in language. Therefore, everyone must master another language to communicate with other people who have different language. It is to avoid misunderstanding what other people said about. C. Grammar and Sentence Sentences constitute the most essential part of grammar. Sentences ought to have in a general system of grammar. The grammar of each language constitutes a system of its own, each element of which stands in a certain relation to, and it is more or less dependent on, all the others.16 14 Soenjono Dardjowidjojo, Psikolinguistik: Pengantar Pemahaman Bahasa Manusia, Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia, 2005, p. 16. 15 Iwan Fauzi, A Preliminary Understanding of English Syntax, Palangka Raya, 2012, p. 1. 16 Otto Jespersen, Essentials of Englisah Grammar, p. 1. 14 1. Definition of Grammar Grammar is the set of rules that allow us to combine words in our language into larger units. 17 In another sense, grammar is the complete set of rules needed to produce all the regular patterns in a given language. 18 Else explanation, Grammar is focused on mostly obscure rules of how people are supposed to write and speak. For native speakers of any given language, grammar often represents to them the great “mystery” of language, known only to language specialists or those of older generations, the ones who really know what is “right”.19 The process of describing the structure of phrases and sentences in such a way that we account for all the grammatical sequences in a language and rule out all the ungrammatical sequences is also one way of defining grammar.20 What we have in our heads is a (finite) set of rules which tell us how to recognise the infinite number of expressions that constitute the language that we speak. We might refer to this set of rules as a grammar, though there are some linguists who would like to separate the actual set of rules existing inside a speaker’s head from the linguist’s guess of what these rules are. 21 From these definitions, grammar is the structural properties or system of the language. 17 Ibid., p. 1. Paul R. Kroeger, Analyzing Grammar an Introduction, p. 5. 19 Andrea Decapua, Grammar for Teacher: A Guide to American English, p. 1. 20 George Yule, The Study of Language, Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2006, 18 p. 74. 21 Mark Newson, et al., Basic English Syntax with Exercises, p. 2. 15 2. Definition of Sentence Sentence is the largest unit that is described in grammar. It is sometimes said that a sentence expresses a complete thought. This is a notional definition: it defines a term by the notion or idea it conveys.22 The sentence represents an eventuality by separating out the type of eventuality from the abstract or concrete things which are involved in the eventuality. 23 Therefore, sentence is a complete though expressing about the eventuality. There are two fundamental parts of sentence, especially in Bahasa Indonesia and English, are the subject and the predicate. A simple sentence can also be described as a group of words expressing a complete though. Subject can be described as the component that performs the action describing by the predicate. A simple sentence must have a verb. A verb shows an action or state of being. The subject tells who or what about the verb.24 It is traditional to divide the sentence into two main constituents: the subject and the predicate. The predicate consists of the verb and any other elements of the sentence apart from the subject.25 In Bahasa Indonesia ‘subject + predicate = sentence’. And in English ‘subject + verb = sentence’. From the two languages, Bahasa Indonesia and English, have resemblance in the sentence structure. 22 Sidney Greenbaum and Gerald Nelson, An Introduction to English Grammar, London: Pearson Education Limited, 2002, p. 13. 23 Nigel Fabb, Sentence Structure, London and New York: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group, 2002, p. 41. 24 Siminto, Module for Structure IV, Palangka Raya: STAIN Palangka Raya, 2006, p. 1. 25 Sidney Greenbaum and Gerald Nelson, An Introduction to English Grammar, p. 21. 16 3. The Six Basic of Sentence Construction Patterns There are six basic sentence contruction patterns. Those are no verb complement, direct object verb complement, indirect and direct object verb complements, predicative nominative verb complement, predicative adjective verb complement, and direct object and objective complement. a. No Verb Complement Regular sentences consist of a subject and a predicate, and the predicate contains at least a verb.26 The simplest structure is one without a verb complement. In traditional grammar, all verb complements are either nouns or adjectives. Here are some sentences consisting of just the subject and the verb: Subject Verb A door opened. The sun is setting. The baby was crying. You must leave. Many of us have protested. They have been drinking. 27 Sentences usually contain more than just the subject and the verb. Here are several examples, with the subject (S) and the verb (V) italicized and labeled: 26 Ibid., p. 23-24. Sidney Greenbaum and Gerald Nelson, An Introduction to English Grammar, p. 24. 27 17 His black boots (S) had (V) pointed toes and fancy stitching. It (S) rained (V) every day of our vacation. Every kind of medical equipment (S) was (V) in short supply. The subject need not come first in the sentence: Eventually the managing director (S) intervened (V) in the dispute. Over the years she (S) had collected (V) numerous prizes for academic achievement.28 Sometimes, a word or phrase comes between the subject and the verb: They (S) often stay (V) with us at weekends. Or there is an interruption between parts of the verb: We (S) can (V) never thank (V) this country enough.29 The basic sentence structure of this pattern is: S-V: subject + verb. b. Direct Object Verb Complement If a main verb requires a direct object to complete the sentence, it is a transitive verb. The term ‘transitive’ comes from the notion that a person (represented by the subject of the sentence) performs an action that affects some person or thing, there is a ‘transition’ of the action from the one to the other. Indeed, the direct object (DO) typically refers to a person or thing directly affected by the action described in the sentence: 28 Ibid. Ibid., p. 25-26. 29 18 Helen received my email (DO). They ate all the strawberries (DO). I dusted the bookshelves in my bedroom (DO). Anthony stroked his beard (DO).30 Some grammatical rules refer to the direct object. 1) The direct object normally comes after the verb. Carter has been photographing (V) light bulbs (DO) lately. 2) Some pronouns have a distinctive form when they function as direct object: She phoned us (DO) earlier this evening. We phoned her (DO) earlier this evening. 3) If the subject and direct object refer to the same person or thing, the direct object is a reflexive pronoun: The children hid themselves. 4) When we turn an active sentence into a passive sentence, the direct object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence: Active: The tests revealed traces of anthrax (DO). Passive: Traces of anthrax (S) were revealed by the tests.31 The basic sentence structure of this pattern is: S-V-DO: subject + (transitive) verb + (direct) object. 30 Ibid., p. 26. Sidney Greenbaum and Gerald Nelson, An Introduction to English Grammar, p. 30-31. 31 19 c. Indirect and Direct Object Verb Complement We have seen that a transitive verb requires a direct object to complete the sentence. Some transitive verbs can have two objects: an indirect object followed by a direct object. The indirect object (IO) refers to a person indirectly affected by the action described in the sentence. The person generally receives something or benefits from something: (1) Ruth gave my son (IO) a birthday present (DO). (2) I can show you (IO) my diploma (DO). (3) My friends will save her (IO) a seat (DO). (4) You may ask the speaker (IO) another question (DO).32 The indirect object is usually equivalent to a phrase introduced by to or for, but that phrase normally comes after the direct object. (1a) Ruth gave a birthday present to my son. (2a) I can show my diploma to you. (3a) My friends will save a seat for her. (4a) You may ask another question of the speaker. The structures in (1)–(4) and those in (1a)–(4a) differ somewhat in their use, since there is a general tendency for the more important information to come at the end. For example, if the son has already been mentioned, but not the birthday present, we would expect (1) to be used 32 Ibid., p. 30. 20 rather than (1a), though in speech we can indicate the focus of information by giving it prominence in our intonation. We can question the indirect object in a way similar to the questioning of the direct object: 1b] Who (IO) did Ruth give a birthday present to? The grammatical rules that refer to the direct object also refer to the indirect object: 1) The indirect object comes after the verb: Ruth gave my son (IO) a birthday present (DO). Notice that the indirect object comes before the direct object. 2) Some pronouns have a distinctive form when they function as indirect object: I paid her (IO) the full amount. She paid me (IO) the full amount. 3) If the subject and indirect object refer to the same person, the indirect object is generally a reflexive pronoun: The managing director paid herself (IO) a huge salary. When we turn an active sentence into a passive sentence, the indirect object of the active sentence can become the subject of the passive sentence: The principal granted Tony (IO) an interview. Tony (S) was granted an interview. 21 The direct object can also become the subject, but in that case the indirect object (if retained) is generally represented by a phrase introduced by to or for: An interview was granted to Tony.33 The basic sentence structure of this pattern is: S-V-IO-DO: subject + (transitive) verb + (indirect) object + (direct) object. d. Predicative Nominative Verb Complement The predicate nominative verb complement is a noun or a pronoun that redefines, renames, or classifies the subject of the sentence. The verb in a predicate nominative sentence pattern is always a linking verb, such as be, seem, or become. If a verb requires a subject complement (SC) to complete the sentence, the verb is a linking verb. The subject complement (underlined in the examples that follow) typically identifies or characterizes the person or thing denoted by the subject: (1) Sandra is my mother’s name. (2) Your room must be the one next to mine. (3) The upstairs tenant seemed a reliable person. (4) A university is a community of scholars. 33 Ibid., p. 30-31. 22 The most common linking verb is be. Other common linking verbs (with examples of subject complements in parentheses) include appear (the best plan), become (my neighbor).34 Subject complements are typically noun phrases, as in (1)–(4) above. The basic sentence structure is: S-V-SC: subject + (linking) verb + (subject) complement. e. Predicative Adjective Verb Complement Predicative adjective is an adjective that modifies the subject of the sentence. The verb is always linking verb, such as be, seem, smell, look, taste, and become. Subject complement of this pattern are typically adjective phrases, as in (1)-(4) below. (1) The receptionist seemed very tired. (2) You should be more careful. (3) The distinction became quite clear. (4) The corridor is too narrow.35 f. Direct Object and Objective Complement The verb complements are a direct object and an objective complement. An objective complement is a noun or an adjective that occurs after the direct object and describes the direct object. This pattern 34 Sidney Greenbaum and Gerald Nelson, An Introduction to English Grammar, p. 28. Ibid. 35 23 consists of a subject, a transitive verb, a direct object, and a complement. In both structures the complement is related to the direct object.36 In the first structure, the direct object is followed by an object complement (OC): (1) His jokes made the audience (DO) uneasy (OC). (2) I declared the meeting (DO) open (OC). (3) The heat has turned the milk (DO) sour (OC). (4) They elected her (DO) their leader (OC). The basic sentence structure of this pattern is: S-V-DO-OC: subject + (transitive) verb + (direct) object + (object) complement D. Translation No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same world with different labels attached.37 Therefore, language translation is needed to clarify the information from different language. 1. Definition of Translation Meetham and Hudson in As-Safi defined that translation is the replacement of a text in one language by a replacement of an equivalent text 36 Ibid., p. 31. Susan Bassnett, Translation Studies, New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis E-Library, 2002, p. 22. 37 24 in a second language. 38 And Catford defined that translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL).39 In the other hand, Nord in Shutttleworth and Cowie defined that translation is the production of a functional target text maintaining a relationship with a given source text that is specified according to the intended or demanded function of the target text.40 From those definitions, translation is transferring a text or a message from a language into another language following the TL style and without changing the meaning. 2. Process of Translation Halliday in Manfredi suggested that the process of translation proceeded by three ‘stages’: a. selection of the ‘most probable translation equivalent’ for each item at each rank; b. reconsideration in the light of the lexico-grammatical features of the unit above; c. final reconsideration in the light of the lexico-grammatical features of the TL. 38 A. B. As-Safi, Translation Theories, Strategies, and Basic Theoretical Issues, Amman: Petra University, 2011, p. 2. 39 J.C. Catford, A Linguistic Theory of Translation, London: Oxford University Press, 1965, p. 20. 40 Christiane Nord, Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained, Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 2007, p. 182. 25 He specified that these ‘stages’ were not meant as steps to be taken necessarily one after another, but rather only as abstractions which could be useful to understanding the process of translation.41 At the beginning, Halliday makes the reason for his title, which avoids the expression ‘translation theory’, clear. As a linguist, he means to offer a language theory that could be useful for the practice of translation, through an analytical model of the translation process, i.e., of what happens when translating. In his view, the kind of linguistic theory which could serve this purpose is not a traditional formal grammar, one which offers prescriptive rules, but rather must be a functional grammar, conceived as an ‘explanation of potentiality’. All this is strictly connected to his notion of ‘choice’, which involves what is possible to mean, and, within this, what is more likely to be meant.42 The process of translation might be pictured in various ways. One way could be as follows: 41 Ibid., p. 58. Christiane Nord, Translating as a Purposeful Activity, p. 58. 42 26 Figure 2.1 Translation Process Source Text Dictionary Context Style Translate Cultural Background 43 Target Text It is always worth considering whether a name is appropriate to what it stands for, and whereas ‘source text’ is likely to be accurate, it may be questioned on occasion whether a resulting text is in fact the same as the target. In a heuristic process the resulting text might be well different from the original target, and it also needs to be kept in mind that there may be various different versions of a translation. 44 According to Suryawinata in M. Rudolf Nababan, the process of translation consists of three stages, are 1) language text analysis of source language, 2) message transferring, 3) restructuration.45 43 Richard K. Johnson, “Terms and Processes in Translation between Bahasa Indonesia and English”, Unpublished Ph. D Dissertation, Sydney: University of New South Wales, 2006, p. 14, http://unsworks.unsw.edu.au/fapi/datastream/unsworks:832/SOURCE01, accessed on May 12, 2013. 44 Ibid., p. 24. 45 M. Rudolf Nababan, Teori Menerjemah Bahasa Inggris, p. 25. 27 Figure 2.2 Translation Process Based on Suryawinata Based on the both processes of translation above, where source text is processed to translate in target language as the translation process and produced the target text as the translation product. 3. Bahasa Indonesia-English Translation Bahasa Indonesia-English translation has been often done by Indonesian students or translators, when they interact and communicate with foreigner or when English learning process. A translator has to know the equivalency and the shift of meaning in translating the source language to the target one. a. Grammatical Equivalence in Translation Hatim and Munday mention that the term equivalence in translation could be divided into two main divisions, i.e. the formal 28 equivalence and dynamic equivalence. The former refers to a relationship which involves the purely ‘formal’ replacement of one word or phrase in the SL by another in the TL, while the latter is used if in the translators’ judgement a form of words that is not sufficiently transparent in the TT is likely to pose a threat to comprehensibility and therefore intervention on the part of the translator becomes inevitable. This division of the term equivalence is actually referring back to the principles of translatability and comprehensibility in translation.46 Baker has made classification on the notion of equivalence in translation. He mentions five levels of equivalence and one of them is grammatical equivalence. Baker states that grammar can be said to be the set of rules which determine the way in which units such as words and phrases can be combined in a language and the kind of information which has to be made regularly explicit in utterances. Baker claims that differences in the grammatical structures of the source and the target languages often result in some change in the information content of the message during the process of translation. 47 This change may take the form of adding to the target text information which is not expressed in the source text or omitting information specified in the source text. 46 Basil Hatim and Jeremy Munday, Translation: An Advanced Resource Book, London: Routledge, 2004, p. 40-42. 47 Mona Baker , In Other Words: A Course Book on Translation, London: Routledge. 1992, p. 83. 29 Baker mentions some grammatical categories which are intended to illustrate the kinds of difficulties that translators often encounter because of differences in the grammatical structures of the source and target languages. Those are the categories of number, gender, person, tense and aspect, and voice. This particular study, however, will not concern all of those categories. It mainly discusses three of them, namely the categories of person, tense and voice in Bahasa Indonesia- English translation. b. Shift in Translation While a shift in Catford’s term or transposition is a translation procedure involving a change in the grammar from source language to target one. In Newmark, translation shift or transposition is a translation procedure involving a change in the grammar from SL to TL.48 For example is: SL : kok gede banget? TL : why was it so expensive? The adjective phrase in SL kok gede banget means how big its becomes a sentence in TL. The words gede banget means very big is translated into so expensive. The categories of shifts are divided into four sub-types are: 48 Peter Newmark, A Textbook of Translation, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign language Education Press, 1988, p.55. 30 a. Structure-shifts, which involve a grammatical change between the structure of the SL and that of the TL. b. Class-shifts, when a SL item is translated with a TL item which belongs to a different grammatical class, i.e. a verb may be translated with a noun. c. Unit-shifts, which involve changes in rank. d. Intra-system shifts, which occur when SL and TL possess systems which approximately correspond formally as to their constitution, but when translation involves selection of a non-corresponding term in the TL system, for instance, when the SL singular becomes a TL plural.49 E. The Role of Grammar in Translation Grammar is the skeleton of a text. Grammar gives the general and main facts about a text: statements, questions, requests, purpose, reason, condition, time, place, doubt, feeling, certainty. Grammar indicates who does what to whom, why, where, when, how. Grammar is one of important aspects in language translation. It is because grammar affects the detailed of text. The text will be received clearly when it is grammatical. Therefore grammar has an important role in translation. F. Grammar-Translation Whether translation should be entirely into the native language of the translator is a vexed question to which there will probably not be one clear, 49 Yulia Arfanti, The Equivalence and the Shift of Meaning in the Translation, p. 8. 31 definitive answer. Not all translation needs to be of literary quality, and translation will often be a commercial undertaking where various other factors are important. Comprehension in a first language may be superior to that in a second language. Skill in composition does not necessarily equate with first language competence, and it cannot always be assumed, even if a translator has balanced bilingual skills, that either of the two translation languages are at a very high level. Editing of a translation will often be carried out by someone other than the translator. The question of second language competence may be summed up by asserting that a well composed, natural target text is much easier to achieve translating into the first language.50 Since translating always involves at least two different languages, it was inevitable that a number of persons studying the issues of translation would focus upon the distinctive features of the source and receptor languages. Important studies of diverse linguistic structures by such persons as Sapir, Bloomfield, Trubetskoy, and Jakobson laid the foundation for a systematic study of the functions of language. Then the analysis of languages outside of the Semitic and Indo-European families by linguist-anthropologists provided the creative stimulus for seeing interlingual relations in new and creative ways. Chomsky and his colleagues added a dynamic dimension to language structure through the use of transformations. All this led to the publication of a number 50 Richard K. Johnson, “Terms and Processes in Translation between Bahasa Indonesia and English”, Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation, p. 30. 32 of books on translating which have focused primary attention on the correspondences in language structures.51 Nida suggests a three-stage model of the translation process. In this model, ST surface elements (grammar, meaning, connotations) are analyzed as linguistic kernel structures that can be transferred to the TL and restructured to form TL surface elements.52 According to Shakur: Grammar is the set of rules which determine the way in which units, such as words and phrases, clauses and sentences can be combined in a language and the kind of information which has to be made regularly explicit in utterances. The grammatical system of a given language will determine the case with which certain notions, such as time reference or gender, can be made explicit. The variety of grammatical categories and structures affects decisions in the course of 53 translation. Therefore, if everyone such as translators or students want to transfer or to translate a language (SL) into another language (TL). The important aspect that has to know is grammar of TL. From these theories above, the writer investigated that grammar mastery of someone has correlation with the ability of translation. For students who master the TL grammar accurately, their language translation will be nothing or less in language structure mistakes. 51 Eugene A. Nida, Theories of Translation, Montreal: Université de Montréal , 1998, p. 23. 52 Ibid., p. 25. Nighat Shakur, “Constructing Pathways to Translation: A Study in Translation Pedagogy and Process (from English into Urdu and Vice Versa)”, Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation, p. 60-61. 53