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Transcript
An Introduction to the Vascular Plants of the Belizean Savanna, November 2010 Zoë Goodwin The ‘Introduction to the Vascular Plants of the Belizean Savanna’ course was held from the 2nd to the 5th of November 2010 (3 days) at Paynes Creek Ranger Station, in the Paynes Creek National Park, Toledo District. The course was designed to provide attendees with the basic skills and knowledge to identify plants and vegetation types in the field and how to collect a herbarium specimen for subsequent confirmation of the identification. During the course students became familiar with the diverse flora of the savanna, with special reference to the rare and endemic species. Although the course focussed on savanna plants, the skills learnt could be applied to the flora of any ecosystem. In addition, students became familiar with some of the terminology used to describe plants and receive basic nomenclatural training to enable them to understand the principles of plant names. The main objectives of the course were as follows: 1. To gain an understanding of the basic principles of plant identification 2. To learn how to collect a herbarium specimen for further identfication 3. To become familiar with the flora of the lowland savanna 4. To become familiar with the endemic species of the savanna and some of the rare species of the savanna Figure 1. Students press a plant specimen in the field. 11 students (Figure 2) attended the course (33 training days total), comprising rangers and research staff from two NGOs based in Toledo, Ya’axche Conservation Trust (YCT) and Toledo Institute of Development and the Environment (TIDE). Marchilio Ack Marcus Cholom Virginia Fuhs Mario Muschamp Eugenio Ah Elmar Requena Santiago Cucul Luis Ishim Norman Andrew Williams Owen Leonard Williams Jonathan Alford (Head Ranger, YCT) (Ranger, YCT) (Development Officer, YCT) (Terrestrial Manager, TIDE) (Assistant Terrestrial Manager, TIDE) (Assistant Terrestrial Biologist, TIDE) (Ranger, TIDE) (Ranger, TIDE) (Ranger, TIDE) (Ranger, TIDE) (Volunteer, TIDE) Figure 2. Lecturers and attendees at the end of the course at Paynes Creek Ranger Station. The course was taught by Zoë Goodwin (RBGE, Darwin botanist), Dr Steven Brewer (Belize Foundation for Research and Environmental Education, tropical ecologist) and German Lopez (ERI, Darwin botanist). The Darwin Project contributed teaching staff, funded Dr Brewer’s assistance, designed the course structure & helped with much of the advance preparation for the course (such as organising field kit). ERI promoted the course and in collaboration with TIDE organised logistics during the period of the course, the course was hosted by TIDE at their ranger station in the Paynes Creek National Park. Students were provided with a copy of the course booklet (Appendix 1), laminated copy of a draft photoguide, printed copy of a photoguide to the rare and endemic species of the lowland savanna, notebook, pencils & erasers (Figure 3). Figure 3. A course booklet and copies of draft photoguides were given to attendees. Students were guided through the process of making herbarium specimens and specimen data collection; each student practiced producing a plant specimen. Following this the group produced 15 high quality herbarium specimens of savanna species (Figure 3). In addition to basic plant identification students were introduced to basic savanna ecology such as the importance of soil and hydrological regimes. Students were were able to discuss and compare soil profiles (Figure 4) dug in three habitats, open grassland savanna, dense pine savanna woodland and broadleaf gallery forest. Figure 4. Students were fascinated by carnivorous Drosera capillaris (left); Dr Steven Brewer explains the intricacies of sedge and grass identification (right). Summary of feedback from students1 Students enjoyed the trip immensely and it was judged by them to be extremely useful. One issue was a shortage in the provision of hand lenses as the hand lenses loaned fro UB were accidentally left at TIDE headquarters in Punta Gorda. Summary of feedback from teachers The ERI and TIDE performed an excellent job at co-ordinating and organising the logistics. This made a big difference on the success of the course, especially given the number of students attending the course. The facilities at Paynes Creek Ranger Station although basic were fine for this course. The use of the dining area for teaching was fine for this number of people. Although the station is relatively remote the variety of savanna ecosystems within easy reach of the field station was appreciated by staff and students. 1 Full student feedback is available in Appendix 3. Due to the lack of power the use of a flip chart and photoguides worked really well. Future courses run by ERI should definitely take advantage of the photoguides produced by the project (and any similar outputs produced by the ERI in the future) as it was felt that they were a great resource during the training. Many of the students lacked a formal education beyond primary school level yet posessed a huge amount of practical field experience gained during their careers so the use of photoguides combined with simplified technical explanations of plant characters and ecology worked really well. Many of the students recognised the plants being identified during the course so the photoguides proved a great resource for them in their jobs as well as a teaching resource. For such a short course in future it is suggested that the semi-formal assessment for the students to test themselves should be skipped. Many of the students enjoyed this part but felt it to be quite stressful and the teachers felt that this part was an unnecessary addition given the short nature of the course. Course structure worked well. Amount of preplanning by someone with local knowledge and a familiarity with the flora made a big difference. Appendix 1. An Introduction to the Vascular Plants of the Belizean Savanna – Course Handbook Appendix 2. An Introduction to the Vascular Plants of the Belizean Savanna – Certificate Appendix 3. An Introduction to the Vascular Plants of the Belizean Savanna – Summary of evaluation forms Appendix 1 An Introduction to the Vascular Plants of the Belizean Savanna Handbook Paynes Creek National Park November 2010 1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................3 Objectives ..............................................................................................................................................3 Timetable ...............................................................................................................................................4 Day 1: Tuesday pm - A brief introduction to plants & their names ......................................................5 Useful general terminology................................................................................................................5 Major plant groups .........................................................................................................................5 Plant habit ......................................................................................................................................6 What is a leaf?................................................................................................................................7 Introduction to plant identification ....................................................................................................8 A brief introduction to plant names ...................................................................................................9 Names and ranks (from family to species) ....................................................................................9 Meanings of Names .....................................................................................................................10 Families I .........................................................................................................................................11 Practical Exercise 1: Leaves ............................................................................................................12 Day 2: Wednesday am - Flowers & other interesting characters.........................................................15 An introduction to flowers ...............................................................................................................15 Parts of a flower ...........................................................................................................................15 Common types of flower in the savanna......................................................................................16 Other characters important in field identification of plants .............................................................17 Families II ........................................................................................................................................18 Day 2: Wednesday pm - Making a herbarium specimen and further identification ............................19 Making a herbarium specimen.........................................................................................................19 Collecting and observing .............................................................................................................19 Practical Exercise 2: Collecting a Herbarium Specimen .................................................................26 Families III.......................................................................................................................................29 Day 3: Thursday am - Savanna ecology ..............................................................................................30 Practical Exercise 3: Savanna Ecology – part 1...............................................................................30 Day 3: Thursday pm - Savanna ecology ..............................................................................................31 Practical Exercise 3: Savanna Ecology – part 2...............................................................................31 Families IV.......................................................................................................................................32 Savanna Genera ...............................................................................................................................33 Day 4: Friday am - Rare and endemic species.....................................................................................35 Endemic vascular plant species of the lowland savanna of Belize.................................................35 Some rare species of the lowland savanna.......................................................................................39 For the future....................................................................................................................................40 Instructors: Zoë Goodwin (RBGE) Steven Brewer (BFREE) German Lopez (ERI) 2 Introduction This is a short course designed to provide attendees with the basic skills and knowledge to identify plants and vegetation types in the field and how to collect a herbarium specimen for subsequent confirmation of the identification. During the course students will become familiar with the diverse flora of the savanna, with special reference to the rare and endemic species. Although this course will focus on savanna plants, the skills learnt can be applied to the flora of any ecosystem. In addition, students will become familiar with some of the terminology used to describe plants and receive basic nomenclatural training to enable them to understand the principles of plant names. This handbook is intended as a complementary guide to the course, giving some additional background information and providing some examples of concepts introduced on the course. It also includes the instructions for the practical sessions in the course. The course and this handbook are being provided by the Environmental Research Institute of the University of Belize with the assistance of the Darwin Initiative project (project no. 17022), the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. The course is being hosted by Toledo Institute for Development and Environment. Objectives 1. To gain an understanding of the basic principles of plant identification 2. To learn how to collect a herbarium specimen for further identfication 3. To become familiar with the flora of the lowland savanna 4. To become familiar with the endemic species of the savanna and some of the rare species of the savanna 3 Timetable Day 1 Tuesday 2 November 2010 0900 Meet at TIDE headquarters, Punta Gorda 0930 Depart TIDE headquarters, Punta Gorda by boat 1100 Arrive Paynes Creek National Park Ranger Station, settle into accomodation 1200 Lunch 1330 Welcome and introductory lecture 1730 Dinner and rest 1930 Brief evening lecture, discussion of following day’s activites and family recap Day 2 Wednesday 3 November 0600 Breakfast 0700 Lecture and practicals 1200 Lunch 1330 Herbarium specimen lecture and practical 1730 Dinner and rest 1930 Brief evening lecture, discussion of following day’s activites and family recap Day 3 Thursday 4 November 0600 Breakfast 0700 Lecture and ecology practical part 1 1200 Packed lunch 1330 Ecology practical part 2 1730 Dinner and rest 1930 Brief evening lecture, unpacking of press, discussion of following day’s activites and family recap Day 4 Friday 5 November 0600 Breakfast 0700 Lecture and practicals 1200 Lunch and pack 1300 Depart Paynes Creek National Park Ranger Station by boat 1430 Arrive TIDE headquarters, Punta Gorda 4 Day 1: Tuesday pm - A brief introduction to plants & their names Aims: This session will introduce students to some of the technical terms used for identifying the different parts of a plant that are most useful in field plant identification. This session will also introduce the basic structure and format of plant names and introduce students to four important savanna plant families. Objectives: 1. To become familiar with names of plant parts 2. To gain understanding of the general concepts of plant names 3. To become familiar with characters of four important families in the savanna. Useful general terminology Major plant groups Bryophytes Mosses, liverworts and hornworts are some of the original landplants and they reproduce via spores. They do not have stems, vascular systems or roots, only leaf-like thalluses. In Belize bryophytes tend to be found in damp places near rivers & often in the Maya Mountains. Ferns and allies Ferns do not have either seeds or flowers (they reproduce via spores). However unlike bryophytes they are vascular plants, they have stems (containing xylem and phloem), leaves, and roots. There are about 12,000 species of ferns and related plants. Examples of ferns in Belize include tree ferns, Selaginella and tiger fern. Gymnosperms Gymnosperms are seed-bearing plants; they have stems, leaves, and roots like other vascular plants. Gymnosperm seeds are unenclosed forming outside the ovum; hence gymnosperm literally means "naked seeds”. Their naked condition stands in contrast to the seeds or ovules of flowering plants (angiosperms) which are enclosed during pollination. Examples of gymnosperms in Belize include pines and cycads. Angiosperms The flowering plants (angiosperms) are the most diverse group of land plants. They are seedproducing plants like gymnosperms; however they possess flowers, endosperm within the seeds, and the production of fruits that contain seeds. The majority of plants in Belize are flowering plants. Angiosperms have traditionally been split into two groups, monocots and dicots, this split is not supported now (there are many angiosperms such as Piper that are neither) however it is still a useful differentiation in the field and many people still to refer to it. Monocotyledons Monocotyledons, also known as monocots, typically have one cotyledon (seed-leaf) as seedlings, in contrast to the two cotyledons typical of dicots. They also tend to have flower parts in threes, scattered vascular bundles in the stem, adventitious roots and parallel leaf venation. There are between 50,000 and 60,000 species within this group; the largest family in this group (and in the flowering plants as a whole) by number of species are the orchids (family Orchidaceae), with more than 20,000 species. 5 Examples of monocotyledons in Belize include grasses, lilies, bananas, gingers, heliconias, corn, rice, palms, onions and orchids. Dicotyledons The dicotyledons, also known as dicots, are a group of flowering plants whose seed typically has two embryonic leaves or cotyledons. This group is also characterized by pollen structure, flower parts in four or five, vascular bundles in concentric circles, roots developing from the radicle and reticulate (net) leaf venation. There are around 199,000 species within this group. Examples of dicotyledons in Belize include tamarind, Hibiscus, mamey, mahogany, dog balls and cotton tree. Plant habit The habit of the plant can be an important feature of a plant. Some plants have different habits depending on the growing conditions. Provided are some of the basic terms for describing plant habit. Herb An herbaceous plant (in botanical use simply herb) is a plant that has leaves and stems that die down at the end of the growing season to the soil level. They have no persistent woody stem above ground. An herbaceous plant may be annual, biennial or perennial. Shrub A shrub or bush is distinguished from a tree by its multiple stems and lower height, usually less than 5–6 m (15–20 ft) tall. A large number of plants can be either shrubs or trees, depending on the growing conditions they experience. Tree A tree is a perennial woody plant. It is most often defined as a woody plant that has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground on a single main stem or trunk with clear apical dominance. Some definitions require a minimum height specification of 3 m to 6 m or a minimum of 10 cm trunk diameter (30 cm girth). Vine A vine refers to any climbing or trailing plant. Liana A liana is a long-stemmed, woody vine rooted in the soil at ground level and that use trees, as well as other means of vertical support, to climb up to the canopy in order to get access to well-lit areas of the forest. Epiphyte An epiphyte is a plant that grows upon another plant (such as a tree) non-parasitically; it derives its moisture and nutrients from the air and rain and sometimes from debris accumulating around it. In Belize this includes many ferns, cacti, orchids, and bromeliads, epiphytes are often called air plants. 6 What is a leaf? 7 Introduction to plant identification What type of leaf does your plant have? Is it Simple? (kidneyshaped) (heartshaped) Or is it Compound? 8 What kind of insertion does your leaf have? Is it Alternate or Opposite? A brief introduction to plant names Names and ranks (from family to species) Family -aceae (eg, Orchidaceae) Subfamily -oideae (eg, Epidendroideae) Genus (eg, Prosthechea Knowles & Westc.) species (eg, Prosthechea cochleata (L.) W.E.Higgins) Family: usually end with “aceae” as in Rosaceae, but there are 8 families that have alternative names. The ones on the left are the older names, and the ones on the right are the names that were proposed to keep all the endings the same. Both names are valid. Compositae Palmae Leguminosae Umbelliferae Labiatae Guttiferae Cruciferae Gramineae Asteraceae Aracaceae Fabaceae Apiaceae Lamiaceae Clusiaceae Brassicaceae Poaceae (eg, sunflowers) (eg, palmetto) (eg, tamarind) (eg, carrots) (eg, mint) (eg, mangosteen) (eg, cabbage) (eg, grass) Species: Linnean binomial eg; Swietenia macrophylla King Meliaceae = family Swietenia = genus macrophylla = specific epithet Swietenia macrophylla = species name 9 King = author Authors: this is the surname of the person who first validly published a name; the authors name should follow the standard abbreviated forms found in IPNI which is based on Brummitt and Powell’s Authors of Plant Names (1992). Meanings of Names Often scientific names tell us something about the plant. The specific epithet of Mahogany is macrophylla, ‘macro’ is Greek for big, ‘phylla’ is Greek for leaf, so mahogany’s scientific name is Swietenia with the big leaf. The genus Calliandra, ‘Calli’ is Greek for beautiful, ‘andra’ is Greek for male parts, so Calliandra means beautiful male parts. Sometimes a plant is named after a person. For example in Belize, there was William August Schipp, an Australian botanist who worked in Belize in the 1920’s and 30’s. Many plants he collected were new to science; so many species were named after him such as the silver pimento palm, Schippia concolor or Dalechampia schippii. Some plants may be named after the place where they grow. For example the scientific name of Grande betty is Cupania belizensis, the Cupania from Belize, or the scientific name of pine ridge coffee is Erythroxylum guatemalense, which means the Erythroxylum from Guatemala. For a more comprehensive explanation of the meanings of plant names see Stearn’s (2000) ‘Dictionary of Botanical Latin’. 10 Families I There are many species of vascular plants in the tropics; in Belize alone there are over 4,300 species of vascular plant recorded. This huge diversity of plants means that it can be very difficult to identify an unknown plant straight to species. Thus the first stage to identifying your plant is to decide what family your plant is in. Most species within a family share a suite of common characters that can be identified in the field. Below are examples of the key characters of four families that are important in the savanna. • Fabaceae Leaves compound and alternate Stipules Barrel-shaped pulvinous and pulvinuolules Pea scent to crushed leaves Pea pod fruit Examples include Pidgeon Pea, Cockspur, Salam, Logwood, Rosewood, Madre de cacao and Qualmwood • Chrysobalanaceae Leaves simple and alternate Stipules Lenticellate twigs Regular two-ranked leaves Sand-textured inner bark Examples include Cocoa Plum and Wild Pigeon Plum • Melastomataceae Leaves simple and opposite 3 – 9 nerves from base of leaf blade Examples include Chigger Nits, White Maya and Sirin • Rubiaceae Leaves simple and opposite Interpetiolar stipule Leaves entire Examples include Coffee, Noni, Hot Lips and Polly Red Head 11 Practical Exercise 1: Leaves Aims: To familiarise yourself with the different parts of the leaf and different types of leaves. Objectives: 1. Familiarisation with the structure of the leaf 2. Introduction to identifying different types of leaves Exercise: Complete the following exercise. 1. Draw an example of a plant with simple and opposite leaves 12 2. On your drawing for Question 1 above, label the following characters: 2a. Petiole 2b. Leaf blade 2c. Midrib 2d. Stipules 3. On the image of a compound, alternate leaf provided below, label the following characters: 3a. Petiole 3b. Leaflets 3c. Rhachis 3d. Leaf margin 13 4. What do you think that the specific epithet of the following scientific plant names might mean? 4a. Pachira aquatica 4b. Swartzia cubensis 4c. Zamia meermanii 5. List 4 different plant habits & for each provide an example of a common plant with this habit (you may use common names for this). a. Habit Example b. Habit Example c. Habit Example d. Habit Example 14 Day 2: Wednesday am - Flowers & other interesting characters Aims: This session aims to familiarise the students with the basic terminology used to describe types of flowers and other characters that are important in field identification. Students will reinforce their knowledge of the families learnt yesterday and will be introduced to five more important savanna families. Objectives: 1. To introduce the basic terminology for describing flowers 2. To gain a greater understanding of characters important in field identification 3. To introduce five families important in the savanna An introduction to flowers Parts of a flower Most flowers have the same basic structures with the same basic functions. The sepals in the calyx protect the developing flower bud, the petals in the corolla are often bright and colourful to attract pollinators to visit, pollen is produced by the anthers in the androecium, this is is carried by pollinators or vectors such as the wind to other flowers where it fertilizes the carpels in the ovary, which is part of the gynoecium. Anthers Stamens Stigma Filaments Style A whorl of these is called the Androecium Ovary This whorl is the Gynoecium Petals A whorl of these is called the Corolla Sepals A whorl of these is called the Calyx Pedicel Receptacle 15 Common types of flower in the savanna Unlike the forest it is relatively common to see plants in fruit and flower in the savanna. So it is useful to know which flower types tend to occur in which families and genera. Below are some of the common flower types found in the savanna with families and genera that they are found in. Malvaceae; flower open or with corolla tube, always has five petals and showy stamens that are joined together by their filaments. Common examples in the savanna include Hibiscus, Sida and Melochia Apocynaceae; flower open or with corolla tube, always with imbricate aestivation, the five petals overlap regularly. Good examples of this include Frangipani which many people grow in their gardens and savanna white poison wood Composite flower; unique to Asteraceae, identifiable by a dense head composed of actinomorphic flowers, easily confused with Hyptis (Lamiaceae) and some Rubiaceae, look closely at the type of flower within the inflorescence. Melastomataceae; open flower, five to many petals often white or pink, always has distinctive anthers. Passiflora; very distinctive flower unique to this genus. Monocot flower; flower parts in threes, most conspicuous examples are in the Hypoxidaceae and Iridaceae which appear to have 6 petals (3 outer and 3 inner). Cassia flower; five petals and prominent stamens and gynoecium all twisted slightly so not actinomorphic, often yellow. Flamboyant tree, Pride of Barbados and Chamaecrista Acacia flower; found in the Fabaceae subfamily Mimosoideae; identifiable by constant structure showy anthers and reduced petals, may be a spike or round ball, easily confused with Chrysobalanaceae (look at your leaves!). Showy examples in the savanna include Calliandra, Pithecellobium and Acacia Pea flower; found in the Fabaceae subfamily Faboideae; identifiable by constant structure of five petals, two keel petals, two wing petals and a single standard petal, easily confused with Polygala and Utricularia. Polygala; identifiable by the fimbriate petal crest, flowers always in a raceme and by only having two outer petaloid sepals. Utricularia; identifiable by spur, normally yellow, occasionally blue or pink, normally tiny and associated with water or damp places. 16 Other characters important in field identification of plants Yesterday we learnt to look at our unknown plant to decide the type of leaf (simple or compound) and the insertion of the leaf (opposite or alternate). Once you have established this, it is time to think about which other characters might be important. Latex All plants have sap, latex is used to refer to milky sap that occurs in large quantities. This is normally white, but it can be yellow or red; sometimes this can be found in the trunk by slashing the bark or from snapping a twig, if it is present it can always be found by squeezing the petiole of the leaf. Stipules Most stipules occur in pairs on either side of the petiole base like Fabaceae, however some plants have an interpetiolar stipule like Rubiaceae, intrapetiolar stipules like Malpighiaceae or conical terminal stipules like Moraceae (for example figs), Cecropia (trumpet tree) or Polygonaceae (sea grape). Often stipules are deciduous (they fall off), so look particularly closely with a hand lens at young leaves or for scars on older stems. Pellucid punctations Looking closely at the leaf blade against the light with a handlens it may be possible to see pellucid punctations. These may be large clear, round “dots”, or they may be a mix of clear “dots & dashes”. Glands Some families often have glands on the leaf lamina, petiole, rhachis or sepals. Glands can come in many diferent forms, sometimes they are just appear as an oily patch or an area of discoloration on the leaf blade, other species have glands which are distinct projections. Often these glands are acting as extra-floral nectaries, sources of nectar for visiting insects that are outside of the flower; this is usually provided to encourage insects such as ants to defend the plant. Scent Some plants have a distinctive scent. Snap a twig or crush a leaf and carefully sniff to find out. Bark Snap a twig. Does it snap easily with a “satisfying snap” or is it really difficult to break a twig without making stringy bark? Spines or thorns A plant may have a variety of thorns, spines and spikes for defense. This can be a useful character for some families, or may be specific to some genera or species. Hairs Most plants of some kind of hair, sometimes the type of hair, color or amount of hair can be a useful character. Tendrils A climbing plant such as a vine or a liana may have tendrils; this can be a very useful character to identify a plant to family. 17 Families II • Malpighiaceae Leaves simple and opposite Intrapetiolar stipules – “rabbit ears” T-shaped hairs Often have glands on the leaf blade, petiole or sepals Examples include crabboo • Myrtaceae Leaves simple and opposite Pellucid punctations, “dots” Collecting vein Examples include guava and all spice • Asteraceae Leaves simple and opposite or alternate Often hairy, feels rough to the touch Leaves toothed Examples include sunflower and daisy • Apocynaceae Leaves simple and opposite White latex Examples include frangipani, horse balls, dog balls, red head polly and savanna white poisonwood • Malvaceae Leaves simple and alternate Leaves palmately veined from base Stellate hairs Swollen pulvinous Serrate leaf margin Stipules Stringy bark Leaves slimy when crushed Examples include hibiscus, pixoy, ceiba and ochra 18 Day 2: Wednesday pm - Making a herbarium specimen and further identification Aims: This session aims to familiarise the students with the basic protocol in making a high quality herbarium specimen. Students will reinforce their knowledge of the useful identification characters and families learnt so far. Objectives: 1. To introduce the method of making a herbarium specimen 2. To reinforce an understanding of characters important in field identification Making a herbarium specimen Collecting and observing This section provides some detailed notes on the principles and different methodologies of plant collecting, this shall be discussed in class. General Plants should always be pressed as soon as they are collected, with detailed collecting notes made immediately, and these notes entered into a computer at night. Plants can be kept for a short period of time in strong polythene bags (which reduce wilting), but this should only be done when pressing immediately is not possible. Although photographs that complement dried specimens can be useful in giving an overall impression of a plant and in subsequent naming, the plant specimen itself is everything and should be meticulously prepared. Neat collecting is of paramount importance and secateurs should be used. Well-collected and annotated specimens are of scientific value: poorly pressed scraps with no accompanying information are not. Full instruction on this will be given in the field. Flowering and fruiting material should preferably be collected, as sterile vouchers are often difficult – if not impossible – to determine to species level and specimens without flowers or fruit are often considered worthless in regions where the flora is well known. However in many regions in the tropics vegetative specimens are extremely useful and should be collected in the absence of fertile material. Basic Collecting Equipment Hand lens GPS Local Floras Long-armed pruners Climbing spikes Selection of self-sealing plastic bags Small collecting bottles Alcohol/FAA (for preserving fruits or specimens in the absence of a heat source) String Silica gel (for collecting DNA material) Knife Compass Wooden lattice presses c. 18″ x 12″ Straps with buckles Drying papers (felts or thick blotting paper) Corrugates Newspaper Drying frame Gas stove (& gas) Large sturdy polythene bags Field notebook Pens & pencils Binoculars Camera & film Indelible marker Secateurs 19 Field Notes Good field notes are essential and their value cannot be over-emphasised. The dried plant specimen must always have a label which gives all the information not obvious from the specimen itself. Collection notes should always include the primary collector’s number, the names of other collectors present, the date, the locality (with a GPS position), the habitat, habit, height, flower colour (colour often fades or changes on drying), smell (if relevant), bark characteristics including slash, diameter dimensions for trees, the presence of sap, and any other noteworthy features. Always write your field notes clearly; remember that you will have to decipher them later. Further guidance is given in the following chapter. An example of a herbarium label: FLORA OF BELIZE Byrsonima crassifolia (L.) Kunth Malpighiaceae Date: 25th March 2001 Locality: Orange Walk, Rio Bravo Conservation and Management Area, East Gate, 1 Km along Lemonal track. 16°44′16.1″N, 88°59′45.7″W Habitat: Growing in an area of open pine savanna. Habit: Contorted tree to 10 m; dbh 17 cm; bark smooth and grey with a red slash; flowers yellow; fruits green, maturing yellow. Collector: Bridgewater, S.G.M. No. 2457 With Ibáñez García, A. & Gemeinholzer, B. Recording and storing data Any vegetation study will require data collection in some form or other. Even for the most basic botanical collection, the following information should be recorded for each specimen: • • • • • • • • • • Collectors Specimen number Preliminary identification (if possible) Date Location (including coordinates) Altitude Habitat Description (size and structure of plant, colour, smells, bark characteristics, etc.) Common name(s) (if available) Uses and ecological information All of this information (i.e. anything which cannot be seen directly from a herbarium specimen) will be included on the labels which are eventually attached to the mounted specimen. For quantitative surveys, a range of other types of information will also need to be recorded. Although some people now use miniature palm-top computers directly in the field for on-the-spot data entry, these are not completely reliable and it is better to record with pencil on paper (or on 20 plastic waterproof notebooks). The data can be put onto a computer later, and then even if the files become corrupted the information will not have been lost. If the same techniques are to be repeated in different areas, it is often worth preparing data sheets for use in the field. These facilitate data collecting (acting as a memory-jog), and also allow third parties to enter the data into a computer without having to decipher individual recording methods. Remember that your data need to be used by others, so try to avoid complex coding systems and abbreviations, or if you use them then make it very clear what they mean. Locating, collecting, preserving and means of identification Locating of plants is normally much easier than locating of animals, since they tend not to hide or to run away! However, identification can be equally, if not more, difficult. For absolutely accurate vegetation analysis it is necessary to collect specimens from every plant recorded, but in some cases it will be necessary to be more pragmatic. If you are attempting to locate a particular species, then it may be helpful to enlist the help of local people. Collection of plants in tropical forests is made difficult by the inaccessability of the forest canopy. This can make it tempting to focus on the more easily collected herbs and shrubs at ground level. This, however, would mean that many of the more important species would be missed. The first thing is to be able to find the plant which you are going to collect, and for this it is worth carrying a pair of binoculars*. Of course, if you are surveying a forest plot then you will probably need to collect specimens from all of the trees regardless, but the binoculars can still be useful for finding the most accessible branches with flowers and fruits. There are various ways of accessing and collecting from the canopy, the most practical of which is probably the hiring of a local tree-climber. You can try climbing yourself if you are reasonably fit it is not difficult once you have mastered the art. However, it can be dangerous, not only because of the risk of falling but also because of the possibility of encountering poisonous snakes. However experienced you may be, it is inadvisable to be climbing trees in the forest on your own! An 'extending pruner' or 'log-arm pruner' or 'pole cutter' (up to 12 m) is also an extremely useful tool, allowing easy collection from smaller trees. This is a clipper on the end of a long pole, operated by a string. A combination of a good tree climber and an extending pruner will probably allow you to collect from virtually any tree in the forest, for when the giant trees that are too large or spiny to climb directly the climber can shin up a smaller (neighbouring) trees and then cut off branches with the pruner. In a forest survey where all of the trees are being collected, if the climber chooses his or her tree carefully he can collect several trees from the top of the one he has climbed. It is also possible to use mountaineering equipment to climb into the canopy (on ropes), but this is not a useful technique for rapid surveys and is really only applicable for longer-term ecological studies. Furthermore the equipment is expensive. Other techniques which are sometimes used include shooting branches from trees with shotguns or rifles, knocking off leaves with a catapult, or even training monkeys as collectors! Another technique that is potentially good one for large, emergent trees, is the use of a chain saw blade set in the middle of a rope. The procedure, which takes some practice, is as follows: • • • • With the catapult, shoot a weight over the branch you want to cut, attached to a light fishing line Use the fishing line to pull a thicker cord over the branch Use the thicker cord to pull a rope over the branch, with a chain saw blade set in the middle Pull the cord until the blade hangs over the branch * A tip to remember when using binoculars in the forest is that the eye-cups tend to fill up with detritus and ants as you walk around with the binoculars slung around your neck, which then fall in your eyes as you look up. Blow into the eyecups first to clear them! 21 • Saw the blade backwards and forwards over the branch (2 people required), until it is cut (N.B. nobody should be standing under the branch!) Preservation techniques used by botanical surveys vary according to the circumstances and according to personal preference. The basics of plant pressing, which is the technique generally used for angiosperms, gymnosperms and pteridophytes, is as follows: Essentially, this process involves cutting representative parts of the plant, folding them between numbered sheets of newspaper, and pressing them flat in a plant press. The press is simply a couple of suitably sized wooden grids, held together with adjustable straps. The numbering of your specimens is important, and the number on your specimen must match up with the number on your field notes. An un-numbered specimen with no notes is virtually useless! Some botanists like to press all their specimens in the field, as they go along. However, if you are making a rapid survey with limited time available, it may be better to put all of the specimens in a big plastic bag, and press them in the evening when you get back to your camp (or wherever you are staying). If you intend to do this, however, there is a risk that they can be muddled up during the day, so that you end up not knowing which specimen came from which tree, and which are the field notes referring to it. To avoid this, you can attach numbered jewellers' tags (paper tags on a loop of string) to each specimen. Another advantage of using jewellers' tags is that if your specimens should accidentally fall out of their numbered newspaper sheets, you will still know which is which! 22 information as possible about branching patterns, growth form, etc. With very large plants (such as palms) you will not be able to make a complete specimen on a single sheet, and you should make several specimens of representative parts of the plant. In this case it is important to make a clear note of what part of the plant each of the specimen represents, and how they fit together. If, for example, you have a large palm frond, you might decide to make a specimen of each end of the frond, and another of a section in the middle. Somebody looking at these specimens, however, will not be able to envisage how long the complete leaf was, or how many leaflets there were on it, unless you tell them on the label. Fleshy fruits cannot be squashed flat, and you will either need to cut sections from them and press them, or dry the fruits whole (unpressed). Alternatively you may decide to pickle them whole in alcohol. Various techniques have been developed for preserving different plant groups in such a way as to preserve and record the information most important for their identification. For ferns, for example, it is important that you keep the small scales that are found at the base of the frond. For orchids and gingers, whose flowers are extremely complex structurally, it is important to preserve some of these flowers in threedimensional form in alcohol (but leave others on the specimen to show where they came from). There are other special techniques for rattans, bamboos, and for palms in general. There is an art to pressing plant specimens, which one acquires with experience. The important thing to remember is that the specimen will eventually be glued or sewn to a card, so that it can only be viewed from one side. Thus it is important the both sides of the leaves and flowers are visible from above. The specimen should, if possible, 'fill' the sheet with room for the label & without too many overlapping leaves etc., and it should be arranged in such a way as to give as much More details of these specialist techniques, and of plant collecting methods in general, can be found in the Herbarium Handbook published by the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew. 23 Your pressed specimens must then be preserved, eventually by drying. The best specimens are made by drying them immediately in the field, using gas- (or charcoal-) or paraffin-powered field driers. These are basically simple frames with slow heaters inside, upon which the bundles of specimens are placed and left for 24 hours or so to dry. A tight bundle of specimens in newspaper will not dry, however, unless the sheets are separated from each other with alternating pieces of blotting paper and corrugated cardboard or (ideally) aluminium corrugated sheets. The blotting paper soaks the water out of the leaves, and the corrugates allow the hot air to pass through the bundle, carrying away the water as vapour. As the specimens dry, they shrink, which means that the bundles will become loose. If nothing is done about this, the specimens may then start to curl (a good specimen is flat!), so it is best to tighten the bundles occasionally during the process. All of this requires a lot of bulky equipment, which may not really be practical in in the field, particularly if you are working from mobile camps However, the best alternative is to use one of the so-called 'wet' collecting methods. The most commonly used, and one which is particularly appropriate to tropical forest field conditions, is the 'Schweinfurth technique'. This is extremely simple. Basically, you press specimens in the usual manner and leave them in the press overnight to flatten. You should not leave them more than 24 hours, or the leaves and flowers will start to detach themselves. When they have been pressed, you take the bundles out of the presses, wrap them in more newspaper, and tie them up with string so that nothing can fall out. You then put the bundles into large plastic bags, pour in enough 70% alcohol to soak them without making them excessively soggy, and seal up the bags with tape. So long as your seal is good and the alcohol does not evaporate, these bundles of 'pickled' pressed specimens can be kept for weeks or even months before they are eventually dried over a drying frame in the manner described above (back in the institution or herbarium where you are based). Mosses are usually wrapped in small newspaper bundles and dried in the field, if possible. However, if necessary these can also be collected by the wet method. Fungi should be dried. 24 Identification of tropical forest plants in the field is never easy, and it is for this reason that one usually needs to make good specimens in all circumstances. However, in some cases it may be necessary or at least useful to attempt field identification (e.g. in the case of a survey of the local abundance of a particular species). This can be facilitated by prior acquisition of field keys, if they exist, or of photographs or drawings of the target taxa. Failing this, it may be worth arming yourself with photocopies of herbarium specimens. In quantitative surveys the collecting of sterile voucher specimens (i.e. specimens without flowers or fruits) cannot be avoided. Unless these are from well known taxonomic groups it may be difficult if not impossible to identify these, One way to speed up the identification is to build up a reference collection of the plants of the area in which you are working, ordered taxonomically but kept separate from the main herbarium. Determining the habitat requirements of a plant species Knowledge of plant habitat requirements is very important for conservation management. It can provide essential information for locating rare or threatened species, for predicting the consequences of environmental change, and for decision-making in the practical management of a conservation area. If, for example, you know the requirements of a species which is threatened by the disappearance of its natural habitat, then it may be possible to manipulate the environment in other areas in such a way that the conditions necessary for its survival are replicated. The techniques and equipment used for determining the habitat requirements of a species, or of a particular vegetation type, have largely been discussed under the methods for assessing climatic and abiotic factors, etc. To recap, some of the factors that should be considered are as follows: Rainfall Light levels Seasonality Temperature Humidity Altitude Position on slope/ position in relation to water courses Position in relation to other species (e.g. epiphytes) Direction of slope Vegetation type (this is itself an indicator of other factors) Soil type Soil humidity Underlying geology Acidity/Alkalinity (of soil or water) Disturbance levels Associations with other species 25 Practical Exercise 2: Collecting a Herbarium Specimen Aims: To practice making a high quality herbarium specimen and collecting appropriate additional data to produce the specimen label. Objectives: 1. Introduction to the process of collecting a herbarium specimen in the field 2. Familarization with the supplementary information required for the the specimen label 3. Familiarization with the process of setting up a press and drying specimens overnight. Exercise: In groups you will make a collection of a plant in the savanna. 1. Before starting to collect the plant you must work together to fill in the data sheet provided. As discussed earlier, think carefully about the information that you will have to record because it will not be available on the dried specimen. When making the collection of the plant; think carefully the amount of material needed, the position and orientation of the specimen. 2. Below is an example of a herbarium label. Briefly answer the following questions. FLORA OF BELIZE Pinus caribaea Morelet Pinaceae Date: 13th September 1928 Locality: Maskall; 1 Km along road towards Bomba. Habitat: Growing in open pine savanna. Collector: Gentle, Percival H. With Proctor, G.R. & Schipp, W.A. 26 No. 193 3. Write down three important types of information missing from this specimen label. A. B. C. 4. Write down three important characters of a plant that you might want to record on a specimen label because they will not be visible on a dried herbarium specimen. A. B. C. 5. Name three types of additional material can you collect with your herbarium specimen A. B. C. 27 Country District Collector initials Collected with Date (d, m, y) GPS recording (Degs, Mins, Secs) Coll. number Collectors Full Name Location ______________N/S ______________E/W Habitat DD/DM/DMS WGS84 Y/N Distance from GPS reading: Waypoint: Family Altitude (m) Binomial Det by: Det date: Photos Description: (habit, sizes, colours, smell, latex, etc) Y/N Silica gel Y/N Local name, language: Carpological separate Y / N Number of carpological collections. Multiple sheets Y/N 28 Total number of sheets: No. of labels required: Families III • Gentianaceae Leaves simple and opposite Leaves entire and often sessile Leaves shiny and slightly plastic-feeling Examples include red chilar and k’es-ru-pam • Turneraceae Leaves simple and alternate Secondary nerves pinnate Pair of yellow or green glands towards the base of the leaf blade margin Yellow axillary flower with furry 3-lobed stigma Easily confused with some Malvaceae, but differentiated by the strictly pinnate venation (not 3-5-veined at base), lack of pulvinous and 3-lobed stigma Examples include wild damiana and butterfly tree • Dilleniaceae Leaves simple and alternate Sandpaper feel to leaves Leaves serrate with secondary veins reaching tips of teeth Peeling bark Often lianas or scrambling shrub Examples include sandpaper tree, yaha and chaparo • Convolvulaceae Leaves simple and alternate Normally vine Distinctive, showy flower Examples include morning glory and Belizean bluebell • Polygonaceae Leaves simple and alternate Ochrea Examples include bob, sea grape, wild grape and bastard logwood 29 Day 3: Thursday am - Savanna ecology Practical Exercise 3: Savanna Ecology – part 1 Aims: The purpose of this exercise is to provide you with experience of conducting first stage rapid vegetation and botanical reconnaissance surveys in a biodiverse tropical environment with tight time constraints. It is meant to mirror real life situations that professional botanists frequently face as part of their research or consultancy contracts. You will be expected to identify and describe the primary habitat you see in the field. You will be expected to produce a brief description, sketch & brief list of key species (~4) for each ecotone that you observe, with brief notes on the ecological or human influences on each ecotone. Objectives: 1. To learn recognition of vegetation types & ecotones on the ground 2. To develop the ability to describe vegetation structure subjectively and identify the dominant species of an ecosystem 3. To develop the ability to assess the fidelity of species to specific habitats, ecological interpretation of vegetation patterns and the calculation of time and resources required to conduct full biodiversity assessments based on rapid reconnaissance 4. To gain further experience in field plant identification Exercise: • Walk length of transect briefly observing the ecosystems that you pass through. • Walk along transect back to field station slowly observing & recording your thoughts and bagging key species representative of each habitat. 30 Day 3: Thursday pm - Savanna ecology Practical Exercise 3: Savanna Ecology – part 2 Exercise: • Keying out of key species to family, genus, species level those plants collected during the morning using available literature. • Discussion within groups of the number of habitats observed and the likely time & resources required to conduct a complete inventory of the area. • Consolidation of notes Following discussion in your groups please write the following for each vegetation type that you saw today: 1. 2. 3. 4. Brief description of the vegetation type Dominant families of the vegetation type List of other species observed in this vegetation type Environmental factors that may be important in this vegetation type 31 Families IV A group called the Lamiales are very important in the savanna. Genera for each group are provided for these families because many of the genera have different family placement to those listed in Balick’s (2000) Checklist of the Vascular Plants of Belize. • Acanthaceae Leaves simple and opposite Raised ridge at node Leaves toothed Often large bracts in inflorescence Examples include red head indian, contra hierba, cholom-chak-mut, hulup and maravilla de monte Aphelandra, Asystasia, Avicennia, Barleria, Beloperone, Blechum, Bravaisia, Carlowrightia, Dicliptera, Elytraria, Graptophyllum, Hemigraphis, Hygrophila, Jacobinia, Justicia, Lepidagathis, Louteridium, Mendoncia, Odontonema, Pseuderanthemum, Ruellia, Sanchezia, Teliostachya, Tetramerium, Thunbergia • Bignoniaceae Most species lianas or trees Leaves compound and opposite Examples include gerninda morada, garlic vine and mayflower Two genera (Crescentia and Amphitecna) trees and shrubs Leaves simple and whorled Examples include calabash and wild calabash Adenocalymma, Amphilophium, Amphitecna, Anemopaegma, Arrabidaea, Callichlamys, Ceratophytum, Clytostoma, Crescentia, Cydista, Fernandoa, Godmania, Jacaranda, Lundia, Macfadyena, Mansoa, Martinella, Mussatia, Pachyptera, Paragonia, Parmentiera, Pithecoctenium, Podranea, Pseudocatalpa, Scobinaria, Spathodea, Stizophyllum, Tabebuia, Tecoma, Tynanthus, Xylophragma • Verbenaceae Leaves simple and opposite Square stem Leaves toothed Flowers weakly bilabiate Examples include pidgeon berry, wildsage, spanish thyme, pañuelo de Sarah, and blue vervain Bouchea, Citharexylum, Lantana, Lippia, Petrea, Priva, Rehdera, Stachytarpheta, Tamonea, Verbena 32 • Lamiaceae Leaves simple or palmately compound and opposite Square stem Leaves toothed Leaves often verticillate (two pairs appear to occur at same node) in herbs Flowers bilabiate Vegetation often with pleasant odour Examples include mint, John Crow bead berries, Charleston, fiddle wood and yax-nik Aegiphila, Callicarpa, Catoferia, Clerodendrum, Cornutia, Gmelina, Hyptis, Leonurus, Marsypianthes, Ocimum, Plectranthus, Salvia, Scutellaria, Solenostemon, Tectona, Teucrium, Vitex • Orobanchaceae Leaves simple and opposite (Hemi-)Parasitic Turns black upon drying Leaves toothed to lobed Inflorescence a raceme Agalinis, Buchnera, Escobedia, Lamourouxia • Plantaginaceae Leaves simple and opposite Very difficult to differentiate from Orobanchaceae and other Lamiales Examples include la disgracia Angelonia, Bacopa, Benjaminia, Mecardonia, Plantago, Russelia, Scoparia, Stemodia Savanna Genera • Utricularia (Lentibulariaceae) Leaves simple and opposite Interpetiolar stipule Leaves entire • Miconia & Clidemia (Melastomataceae) Leaves simple and opposite 3 – 9 nerves from base of leaf blade Shrubs Often very hairy Flowers usually in panicles Examples include chigger nits, white maya and sirin • Chamaecrista (Fabaceae) Leaves pinnately compound and alternate Stipules usually conspicuous 33 Leaves variable from 1 pair of leaflets through to many pairs of leaflets Solitary, yellow “Cassia” flower held at nodes Herbs or small woody shrubs • Polygala (Polygalaceae) Leaves simple and alternate or whorled Inflorescence a raceme Small herbs to 60 cm Flowers normally white, pink, purple, rarely green • Mimosa (Fabaceae) Leaves bipinnately compound and alternate Stipules Spines often present, many different types, on stem and rhachis Inflorescence a round, dense head of pink flowers Woody herbs, shrubs and vines • Xyris (Xyridaceae) Leaves simple and alternate Dense inflorescence head Flowers with three large yellow petals Herb Found in damp grassland across savanna • Hyptis (Lamiaceae) Leaves simple and opposite Square stem Leaves toothed Inflorescence a dense round head Flowers tiny and bilabiate Vegetation often with pleasant odour 34 Day 4: Friday am - Rare and endemic species Aims: This session aims to introduce students to the identification of some of the rare and endemic taxa found in the savanna. Students will also have an opportunity to recap the families learnt so far. Objectives: 1. To introduce some of the endemic taxa of the Belizean savanna, their identification, ecology and distribution. 2. To introduce some of the rarer species of the Belizean savanna, their identification, ecology and distribution. 3. To discuss the meaning of rare and endemic. 4. To summarise the characters, families & genera learnt throughout the course Endemic vascular plant species of the lowland savanna of Belize Provided below is a list of the endemic species of Belize according to the checklist of Belize (Balick 2000) with species that occur in the lowland savanna in bold. Magnoliophyta Family Acanthaceae Annonaceae Apocynaceae Arecaceae Asteraceae Celastraceae Dioscoreaceae Eriocaulaceae Euphorbiaceae Fabaceae Faboideae Fabaceae Mimosoideae Hypericaceae Lamiaceae Melastomataceae Moraceae Myrtaceae Species Louteridium chartaceum Leonard Oxandra proctorii Lundell Laubertia gentlei Lundell Metastelma stenomeres (Standl. & Steyerm.) W.D. Stevens Schippia concolor Burret Ageratum radicans B.L. Rob. Koanophyllon sorensenii R.M. King & H. Rob. Neurolaena schippii B.L. Rob. Telanthophora bartlettii H. Rob. & Brettell Crossopetalum gentlei (Lundell) Lundell Zinowiewia pallida Lundell Dioscorea sandwithii B.G. Schub. Paepalanthus belizensis Moldenke Paepalanthus gentlei Moldenke Syngonanthus bartlettii Moldenke Syngonanthus hondurensis Moldenke Syngonanthus lundellianus Moldenke Syngonanthus oneillii Moldenke Dalechampia schippii Standl. Gymnanthes belizensis G.L. Webster Galactia anomala Lundell Mimosa pinetorum Standl. Pithecellobium peckii S.F. Blake Hypericum aphyllum Lundell Scutellaria lundellii Epling Miconia ochroleuca Standl. Dorstenia belizensis C.C. Berg Calyptranthes bartlettii Standl. 35 Nyctaginaceae Passifloraceae Piperaceae Poaceae Cycadophyta Polypodiopsida Polygonaceae Rutaceae Zamiaceae Schizaeaceae Thelypteridaceae Calyptranthes cuneifolia Lundell Eugenia rufidula Lundell Plinia peroblata (Lundell) Lundell Pisonia proctorii Lundell Passiflora urbaniana Killip Piper schippianum Trel. & Standl. Axonopus ciliatifolius Swallen Paspalum peckii F.T. Hubb. Coccoloba x lundellii Standl. Amyris rhomboidea Standl. Zamia prasina W. Bull Anemia bartlettii Mickel Thelypteris schippii (Weath.) A.R. Sm. Metastelma stenomeres (Standl. & Steyerm.) W.D. Stevens Leaves simple & opposite White latex Vine Small white flowers (5 petals) held in dense clumps at nodes Leaves narrow with mucronate tip (pointed) Frequent Can be confused with similar M. thalamosiphon and M. schlechtendalii, but M. stenomeres has narrower leaves than both of these species, see photoguide. Schippia concolor Burret Small palm Solitary Palmate leaves Savanna and forest Frequent (locally abundant) in savannas in parts of Belize, Cayo & Stann Creek Schippia concolor can look similar to palmetto the common savanna palm, however S. concolor has a solitary habit (it has a single stem palmetto has dense clumps of stems), floppy leaves with a yellow-ish tinge (palmetto has stiff leaves with curved spines along the leaf stalk). It also has corky bark (palmetto has a fibrous trunk which is often blackened after fire) and does not have curved thorns on the petiole like palmetto. Ageratum radicans B.L. Rob. Small herb Asteraceae to about 50 cm, distinctive pale mauve (blue-ish purple) flowers. Leaves simple and opposite Leaves fleshy, hairless & 3 veined above the base Abundant in most savannas Crossopetalum gentlei (Lundell) Lundell Leaves simple and opposite 36 Slightly toothed Decurrent petiole Small shrub Delicate inflorescence with tiny red flowers and small fruit, red when ripe Occasional Difficult to differentiate from other Crossopetalum species. Mostly found in Belize and Orange Walk. Zinowiewia pallida Lundell Leaves simple & opposite, entire (no teeth), slightly leathery, oblanceolate to oblongelliptic, 4-9.5 cm. long, 1.5-3 cm. wide, obtuse or rarely rounded at the apex, leaves pale green, pale beneath. Decurrent petiole Tiny flowers in cymes 2-3 cm. long, pedunculate, 4-5 times dichotomous Fruits spatulate-oblong, 15 mm. long, 4 mm. wide, obtuse or rounded and shortmucronate at the apex, attenuate to the base, costate and reticulate-veined Rare Mountain Pine Ridge and southern savannas Dalechampia schippii Standl. Vine Distinctive bracts on inflorescence are pinkish and unlobed. Leaves are not lobed Unlikely to be confused with other Dalechampia spp. which are confined to forest (normally have lobed leaves and bracts) Abundant in Mountain Pine Ridge, occasional in southern Belize, Stann Creek & Toledo Hypericum aphyllum Lundell Leaves simple and opposite Unbranched, annual herb 0.4-0.65 m high Leaves sessile (no petiole), appressed (pressed against the stem), tiny (1-2.7 x 0.3-0.5 mm) with no prominent midrib 20-50 flowers per inflorescence, which branches once at base (occasionally 1 lower side branch see photoguide) Tiny (petals 2.5-3 x 0.5-1 mm), golden yellow flowers Extremely rare Southern savannas only Passiflora urbaniana Killip Normal Passiflora characteristics Abundant & widespread in lowland savanna Only Passiflora in savanna Purple and white flowers Simple leaf, rarely 3 lobed 37 Wacky stipules & bracts ERIOCAULACEAE Paepalanthus belizensis Moldenke Paepalanthus gentlei Moldenke Syngonanthus bartlettii Moldenke Syngonanthus hondurensis Moldenke Syngonanthus lundellianus Moldenke Syngonanthus oneillii Moldenke Tiny herbs that are very difficult to identify beyond family (impossible in field), Kew’s Neotropikey has this to say: “Although Eriocaulaceae can be easily recognized among the other Monocotyledons by possessing small flowers arranged in dense capitula, identifying the genera and the species is not a simple task. The genera are usually defined by floral characteristics that are difficult to see in the field. Species identification is also not simple for several reasons.” The three terrestrial genera found in Belize (the 4th, Tonina is aquatic) can be differentiated by the following characteristics: Eriocaulon - fenestrated leaves, diplostemonous flowers, and glandular petals. Paepalanthus - pistillate flowers with free petals, style branching at the same level, and 4-sporangiate anthers. Syngonanthus - pistillate flowers with fused petals, style branching at the same level, and 4-sporangiate anthers. Recommendation: collect specimens and send for identification. Currently very little is known about these species & their distribution, a few are known only from type specimens. Seem to like damp areas (track ruts) between sedge clumps in savanna. Paspalum peckii F.T. Hubb. Identification of grasses is a specialist subject and would require an entire field course in itself, similar to eriocaulaceae relies on obscure floral characters best viewed under a microscope. Calyptranthes cuneifolia Lundell Normal myrtaceae characteristics Myrtaceae are difficult identify, but,,, Tree, to 6 metres Leaves, petiolate, coriaceous, obtuse or rounded at apex and cuneate at base Branchlets wingless Pubescence if any, grayish or yellowish- white, on inflorescence and young growth Panicles solitary (not paired) Flower buds glabrous above the middle Flowers 20-30 38 Only found so far in savannas of Toledo (also found on ridge tops in Maya Mountains in Toledo) Some rare species of the lowland savanna Chamaecrista fagonioides (Vogel) H.S. Irwin & Barneby var. fagonioides Herb Leaves compound and alternate Scandent herb 2 pairs of leaflets, not overlapping at base Leaflets glandular hirsuite (similar C. hispidula is glabrous) Leaflets green and rounded in shape (similar C. hispidula is variegated purple and green and rhombic leaflets with acute apex) Abundant in MPR & rare in southern savannas Chamaecrista rotundifolia (Pers.) Greene Woody herb Leaves compound & alternate Leaflets 1 pair Erect, slightly woody herb Stem long pilose Leaflets larger than and much rounder than C. diphylla No petiolar gland (C. diphylla has at least 1 petiolar gland) Very similar to Chamaecrista diphylla (which is extremely common) Extremely rare, only found in Orange Walk & Toledo (DRFR & PCNP) Inga pinetorum Pittier Tree/shrub Leaves compound and alternate Leaves 2 pairs Foliar nectary head small 0.5-1.5 mm diameter and round Most of plant densely brown/yellow pubescent Small pod (less than 5.5 x 3 cm) Mainly found in MPR, rarely found in southern savannas Krameria ixine Loefl. Herb Dry sandy savanna only Leaves simple & alternate Spine at leaf tip Striking purple/pink flowers Magenta burr fruit Extremely rare Found in Orange Walk and Belize only 39 For the future A crash course to some of the major plant families in Belize by characters Provided below is a brief list of some of the important characters that we have discussed during the course. For each character is provided some of the major groups in Belize that have this character and some suggestions as to how to differentiate these groups. This list is by no means exclusive. The best guide to these characters is Gentry’s (1994) ‘A Fieldguide to the Woody Plants of Northwest South America’ Latex Some families with this character include: Apocynaceae – white latex, simple and opposite leaves Clusiaceae – yellow to orange latex, simple and opposite Hypericaceae – yellow to orange latex, simple and opposite Moraceae – white latex, simple and alternate leaves, conical terminal stipule Sapotaceae – white latex, simple and alternate leaves, “coke bottle” petiole and rusty buds Stipules Some families with this character include: Fabaceae – compound and alternate leaves, barrel pulvinous, pea scent Malpighiaceae – intrapetiolar stipule, simple and opposite, T-shaped hairs Rubiaceae – interpetiolar stipule, simple and opposite leaves Chrysobalanaceae –Simple, alternate leaves, lenticellate twigs, regular two-ranked leaves & sand-textured inner bark Glands Some families with this character include: Fabaceae – members of the Mimosoid and Caesalpinoid subfamilies often have glandular projections on the leaf rhachis and petiole; these are commonly cup-shaped or spikeshaped; compound and alternate leaves, barrel pulvinous, pea scent Malpighiaceae – many species have a pair of glands on the leaf blade (oily or discoloured patch) or the leaf petiole (distinct projections) or as a pair of projections on the sepals; intrapetiolar stipule, simple and opposite, T-shaped hairs Diospyros (Ebenaceae) – two to many oily patches that are translucent against the light and may form a band on either side of the midrib, simple, alternate leaves, two-ranked and black inner bark. Euphorbiaceae – vary variable family but some members may have glands (often as a pair) on or near the base of the leaf blade or on the leaf petiole (distinct projections); often have stipules & serrate leaf margin Pellucid punctations Some families with this character include: Myrtaceae –simple, opposite leaves, pleasant, often spicy odour, collecting vein Salicaceae – simple, alternate leaves, serrate leaf margin Rutaceae –compound, alternate leaves, citrus scent, spines, serrate leaf margins 40 Scent Some families with this character include: Lauraceae – rank, turpentiny odour, simple, alternate leaves which are have a shiny surface, are messily arranged on the branch & have messily arranged secondary veins Annonaceae – rank, turpentiny odour, simple, alternate leaves which are have a dull surface, are neatly arranged on the branch in rows & have neatly arranged, parallel secondary veins Myrtaceae – pleasant, often spicy odour, simple, opposite leaves, pellucid punctations, collecting vein Rutaceae – citrus scent, compound, alternate leaves, pellucid punctations, spines, serrate leaf margins Fabaceae – pea scent, compound, alternate leaves, stipules, barrel pulvinous Meliaceae – sweetish odour, compound, alternate leaves, pellucid punctations, collecting vein Burseraceae & Anacardiaceae – strongly turpentine to sweetish or mango-like odour, compound, alternate leaves, difficult to tell apart Proteaceae – snapped twigs smell strongly of corned beef, compound (occasionally simple), alternate leaves, serrate leave margins Bark Some families with this character include: Lauraceae – “satisfying snap” Annonaceae – “stringy bark” Malvaceae – “stringy bark” Spines or thorns Some families with this character include: Rutaceae – May have large spines on the trunks, and/or thorns on branches and leaves. Malvaceae – members of the subfamily Bombacoideae such as Ceiba often have large conical spines on the trunks and branches. Arecaceae (palms) – many have spines, but it is pretty easy to identify as a palm! Solanum (Solanaceae) – spines often on stem and leaves, simple, alternate leaves, leaves hairy and with a unpleasant smell when crushed. Fabaceae – many different members of this family have thorns, below are some examples: Mimosa– tends to have a variety of spines on the stems and leaf rhachis. Acacia– Some Acacia have a pair of swollen hollow thorns at the base of the petiole (these have evolved from stipules) which resemble cockspurs or bullhorns; these are often inhabited by aggressive ants so be careful! Tendrils Some families with this character include: Passiflora –tendril from the same axis as the flower and petiole base. Curcurbitaceae - tendril inserted 90o to the petiole base. Vitaceae – curled tendril inserted 180o to the petiole base Fabaceae – some vines in this family have terminal leaflet which has turned into a tendril, these always have compound, alternate leaves with the normal Fabaceae characters (barrel pulvinous, stipules) 41 Bignoniaceae – lianas in this family often have a terminal leaflet which has turned into a tendril, the leaves are compound and opposite. Smilacaceae – pair of tendrils from the petiole Sapindaceae – forked tendril, derived from part of inflorescence Gouania (Rhamnaceae) – butterfly tongue tendril coiled in one plane 42 Appendix 2 Certificate of Attendance An Introduction to the Vascular Plants of Belizean Savanna awarded to Awarded by Date Appendix 3 An Introduction to the Vascular Plants of the Belizean Savanna November 2-5, 2010. Summary of Course Evaluation Forms (11 received) Each question was evaluated using the following scale: 1 – Strongly Disagree 2 – Disagree 3 – Neutral 4 – Agree 5 – Strongly Agree N – Not applicable Instructors: 1. 2. 3. 4. 1 2 3 1 The instructors had sufficient knowledge to deliver the course. 2 The course was well organized The instructors delivered the course in an easily understood manner. 3 4 Overall, I liked the instruction style. 4 2 2 4 2 1 5 7 7 5 6 N Specific comments on the Instructors and the way the course was delivered: 1. The instructors had sufficient knowledge for the delivery of the course and were easily accessible. 2. The course was delivered in a very efficient, practical way. 1 2 3 4 2 1 5 7 8 N 1 2 3 2 4 5 5 2 1 5 2 6 7 8 N 4 N 6 1 1 5 7 3 8 7 2 2 6 8 1 2 Course: 1. 2. 3. 4. I had the appropriate/sufficient background for this course. The course content was pitched at the right level for me. The material being taught was relevant and useful. I believe that what I have learnt from the course will help me in my work. 1 2 3 4 1 Course handouts and practical exercises: 1. The contents of the course booklet provided for this course was appropriate 2. The course booklet was pitched at the right level for me. 3. The practical exercises were well organised. 4. The photoguides were a useful tool for learning about savanna plants. 5. The photoguides will be useful to me in my work 6. The photoguides contained relevant and useful photos 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 2 3 2 1 Specific comments on the photoguides. Are there any common savanna species or species of interest that you feel should be covered in the common savanna species photoguide? Are there any specific comments on the photoguide of endemic and rare savanna species? “We need more photoguides.” “The photoguide was helpfull.” “It would be great to get (or be able to download) a hi-quality (res.) copy to use. Some NGOs may already have a laminator.” “More on the grasses & sedges.” “The photoguides is very useful, probably the endemic and rare savanna species should include the districts they are found.201D Specific comments on course content, especially what you found useful and anything you had hoped would be included? “I found usefull in to learn about the parts of plants.” “The course was very good and the photoguides and family name will be very useful to me.” “It was very good and now used full.” “All good.” “The entire course was useful in many ways specifically for me as Park Manager and Fire Management Officer. Knowledge of the savanna vegetation is important for the Integrated Fire Management.” “The family name were relevant – an intro to another aquatic system.” “The content of the course was just right even though if we could include other broadleaf species.” “Instructors made all easy.” “Names and Scientific Names of plants.” Any future improvements to the course that you would recommend? “We need hand lence.” “Was very interesting for me.” “It was excellent.” “N” “Great job! Any possibility of a follow-up (Bladen?) in 3 months? Thank you!” “Expand on the species ID in the families. More work on specimen preservation (practical).” “The terminoly skitchs [sic] will enhance and aid as teaching tool.” “An extra day to include some fo the most common broadleaf families.” “All good.” “Plant ID in rain forest.” Venue: Any comments on the location for this course? (Paynes Creek National Park, Toledo): “No. But I think it can’t be any part.” “The location of the course at Payne’s Creek National Park was good and made species more thick.” “No.” “It was just perfect due to all thee blant we found.” “Good location.” Need to improve on toilet facilities.” “Very good for new and starter for plant IDs.” “The location was good as species were abundant and easily found also the facility was ok, the cooking (food) was good.” “Oh No.” “None, was excellent place.”