Download Grammar Manual - Richard Têtu`s room

This handbook belongs to
___________________________
Grammar Handbook
correlated to the Common Core State Standards
Lopez Island Schools
© 2006, 2007, 2011, 2012, Richard Têtu and Lopez Island School District
Index
1. Definitions
pages 3 to 5
2. Verbs
pages 6 & 7
3. Nouns
pages 8 & 9
4. Pronouns
pages 10 & 11
5. Adjectives and adverbs
pages 12
6. Punctuation
pages 13 & 14
7. Miscellaneous rules
pages 15 & 16
8. Troublesome words
pages 17 to 20
Throughout the text, underlining signals a new word and is usually followed by a
definition. Also, boldfacing indicates the words that are the focus of an example.
Letters and numbers in brackets [L.#.#.L] correlate to the Common Core State
Standards.
Section 1, Definitions
A. Entry level
1. Five most important parts of speech [L.3.1.a]
a) Verbs
(1) Verbs are words describing action or state of being.
to walk, (he) has, (we) go, (I) am, (it) appears
b) Nouns
(1) Nouns are words describing a person, a place, a thing, or an idea.
student, Sophie, Paris, school, wrench, love, beauty
c) Pronouns
(1) Pronouns are words taking the place of a noun.
we, us, ours
d) Adjectives and determiners [L.1.1.h]
(1) Adjectives and determiners are words describing a noun.
good, studious, distant, bad, blue, tall, short, the, a
e) Adverbs [L.2.1.e]
(1) Adverbs are words describing a verb or an adjective.
well, badly, intelligently
2. Name versus function
a) What a word is called is its name, what a word does is its function.
(1) In the sentence, “Bob loves her”:
Bob is a noun, functioning as the subject;
loves is a verb, functioning as a verb;
her is a pronoun, functioning as an object.
3. Three basic functions [L.3.1.a]
a) Verb
(1) The verb expresses the action or state of being in the sentence.
(2) A sentence or a clause usually has at least one verb, written or implied.
(3) A sentence is a word or group of words that make sense standing by itself. It starts
with a capital letter and ends with a punctuation mark. The punctuation marks that
end sentences are “?”, “!” and “.”
Eat! or Sophie loves Bill? or Bill and Bob fell in the ditch as they walked to the village.
(4) A clause is a group of words that has its own subject and verb, but may not make
sense standing by itself.
The heart has its reasons (Clause 1) which reason knows nothing of. (Clause 2)
(5) You should usually avoid writing a fragment, words without a subject or verb.
More quickly than Bob. Bill swims more quickly than Bob.
b) Subject
(1) The subject does the action or is in the state of being.
B?≥
Sophie is smarter than Bob/÷≥.
Bill and Bob walk to the village.
c) Object
(1) The object receives the action of a verb. Not all verbs have objects.
Bill slapped Bob.
Sophie sent a long letter.
Lopez Island Schools: Grammar Handbook, updated on Thursday, August 29, 2013
Page 3
B. Intermediate level [L.5.1.a]
1. Three more parts of speech
a) Prepositions
(1) Prepositions relate words to each other.
behind, above, away from, until
b) Conjunctions
(1) Conjunctions are words that connect words or clauses.
and, or, but
c) Interjections
(1) Interjections are words that express feelings on their own.
Golly! Ouch! Aaugh!
2. Linking verbs
a) Some verbs do not always express action, such as to taste, to be, and to appear; they are linking verbs.
After Sophie tasted the coffee, she said it tasted bad.
3. Auxiliary verbs
a) Some verbs help to conjugate the verb that holds the actual meaning; they are auxiliary verbs.
Bill had eaten the whole cake by the time Sophie asked him for a slice.
4. End punctuation
a) End punctuation marks are the period (.), the exclamation mark (!), and the question mark. They
mark the end of a sentence.
Bill eats worms. What did you say? That’s gross!
C. Advanced level
1. Mood, and tense of verbs [L.8.1.d]
a) The mood of a verb expresses the intent of the verb’s action or state.
(1) The indicative mood is most common. It expresses facts.
Bill is happy. He walks to school
(2) The imperative mood expresses order or demands.
Be happy, Bill!
(3) The infinitive mood expresses a fact or state without a subject.
To be happy is easy for Bill.
(4) The conditional mood expresses an action or state
Bill would be happy if Sophie went to the Galley with him.
b) The tense of a verb expresses when the action or state happens
Bob walked to the store yesterday, and he walks there today. He felt good then and he feels good now.
2. Phrases, clauses, and sentences [L.9.1.b]
a) Phrases are groups of words that make sense as a group but that have no subject.
Bill wants to borrow Sophie’s motorcycle.
b) Clauses are groups of words that make sense as a group and that have a subject.
Bill, who has finally passed his rider’s test, wants to borrow Sophie’s motorcycle.
c) Sentences are groups of words that make sense as a group, that have a subject, and that can
stand on their own, separately from other groups of words.
Bill wants to borrow Sophie’s motorcycle.
Lopez Island Schools: Grammar Handbook, updated on Thursday, August 29, 2013
Page 4
3. Subordinate phrases and clauses[L.9.1.b]
a) Subordinate phrases are phrases that cannot stand alone.
Phrase: Bill wants to borrow Sophie’s motorcycle.
b) Subordinate clauses are clauses that cannot stand alone.
Clause: Bill, who has finally passed his rider’s test, wants to borrow Sophie’s motorcycle.
4. Simple, compound, and complex sentences [L.9.1.b]
a) A simple sentence has only an independent clause and no subordinate clauses.
Bill wants a motorcycle.
Bill and Bob want a motorcycle and a bicycle.
b) A compound sentence has more than one independent clause and no subordinate clauses.
Bill wants a motorcycle and Bob wants a bicycle
c) A complex sentence has at least one subordinate clause.
Bill wants the motorcycle that Bob doesn’t want.
d) A complex-compound sentence has at least one subordinate clause and more than one
independent clause.
Bill wants a motorcycle, a mode of transportation that Bob doesn’t like, and Bob wants a bicycle.
Lopez Island Schools: Grammar Handbook, updated on Thursday, August 29, 2013
Page 5
Section 2, Verbs
A. Entry Level
1. Subjects and verbs must agree. [L.3.1f, L.1.1.c]
Bill have has a good time.
Doofus and Einstein is are good dogs.
2. Tense agreement/choice [L.5.1.c]
a) Use the appropriate form of a verb to express its tense. [L.1.1.e]
Bob getted got a new car.
b) Do not change tense in a sentence unless it truly makes sense. [L.5.1.d]
Yesterday, Bill went to the store and he buys bought a bag of chips.
I wanted ice cream yesterday, but now I want frozen yogurt.
B. Intermediate Level
1. Conditional mood [L.8.1.c]
a) The conditional mood is expressed by the helping verb would.
If Bob disliked Bill, he would not work with him.
b) The conditional mood should not be used to express the condition itself.
If Bill would work worked longer hours, he would make more money.
c) The conditional mood should not be used to express the past tense. [L.5.1.c]
When I was two, I would play played in the sand box.
2. Repetitions
a) If a verb appears the same way more than once, you can omit the repetitions.
Bob never has and never will abandon Bill.
3. Gerunds, participles, and infinitives [L8.1.a]
a) A gerund is the form of a verb ending in -ing that works as a noun.
Fishing takes up a lot of Bill’s time.
a) Participle is a form of a verb often ending in -ing or -ed that works as an adjective.
Sophie looks ravishing but tired, thought Bob.
a) Infinitive is a form of a verb usually preceded by to that works as an adjective, adverb, or noun.
To abandon Bill would make no sense to Bob.
C. Advanced Level
1. Or, nor, and not only…but so.
a) If both parts of the subject are singular, the verb is singular.
Frozen yogurt or ice cream is fine with me.
b) If both parts of the subject are plural, the verb is plural.
Frozen yogurt bars or ice cream cones are fine with me.
c) If both parts are different, the verb agrees with the nearest one.
Frozen yogurt bars or ice cream is fine with me.
Ice cream or frozen yogurt bars are fine with me
2. There can be plural or singular. Look at the meaning to make the verb agree appropriately.
There is no business like show business.
Lopez Island Schools: Grammar Handbook, updated on Thursday, August 29, 2013
Page 6
There are no greater friends than Bill and Bob.
3. Subjunctive [L.8.1.c]
a) This mood expresses wish, will, or desire.
(1) If it is used with the verb wish or the word if to express the verb to be, use were.
I wish I were a rich man.
If they were smarter, Bill and Bob would have fewer adventures.
(2) With other verbs expressing wish, will, or desire, to be stays to be.
Sophie insisted that Bill and Bob be less clumsy sometimes.
4. Split infinitives
a) Many people believe that you should not insert an adverb between to and a verb. This is a false,
antiquated rule; you can usually ignore it.
To boldly go where no man has gone before.
5. Verbs ending with –ing.
a) These verbs sometimes act as nouns, and follow the rules for nouns. Look for meaning.
Bob resented my nagging.
6. Will and would
a) In a sentence with if, if a verb is preceded by will the other verb should be in the present; if a
verb is preceded by would, the other verb should use the past tense.
If Bob came home early, he would make dinner.
Lopez Island Schools: Grammar Handbook, updated on Thursday, August 29, 2013
Page 7
Section 3, Nouns
A. Entry Level
1. Types of nouns [L.1.1.b]
a) Common nouns refer to people, things, or ideas in general.
A cat, a general, an intuition.
b) Proper nouns refer to a specific person, thing, or idea.
Lopez Island High School, Bill, Lady Liberty.
2. Making nouns plural [L.2.1.b]
a) If a common noun ends in –y, look at what precedes the –y.
(1) If it is preceded by a consonant, the –y changes to –ies.
Bill and Bob love bunnies, especially in rich gravies.
(2) If it is preceded by a vowel, add an –s.
Bill and Bob will never be attorneys.
b) If a noun ends in –s, –sh, –ch, –x, or –z, add –es to the name; otherwise add –s.
The Smiths, the Clauses, the Bushes, and the Blixes employ Bill and Bob to get rid of the buzzes of
trushes.
B. Intermediate Level
1. Plural of abbreviations, letters, and numbers. Note that the New York Time editors may disagree.
a) For abbreviations without punctuation and for numbers, use s.
(1) They are CPAs who earned their PhDs in the ‘60s.
b) For abbreviations with punctuation marks and for single letters, use ‘s.
(1) With those A’s on her thesis, she now has 30 F.T.E.’s.
c) Words taking both plural or singular
(1) The words couple, majority, number, none, all, and number are singular or plural, depending on the
meaning of the sentence.
The couple who lives by my house owns a couple dogs that are trying to chase me every day.
All is well when all the students are working.
2. Capitalization [L.1.2.a, L.3.2.a, L.4.2.a]
a) Capitalize the first letter of names, dates, holidays and titles.
(1) On Sunday, Officer Ossypher traveled to Prince Rupert to spend Christmas with Bill.
b) Capitalize specific places, courses, and groups.
(1) Lopez Island High School offers A.P. Calculus to the clever Lobos.
c) Capitalize letters that stand alone; they act like a proper noun.
(1) Bill made an illegal U-turn and got an F on his driving test.
d) Capitalize historical periods, the names for God, and sacred books.
(1) After the Renaissance, many scholars reinterpreted the Bible.
3. Numbers
a) Write out numbers through ten.
(1) Doofus eats three Milkbones every day.
b) Be consistent within the sentence.
(1) Doofus eats 3 Milkbones every day; that adds up to 21 biscuits every week.
c) Write out ordinals that consist of one word.
(1) Bob came in third place. Bill was 27th.
Lopez Island Schools: Grammar Handbook, updated on Thursday, August 29, 2013
Page 8
C. Advanced Level
1. More plurals
a) between and from
(1) Nouns that follow between are plural.
Bob is between twenty and twenty-five years of age.
(2) Nouns that follow from are singular.
Bill works from the first to the third day of the week.
b) Compound words
(1) If the word is solid and has no hyphen, add the normal plural at the end of the word.
Bill and Bob want to be firemen.
(2) If the word can be split into parts, add the plural to the most important part.
Their fathers-in-law hosted retirement parties.
(3) The exceptions are man and woman; in a compound word, both parts may become plural.
The menservants assisted the women ministers.
c) Words ending in –ics
(1) If the word refers to a general idea or item, it is singular.
Statistics is an interesting area of study.
(2) If the word refers to a specific idea or item, it is plural.
The statistics about this election are interesting.
d) Common nouns ending with o usually simply add s. Common exceptions are in this sentence:
(1) Mosquitoes, our heroes, hide in grottoes to flee tornadoes. There, they eat cargoes of
potatoes and tomatoes before they hand out vetoes.
Lopez Island Schools: Grammar Handbook, updated on Thursday, August 29, 2013
Page 9
Section 4, Pronouns
A. Entry Level
1. Pronoun case [L.1.1.d, L.6.1.a]
a) If a pronoun is the subject, use the subject form, i.e. I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they.
I love Sophie.
b) If a pronoun is the object, use the object form, i.e. me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them.
Sophie loves me.
2. Pronoun agreement with antecedent [L.4.1.f]
a) The antecedent is the word for which the pronoun stands.
Bob is over here: he is looking for Bill.
b) Make sure that the relationship is clear between the antecedent and the pronoun.
Bob couldn’t find Bill after he left the island. (Who left the island?)
After Bill left the island, Bob could not find him.
c) Make sure the pronoun agrees in person and number with its antecedent.
Bob couldn’t find Bill; she guessed Bill left the island.
Bob couldn’t find Bill; he guessed he left the island.
3. The subject pronoun I is always capitalized [K.2.A]
Sophie and I are helping Bill and Bob cook pancakes.
B. Intermediate Level
1. Pronouns after than
a) Look at the meaning to decide if you use the subject or object form.
My dog Gertie loves Milkbones more than I. (Gertie likes Milkbones more than I like them.)
My dog Gertie loves Milkbones more than me. (Gertie likes Milkbones more than she likes me.)
2. Trouble pairs [L.4.1.a]
a) who or whom
(1) If the pronoun is the subject, use who.
Bill is the guy who helped Bob.
Who is speaking?
(2) If the pronoun is the object, use whom.
Bob is the guy whom Bill helped.
To whom am I speaking?
b) which and that
(1) If the rest of the sentence stands on its own, use which.
Bob’s dog, which is smarter than him, attacked Bill.
Remember that a “which” sentence always requires commas.
(2) If the rest of the sentence does not stand on its own without the clause, use that.
The dog that attacked Bill belongs to Bob.
Lopez Island Schools: Grammar Handbook, updated on Thursday, August 29, 2013
Page 10
C. Advanced Level
1. Number of pronouns [L.6.1.c]
a) Some pronouns appear to be plural, but are always singular. They are: anybody and anyone;
everybody and everyone; nobody and no one; somebody and someone; neither and either; each.
Does anybody want an ice cream cone?
Everybody knows Bill by now.
b) The pronoun what can be singular or plural, depending on its meaning.
What is your phone number?
What were his best scores?
2. Reflexive (intensive) pronouns [L.2.1.c, L.6.1.b]
a) Use reflexive (intensive) pronouns to emphasize.
Bill himself made dinner.
b) Use reflexive pronouns to refer back to the subject.
(1) Bill and Bob trust themselves.
3. Position of self in pronoun order
a) When listing many pronouns that include you, place yourself last.
Bob, Bill, Sophie, and I went to the village.
4. Pronouns and the verb to be
a) In formal situations, use the subject form of a pronoun after the verb to be. Otherwise, use the
object form.
When the Dalai Lama called her on the phone, Sophie answered, “This is she.”
Recognizing Bill in the holding cell, Sophie told the officer, “That’s him, Officer Ossypher.”
Lopez Island Schools: Grammar Handbook, updated on Thursday, August 29, 2013
Page 11
Section 5, Adjectives and adverbs.
A. Entry Level
1. Basic construction
a) You usually create an adverb by adding –ly to an adjective.
smartly, quickly, slowly
2. Adverb usage
a) Always put the adverb right before the word or clause it modifies.
Only Bob thinks that Bill likes Sophie.
Bob thinks that only Bill likes Sophie.
Bob thinks that Bill only likes Sophie.
Bob thinks that Bill likes only Sophie.
B. Intermediate Level
1. Trouble pairs
a) good and well
(1) Good is an adjective, and it modifies a noun. It is also used with linking verbs.
Bob made a good pizza for Bill. That makes Bob feel good.
(2) Well is an adverb and it modifies a verb, a clause, or an adjective.
Bob cooks well.
b) bad and badly
(1) Bad is an adjective, and it modifies a noun. It is also used with linking verbs.
This is a bad apple. It smells bad.
(2) Badly is an adverb, and it modifies a verb, a clause, or an adjective.
Bill drove so badly that his car went in the ditch 50 feet from the driveway.
C. Advanced Level [L.3.1.g]
1. Comparative
a) When comparing two items in relation to an adjective or an adverb, use –er or as.
Bob is bigger than Sophie, and as big as Bill. Bob drives faster than Sophie.
b) With longer adjectives and adverbs, use less, more, or as.
Bob is as parsimonious as Bill, more thrifty than Officer Ossypher, and less frugal than Sophie.
Bob drives as carefully as Bill, more carefully than Officer Ossypher, and less carefully than Sophie.
c) Some adjectives are irregular, such as good, bad, little, more, and many.
Bob plays golf better than Bill; Bill is definitely worse.
d) Some adverbs are irregular, such as well, badly, and far.
Bob drives better than Officer Ossypher.
2. Superlative
a) When the item you qualify is the ultimate in quality, use –est for short adjectives and adverbs.
Bob is the fastest stacker in the wood shed. He stacks wood the fastest.
b) Use the most or the least if the adjectives or adverbs are long.
Sophie is the most elegant dancer on the floor. She dances most elegantly.
c) Some adjectives are irregular, such as good, bad, little, more, and many.
Bob plays golf better than Bill; Bill is definitely worse.
d) Some adverbs are irregular, such as well, badly, and far.
Bob is the worst driver.
e) Some adjectives are already superlative.
Sophie is the first and only girl Bill ever took to the prom.
Lopez Island Schools: Grammar Handbook, updated on Thursday, August 29, 2013
Page 12
Section 6, Punctuation
A. Entry Level
1. Apostrophe usage
a) Possession
(1) Apostrophes are used with s to indicate possession after a noun. [L.1.b, L.3.2.d]
Bob’s friend is Bill.
(2) If the word is plural and already ends with s, only add the apostrophe. [L.2.c]
Bob borrowed the Gallups’ pickup.
b) Apostrophes are also used to indicate missing letters or numbers.
I don’t remember the ‘60s.
2. Comma usage
a) Use a comma if the flow of the sentence requires it for comprehension or flow. [L.4.3.b]
After he lost his friend Bill felt sad. After he lost his friend, Bill felt sad.
b) Commas are used to break down lists: use one after each item for lists larger than two items.
The British do not use a comma before “and” but Americans do. [L.1.2.c, L.5.2.a]
Bill, Bob, and Sophie went to the village to buy bread and milk.
c) Use a comma before the name of people who are being addressed. [L.2.2.b, L.5.2.c]
“Goodnight, Bob.”
3. Question mark [L.1.2.b]
a) Use a question mark after any questions that are direct.
What? What did you say?
b) Question marks are not required when the questions are indirect.
What was Bill thinking, wondered Sophie.
4. Exclamation mark [L.1.2.b]
a) Use an exclamation mark after strong statements or interjections standing alone. Be careful not
to overuse exclamation marks. Never follow with a comma.
Yahoo! or I just got 2400 on the SAT!
B. Intermediate Level
1. Period [L.1.2.b]
a) If a sentence ends with an abbreviation, do not add a period.
Bill and Bob wanted to join the C.I.A.
b) Don’t add a second period if a sentence ends with a quote.
Bill told Bob, “Go get the milk, please.”
2. Quote marks
a) Periods and commas go inside quotes.
“Let’s go,” said Bill to Bob. Bob replied, “Yes, let’s go home.”
b) Colons and semicolons go outside quotes.
Bob said, “I’m done here”; he drove away and left Bill stuck on the roof.
Bob called Sophie his “sweetheart”: he cared for her, he liked her, and he couldn’t live without her.
c) The position of question marks and exclamation marks depends on meaning.
Bob said, “Do you want some chicken?” Have you ever eaten “Bob’s Trout and Mayo Surprise”?
Lopez Island Schools: Grammar Handbook, updated on Thursday, August 29, 2013
Page 13
3. Semicolon/colon usage [L.9.2.a, L.9.2.b]
a) Use a colon after a clause to announce a list, a long or strong quote, or an opposite statement.
Bill warned Bob of the possible repercussions: Sophie would be mad; Officer Ossypher would arrest him;
and Santa Claus would put them on the Naughty List.
At that moment, Patrick Henry declared: “Give me liberty, or give me death.”
“Life is short: Art is long.” Hippocrates
b) Use a semicolon to tie two or more independent clauses or sentences without a conjunction.
Bob walked to the village; when he got to the pharmacy, he bought himself a banana split.
c) Use semicolons when a list becomes hard to understand.
Bill knew who his friends were: Sophie, the local genius who fixed his mistakes; Officer Ossypher, the deputy
who always watched for him; and Bob, the companion who flunked preschool with Bill.
4. More comma usage
a) Use a comma before a direct quote. [L.4.2.b]
Bob said, “Bill, you may be dumb but you’re my best friend.”
b) Use commas after an interjection; to express stronger feelings, use an exclamation mark.
Bob said, “Dang, I didn’t know your fingers were in the door, Bill.
c) Use commas to mark a piece of extra information. [L.6.2.a]
Sophie, who knew some first aid, hurried to Bill’s help when he stuck his fingers in the closing door.
C. Advanced Level
1. Possessive with anybody, everybody, somebody, nobody.
a) If those words are alone, use the regular rule of adding ‘s.
It’s anybody’s guess why Bill hangs around with Bob.
b) If they are followed by else, the ‘s follows else.
Is this Bob’s horse, or somebody else’s?
2. More comma usage
a) Use commas to fill gaps created by the omission of an implied word.
Bill has a dog; Bob, a cat.
b) Two independent clauses require more than a comma; they need a conjunction. [L.4.2.c]
Bill drove to town, he bought some milk. Bill drove to town and bought some milk.
c) Coordinate adjectives are words that modify a noun in a similar manner; they must be separated
by a comma if a coordinating conjunction does not tie them [L.7.2.a]
Sophie is a smart, witty person. Sophie is a smart and witty person.
3. Parentheses
a) Use parentheses to introduce extra information. Keep punctuation inside the parentheses if it is
a clause independent of the sentence, or if they are question marks or exclamation marks.
Bill thought that Officer Ossypher had lent him his car. (That was his personal car, not the patrol car.)
Bill thought that Officer Ossypher had lent him his car (What a mistake!)
4. Hyphens [L.11.2.a]
a) Use a hyphen to tie two words when the noun they describe follows them. This does not apply if
the two words would still make sense separately.
Bob is a good-natured friend. Bill is also good natured.
5. Using punctuation to indicate a pause [L.8.2.a]
a) Use a comma, an ellipsis, or a dash (m-dash) to indicate a pause.
After Bill biked away, Sophie noticed he had left his keys on the table.
Bob took Doofus for a walk — or is it the other way around?
Bill took Doofus for a walk … well … maybe it is the other way around.
6. You may use an ellipsis to indicate an omission[L.8.2.b].
Mr. Moneybag quoted Gordon Gecko’s famous speech: “Greed is good, … greed works.”
Lopez Island Schools: Grammar Handbook, updated on Thursday, August 29, 2013
Page 14
Section 7, Miscellaneous rules
A. Entry Level
1. Sentence fragments
a) A sentence must usually have a subject and a verb; otherwise, it is a sentence fragment.
More quickly than Bob. Bill swims more quickly than Bob.
b) If the subject is implied, you have a sentence, not a fragment.
“Run!”
2. Run-on sentences
a) Independent clauses need to be separated appropriately.
Bob went to the village he bought fried chicken he took it home he ate it with Bill.
Bob bought fried chicken when he went to the village; he then took it home and ate it with Bill.
3. Dangling modifiers [L.7.1.c]
a) Words need to be clearly linked to the words they modify.
(1) Having caught a rabbit in his mouth, Bill gave his dog Doofus a bone.
(2) After his dog Doofus caught a rabbit in his mouth, Bill gave the good old mutt a bone.
B. Intermediate Level
1. Double negatives
a) Avoid two negatives in the same sentence, unless you intend to have a positive meaning.
Bob did not do nothing to help Bill. Bob did not do anything to help Bill.
2. Parallel construction
a) Parallel ideas should be represented by parallel sentence construction.
Bill, Bob, and Sophie like to play with Doofus.
When she has free time, Sophie likes to study calculus, to ski, and to work as an E.M.T.
3. That as a conjunction
a) If that follows the verb logically, use it.
I believe that Sophie watches over Bill and Bob.
b) If the point of the sentence comes late, use that.
Sophie knew that the person who had thrown away her paper in the green garbage can was Bob.
c) If there are two verbs beside the main one, use that to clarify meaning.
Bill thinks that Sophie writes well, and Bob does too.
Bill thinks that Sophie writes well and that Bob does too.
C. Advanced Level
1. Abbreviations
a) Do not abbreviate most words in your writing.
Sophie drove to Bham. Sophie drove to Bellingham.
b) You may abbreviate titles or write them in full, but you must abbreviate Ms.
I invited Mister Bill. Sophie invited Ms. Simpson.
2. Active voice [L.8.1.b]
a) The active voice does not use the verb to be as an auxiliary verb, but the passive voice does.
b) Most of the time, consider using the active voice in your sentences.
The dinner is being prepared by Bill. Bill prepares the dinner.
c) The passive voice is used when the person performing the action is unknown or unimportant.
Bill was arrested by accident when he was mistaken for Big Bad Bart.
d) The passive voice is also used to delay revealing the identity of the person performing the action.
(1) At the prom, Sophie was escorted by the man everybody usually ridiculed, Bob.
Lopez Island Schools: Grammar Handbook, updated on Thursday, August 29, 2013
Page 15
3. Correlative conjunctions [L.5.1.e]
a) Correlative conjunctions are pairs of words that join words, phrases, or clauses.
Either Bill or Bob will mow Mr. Moneybag’s lawn.
Not only does Mr. Moneybag let them play in the pool, but he also fills it with water once in a while.
b) Nouns, phrases, or clauses that follow those conjunctions should be similar in form and function.
Both Bill and Bob appreciate Sophie’s friendship.
Not wanting to be late but preferring to be early, Officer Ossypher lined up at midnight for the redeye ferry.
c) Correlative conjunctions should usually be used only in pairs.
Either Bill or Bob or Brad will mow Mr. Moneybag’s lawn.
Between the three of them, Bill, Bob, and Brad, one will mow Mr. Moneybag’s lawn.
4. Coordinating and subordinating conjunctions [L.3.1.h]
a) Coordinating conjunctions are words that connect similar words, phrases, or clauses.
Sophie likes apples, yet she never eats them after dinner.
b) A good way to remember all the coordinating conjunctions is to use the word FANBOYS to
memorize them: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, and So.
c) Subordinating conjunctions are words that introduce subordinate clauses.
When Sophie buys too many apples, she uses some of them to make a pie.
Bob likes to feed his dog healthy food because he loves Doofus.
d) When subordinate clauses begin a sentence, they must be followed by a comma.
When Sophie buys too many apples, she uses some of them to make a pie.
Lopez Island Schools: Grammar Handbook, updated on Thursday, August 29, 2013
Page 16
Section 8, Troublesome words
A. Entry Level
1. Word pairs and triplets
a) accept and except
(1) To accept is a verb; it means “to agree or receive.”
Bob and Bill accept that Doofus is smarter than them.
(2) except is usually a preposition; it means “not including.”
Except when he cooks, Bob rarely burns anything.
(3) It is possible but rare for except to be a verb; it means “to exclude.”
It is necessary to except Bob from the presidential race.
b) a lot and allot
(1) A lot is a phrase that works like an adverb; it means “a large quantity.”
Bill tells a lot of old jokes.
(2) Allot is a verb; it means “to distribute.”
Sophie allots a lot of time for Bill and Bob to fill out their income tax reports.
c) can and may
(1) can is a verb; it means “to be able to.”
Bob can sign his name on a check without making spelling mistakes.
(2) may is a verb; it means “to be allowed.”
Doofus may eat as many dog bones as he wants.
d) have and of
(1) Look for meaning, and choose between the two.
Bill should have helped Bob, but he ran out of time.
e) its and it’s; your and you’re; whose and who’s; theirs and there’s; their, they’re, and there.
(1) Remember that apostrophes take the place of missing letters.
“It is Bob who takes care of Doofus.” “No, it’s Bill.”
“You’re the man! Stand up for your rights.”
There is no way that their dog knows where they’re going.
f) than and then
(1) Than is a conjunction; it is used in comparisons.
Doofus is smarter than his owners.
(2) Then is an adverb; it means “next”, “at that time”, or “in that case.”
Bob went to the village, then he returned home.
Bill was waiting for him then.
If Bill cooks dinner, then Bob could do the dishes.
B. Intermediate Level
1. Difficult words
a) unique
(1) Unique is an adjective; it means “one of a kind”, so it can’t have different levels of uniqueness.
Doofus is very unique as far as dogs go. Doofus is a unique dog.
b) via
(1) Via is a preposition that means “by the way of;” it does not describe means of transportation.
Bill came to Lopez via ferry. Bill came to Lopez via Shaw and Orcas.
2. Word pairs and triplets
a) affect and effect
(1) Affect is almost always a verb, and effect is almost always a noun.
The accident really affected Bob; it had a strong effect on him.
Lopez Island Schools: Grammar Handbook, updated on Thursday, August 29, 2013
Page 17
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
(2) Once in a while, affect can be a noun that means “feeling.”
You cannot tell what Officer Ossypher thinks; he shows no affect.
(3) Once in a while, effect can be a verb that means “to produce.”
The night classes Bob took effected great improvement in his ability to read.
bring and take
(1) Bring and take are verbs; they sometimes both mean to carry
If you are thinking from the point of view of the origin, use take.
Bill took his paycheck from his mailbox.
If you are thinking from the point of view of the destination, use bring.
Bill brought his check to the bank.
farther and further
(1) Farther and further are adverbs; they both imply moving beyond.
Farther has to do with physical distance.
Bob was exhausted; he could not walk any farther.
Further has to do with ideas, time, or abstractions.
Bob did not understand the math problem; he could not think any further.
fewer and less
(1) Fewer means having a smaller number of items.
Officer Ossypher has fewer hairs on his head than Sophie.
(2) Less usually means having a smaller quantity of something that cannot be counted.
Officer Ossypher has less fun fishing than Bill.
lie, lie, and lay
(1) Lie is a verb; it sometimes means “to not tell the truth.”
Bill lied and told Sophie he made it through seventh grade.
(2) Lie sometimes means “to recline;” it is passive, and does not involve somebody or something
else.
Bill likes to lie on the grass at night and to look at the stars.
(3) Lay is a verb; it means “to place something down.”
Bill always lays his coat on the sofa when he comes in the house.
(4) Be careful: the past tense of lie is lay, and its past participle is lain.
Last night, Bill lay on the grass; by morning, he had lain on the lawn for eight hours.
(5) The past tense of lay is laid, and its past participle is also laid.
Last night, Bill laid his coat on the sofa. In fact, he has laid it there every night this week.
as and like
(1) As is a preposition; it introduces a clause.
Sophie often helps Bill, as any good friend would do.
(2) Like may be a preposition; it introduces a phrase, a group of words without a verb.
Bill likes Sophie; she is like a good friend.
onto and on to
(1) Onto is a preposition; it means “on top of.”
Doofus moved onto the roof when Fluffy the Cat scared him.
(2) On to acts as a preposition; if you can drop the on and still make some sense, use on to.
Bill rode on to Richardson.
raise and rise
(1) Raise and rise are verbs; raise means “to bring up something”, while rise means “to get up.”
Every morning, Bob rises out of bed and raises the curtain.
set and sit
(1) Set and sit are verbs; set means “to place something”, while sit means “to be seated.”
Bob sets the orange juice on the table and sits to eat breakfast.
Lopez Island Schools: Grammar Handbook, updated on Thursday, August 29, 2013
Page 18
C. Advanced Level
1. Difficult words
a) HIV
(1) HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus; do not add the word “virus” to it.
He contracted the HIV virus. He contracted the HIV.
b) decimate
(1) This word should mean to destroy in part (one-tenth), not to destroy entirely.
Using his new chainsaw, Bill decimated Sophie’s rose garden and left a path of destruction.
c) eclectic
(1) Eclectic is a noun that means “to come from many sources.”
Bob’s eclectic knowledge of wrestling comes from watching TV, attending matches, and tackling Doofus.
d) hardly
(1) Do not use hardly with a negative verb, since it is already negative.
Bill could hardly eat the dinner Bob had made.
e) diagnose
(1) Diagnose is a verb; it is performed on a medical problem, not on a person.
Sophie diagnosed Bill. Sophie diagnosed Bill’s stomachache as a severe case of intestinal gas.
2. Word pairs and triplets
a) allude and refer
(1) To allude is to mention indirectly, while to refer is to mention directly.
Bill often alluded to the feelings he had for Sophie, but she didn’t get the hint until he sent her a valentine.
“It’s so pretty and sweet!” said Sophie, as she referred to Bill’s valentine on her desk.
b) amid, among, and between
(1) Among and between refer to countable items; between is for two and among is for more than two.
Doofus sits between Bill and Bob when they drive to the village.
Among Bill, Bob, and Doofus, Officer Ossypher believed the dog was the smartest driver.
(2) Amid refers to items you cannot count.
Bob fell amid the manure.
c) appraise and apprise
(1) Appraise is a verb that means “to evaluate.”
Bob’s pickup was appraised at $7.95 by Honest Hank at Honest Hank’s House of Hotrods.
(2) Apprise is a verb that means “to inform” or “to explain.”
When Honest Hank apprised Bob of the value of his truck, Bill had a good laugh.
d) assume and presume
(1) Assume is a verb that means “to believe.”
Bob assumed that Honest Hank was joking when the old salesman offered him $7.95 for the pickup.
(2) Presume is a verb that means “to strongly believe, to take for granted.”
“How can you presume to demand $20 for that bucket of rust?” asked Honest Hank.
e) beside and besides
(1) Beside is a preposition that means “next to.”
Doofus sleeps beside Bob’s bed.
(2) Besides is an adverb that means “in addition, furthermore.”
Doofus likes to sleep by Bob’s bed; besides, Bob is scared of the dark and needs the dog’s company.
f) between and from
(1) Nouns that follow between are plural.
Bob is between twenty and twenty-five years of age.
(2) Nouns that follow from are singular.
Bill works from the first to the third day of the week.
Lopez Island Schools: Grammar Handbook, updated on Thursday, August 29, 2013
Page 19
g) complement and compliment
(1) Complement is sometimes a verb that means “to complete.”
With jeans and work boots, Bill’s plaid shirt complements his northwest wardrobe.
(2) Complement is sometimes a noun that means “something that completes.”
With jeans and work boots, a plaid shirt is a perfect complement to a northwest wardrobe.
(3) Compliment is sometimes a verb that means “to praise or admire”
Bob complimented Bill for his beautiful plaid shirt.
(4) Compliment is sometimes a noun that means “something that shows praise or admiration”
Since Bob is such a connaisseur of plaid shirts, his compliment means a lot to Bill.
h) e.g and i.e.
(1) e.g is a latin phrase that means “for example”
Bill invents some terrible dishes, e.g., his “Salmonella Surprise” or his “Tuna Torte.”
(2) i.e. is a latin phrase that means “that is” and it refers to a specific item.
Bill cooked his worst dish ever, i.e., his “Trout Omelette with Berries and Slugs.”
(3) Both phrases require a comma before and after their position in a sentence.
i) emigrate and immigrate
(1) Emigrate is a verb that means “to move from”; it usually involves countries.
Because he detested Céline Dion and hockey, Bill was forced to emigrate from Canada.
(2) Immigrate is a verb that means “to move to”; it usually involves countries.
Because he enjoyed Toby Keith and football, Bill was glad to immigrate to the United States.
j) eminent, imminent, and immanent
(1) Eminent is an adjective that means “superior.”
Since she has seven doctorates, everybody knows that Sophie’s study skills are eminent.
(2) Imminent is an adjective that means “about to happen.”
Because he had just eaten Bob’s food, Bill knew that a stomachache was imminent.
(3) Immanent is an adjective that means “present” or “existing within.”
From the linen curtains to the birch furniture, Sophie’s good taste is immanent throughout her home.
k) if or whether
(1) Whether is a conjunction that implies a choice between at least two active alternatives.
Officer Ossypher had to decide whether he should give a ticket or a warning to Bob.
(2) If is a conjunction that implies a choice between an action and the absence of action.
Officer Ossypher had to decide if 357 traffic stops were sufficient cause to give a ticket to Bob.
l) imply and infer
(1) Imply is a verb that means “to suggest.”
The fact that Bob did not know how to buckle a seatbelt implied that he did not usually wear it.
(2) Infer is a verb that means “to conclude.”
After getting a ticket, Bob inferred that he needed to buckle up.
m) may and might
(1) Might is a weaker form of may, or is used when the rest of the sentence is in the past.
Bob may have to forgive Bill. If Bill was in such pain, it might be that he broke his leg.
(2) Sometimes, may implies a positive outcome while might implies the opposite.
Bill may have been invited by Sophie to the prom.
Since he didn’t show up, I assume that Bill might have forgotten.
Lopez Island Schools: Grammar Handbook, updated on Thursday, August 29, 2013
Page 20