Download An Introduction to the Vascular Plants of the Belizean Savanna

An Introduction to the Vascular Plants of the Belizean Savanna, November 2010
Zoë Goodwin
The ‘Introduction to the Vascular Plants of the Belizean Savanna’ course was held
from the 2nd to the 5th of November 2010 (3 days) at Paynes Creek Ranger Station, in
the Paynes Creek National Park, Toledo District.
The course was designed to provide attendees with the basic skills and knowledge to
identify plants and vegetation types in the field and how to collect a herbarium
specimen for subsequent confirmation of the identification. During the course students
became familiar with the diverse flora of the savanna, with special reference to the
rare and endemic species. Although the course focussed on savanna plants, the skills
learnt could be applied to the flora of any ecosystem.
In addition, students became familiar with some of the terminology used to describe
plants and receive basic nomenclatural training to enable them to understand the
principles of plant names.
The main objectives of the course were as follows:
1. To gain an understanding of the basic principles of plant identification
2. To learn how to collect a herbarium specimen for further identfication
3. To become familiar with the flora of the lowland savanna
4. To become familiar with the endemic species of the savanna and some of the rare
species of the savanna
Figure 1. Students press a plant specimen in the field.
11 students (Figure 2) attended the course (33 training days total), comprising rangers
and research staff from two NGOs based in Toledo, Ya’axche Conservation Trust
(YCT) and Toledo Institute of Development and the Environment (TIDE).
Marchilio Ack
Marcus Cholom
Virginia Fuhs
Mario Muschamp
Eugenio Ah
Elmar Requena
Santiago Cucul
Luis Ishim
Norman Andrew Williams
Owen Leonard Williams
Jonathan Alford
(Head Ranger, YCT)
(Ranger, YCT)
(Development Officer, YCT)
(Terrestrial Manager, TIDE)
(Assistant Terrestrial Manager, TIDE)
(Assistant Terrestrial Biologist, TIDE)
(Ranger, TIDE)
(Ranger, TIDE)
(Ranger, TIDE)
(Ranger, TIDE)
(Volunteer, TIDE)
Figure 2. Lecturers and attendees at the end of the course at Paynes Creek Ranger Station.
The course was taught by Zoë Goodwin (RBGE, Darwin botanist), Dr Steven Brewer
(Belize Foundation for Research and Environmental Education, tropical ecologist)
and German Lopez (ERI, Darwin botanist).
The Darwin Project contributed teaching staff, funded Dr Brewer’s assistance,
designed the course structure & helped with much of the advance preparation for the
course (such as organising field kit). ERI promoted the course and in collaboration
with TIDE organised logistics during the period of the course, the course was hosted
by TIDE at their ranger station in the Paynes Creek National Park.
Students were provided with a copy of the
course booklet (Appendix 1), laminated copy of
a draft photoguide, printed copy of a photoguide
to the rare and endemic species of the lowland
savanna, notebook, pencils & erasers (Figure 3).
Figure 3. A course booklet and copies of
draft photoguides were given to attendees.
Students were guided through the process of
making herbarium specimens and specimen data
collection; each student practiced producing a
plant specimen. Following this the group
produced 15 high quality herbarium specimens
of savanna species (Figure 3). In addition to
basic plant identification students were
introduced to basic savanna ecology such as the
importance of soil and hydrological regimes.
Students were were able to discuss and compare
soil profiles (Figure 4) dug in three habitats,
open grassland savanna, dense pine savanna
woodland and broadleaf gallery forest.
Figure 4. Students were fascinated by carnivorous Drosera capillaris (left); Dr Steven Brewer explains
the intricacies of sedge and grass identification (right).
Summary of feedback from students1
Students enjoyed the trip immensely and it was judged by them to be extremely
useful.
One issue was a shortage in the provision of hand lenses as the hand lenses loaned fro
UB were accidentally left at TIDE headquarters in Punta Gorda.
Summary of feedback from teachers
The ERI and TIDE performed an excellent job at co-ordinating and organising the
logistics. This made a big difference on the success of the course, especially given the
number of students attending the course.
The facilities at Paynes Creek Ranger Station although basic were fine for this course.
The use of the dining area for teaching was fine for this number of people. Although
the station is relatively remote the variety of savanna ecosystems within easy reach of
the field station was appreciated by staff and students.
1
Full student feedback is available in Appendix 3.
Due to the lack of power the use of a flip chart and photoguides worked really well.
Future courses run by ERI should definitely take advantage of the photoguides
produced by the project (and any similar outputs produced by the ERI in the future) as
it was felt that they were a great resource during the training.
Many of the students lacked a formal education beyond primary school level yet
posessed a huge amount of practical field experience gained during their careers so
the use of photoguides combined with simplified technical explanations of plant
characters and ecology worked really well. Many of the students recognised the plants
being identified during the course so the photoguides proved a great resource for them
in their jobs as well as a teaching resource.
For such a short course in future it is suggested that the semi-formal assessment for
the students to test themselves should be skipped. Many of the students enjoyed this
part but felt it to be quite stressful and the teachers felt that this part was an
unnecessary addition given the short nature of the course.
Course structure worked well.
Amount of preplanning by someone with local knowledge and a familiarity with the
flora made a big difference.
Appendix 1. An Introduction to the Vascular Plants of the Belizean Savanna – Course
Handbook
Appendix 2. An Introduction to the Vascular Plants of the Belizean Savanna –
Certificate
Appendix 3. An Introduction to the Vascular Plants of the Belizean Savanna –
Summary of evaluation forms
Appendix 1
An Introduction to
the Vascular Plants
of the Belizean
Savanna
Handbook
Paynes Creek National Park
November 2010
1
Introduction............................................................................................................................................3
Objectives ..............................................................................................................................................3
Timetable ...............................................................................................................................................4
Day 1: Tuesday pm - A brief introduction to plants & their names ......................................................5
Useful general terminology................................................................................................................5
Major plant groups .........................................................................................................................5
Plant habit ......................................................................................................................................6
What is a leaf?................................................................................................................................7
Introduction to plant identification ....................................................................................................8
A brief introduction to plant names ...................................................................................................9
Names and ranks (from family to species) ....................................................................................9
Meanings of Names .....................................................................................................................10
Families I .........................................................................................................................................11
Practical Exercise 1: Leaves ............................................................................................................12
Day 2: Wednesday am - Flowers & other interesting characters.........................................................15
An introduction to flowers ...............................................................................................................15
Parts of a flower ...........................................................................................................................15
Common types of flower in the savanna......................................................................................16
Other characters important in field identification of plants .............................................................17
Families II ........................................................................................................................................18
Day 2: Wednesday pm - Making a herbarium specimen and further identification ............................19
Making a herbarium specimen.........................................................................................................19
Collecting and observing .............................................................................................................19
Practical Exercise 2: Collecting a Herbarium Specimen .................................................................26
Families III.......................................................................................................................................29
Day 3: Thursday am - Savanna ecology ..............................................................................................30
Practical Exercise 3: Savanna Ecology – part 1...............................................................................30
Day 3: Thursday pm - Savanna ecology ..............................................................................................31
Practical Exercise 3: Savanna Ecology – part 2...............................................................................31
Families IV.......................................................................................................................................32
Savanna Genera ...............................................................................................................................33
Day 4: Friday am - Rare and endemic species.....................................................................................35
Endemic vascular plant species of the lowland savanna of Belize.................................................35
Some rare species of the lowland savanna.......................................................................................39
For the future....................................................................................................................................40
Instructors:
Zoë Goodwin (RBGE)
Steven Brewer (BFREE)
German Lopez (ERI)
2
Introduction
This is a short course designed to provide attendees with the basic skills and knowledge to identify
plants and vegetation types in the field and how to collect a herbarium specimen for subsequent
confirmation of the identification. During the course students will become familiar with the diverse
flora of the savanna, with special reference to the rare and endemic species. Although this course will
focus on savanna plants, the skills learnt can be applied to the flora of any ecosystem.
In addition, students will become familiar with some of the terminology used to describe plants and
receive basic nomenclatural training to enable them to understand the principles of plant names.
This handbook is intended as a complementary guide to the course, giving some additional
background information and providing some examples of concepts introduced on the course. It also
includes the instructions for the practical sessions in the course.
The course and this handbook are being provided by the Environmental Research Institute of the
University of Belize with the assistance of the Darwin Initiative project (project no. 17022), the
Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. The course is being hosted by Toledo Institute for Development
and Environment.
Objectives
1. To gain an understanding of the basic principles of plant identification
2. To learn how to collect a herbarium specimen for further identfication
3. To become familiar with the flora of the lowland savanna
4. To become familiar with the endemic species of the savanna and some of the rare species of the
savanna
3
Timetable
Day 1
Tuesday 2 November 2010
0900 Meet at TIDE headquarters, Punta Gorda
0930 Depart TIDE headquarters, Punta Gorda by boat
1100 Arrive Paynes Creek National Park Ranger Station, settle into accomodation
1200 Lunch
1330 Welcome and introductory lecture
1730 Dinner and rest
1930 Brief evening lecture, discussion of following day’s activites and family recap
Day 2
Wednesday 3 November
0600 Breakfast
0700 Lecture and practicals
1200 Lunch
1330 Herbarium specimen lecture and practical
1730 Dinner and rest
1930 Brief evening lecture, discussion of following day’s activites and family recap
Day 3
Thursday 4 November
0600 Breakfast
0700 Lecture and ecology practical part 1
1200 Packed lunch
1330 Ecology practical part 2
1730 Dinner and rest
1930 Brief evening lecture, unpacking of press, discussion of following day’s
activites and family recap
Day 4
Friday 5 November
0600 Breakfast
0700 Lecture and practicals
1200 Lunch and pack
1300 Depart Paynes Creek National Park Ranger Station by boat
1430 Arrive TIDE headquarters, Punta Gorda
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Day 1: Tuesday pm - A brief introduction to plants & their names
Aims:
This session will introduce students to some of the technical terms used for identifying the different
parts of a plant that are most useful in field plant identification. This session will also introduce the
basic structure and format of plant names and introduce students to four important savanna plant
families.
Objectives:
1. To become familiar with names of plant parts
2. To gain understanding of the general concepts of plant names
3. To become familiar with characters of four important families in the savanna.
Useful general terminology
Major plant groups
Bryophytes
Mosses, liverworts and hornworts are some of the original landplants and they reproduce via spores.
They do not have stems, vascular systems or roots, only leaf-like thalluses.
In Belize bryophytes tend to be found in damp places near rivers & often in the Maya Mountains.
Ferns and allies
Ferns do not have either seeds or flowers (they reproduce via spores). However unlike bryophytes
they are vascular plants, they have stems (containing xylem and phloem), leaves, and roots. There are
about 12,000 species of ferns and related plants.
Examples of ferns in Belize include tree ferns, Selaginella and tiger fern.
Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms are seed-bearing plants; they have stems, leaves, and roots like other vascular plants.
Gymnosperm seeds are unenclosed forming outside the ovum; hence gymnosperm literally means
"naked seeds”. Their naked condition stands in contrast to the seeds or ovules of flowering plants
(angiosperms) which are enclosed during pollination.
Examples of gymnosperms in Belize include pines and cycads.
Angiosperms
The flowering plants (angiosperms) are the most diverse group of land plants. They are seedproducing plants like gymnosperms; however they possess flowers, endosperm within the seeds, and
the production of fruits that contain seeds. The majority of plants in Belize are flowering plants.
Angiosperms have traditionally been split into two groups, monocots and dicots, this split is not
supported now (there are many angiosperms such as Piper that are neither) however it is still a useful
differentiation in the field and many people still to refer to it.
Monocotyledons
Monocotyledons, also known as monocots, typically have one cotyledon (seed-leaf) as seedlings, in
contrast to the two cotyledons typical of dicots. They also tend to have flower parts in threes,
scattered vascular bundles in the stem, adventitious roots and parallel leaf venation. There are
between 50,000 and 60,000 species within this group; the largest family in this group (and in the
flowering plants as a whole) by number of species are the orchids (family Orchidaceae), with more
than 20,000 species.
5
Examples of monocotyledons in Belize include grasses, lilies, bananas, gingers, heliconias, corn,
rice, palms, onions and orchids.
Dicotyledons
The dicotyledons, also known as dicots, are a group of flowering plants whose seed typically has two
embryonic leaves or cotyledons. This group is also characterized by pollen structure, flower parts in
four or five, vascular bundles in concentric circles, roots developing from the radicle and reticulate
(net) leaf venation. There are around 199,000 species within this group.
Examples of dicotyledons in Belize include tamarind, Hibiscus, mamey, mahogany, dog balls and
cotton tree.
Plant habit
The habit of the plant can be an important feature of a plant. Some plants have different habits
depending on the growing conditions. Provided are some of the basic terms for describing plant
habit.
Herb
An herbaceous plant (in botanical use simply herb) is a plant that has leaves and stems that die down
at the end of the growing season to the soil level. They have no persistent woody stem above ground.
An herbaceous plant may be annual, biennial or perennial.
Shrub
A shrub or bush is distinguished from a tree by its multiple stems and lower height, usually less than
5–6 m (15–20 ft) tall. A large number of plants can be either shrubs or trees, depending on the
growing conditions they experience.
Tree
A tree is a perennial woody plant. It is most often defined as a woody plant that has many secondary
branches supported clear of the ground on a single main stem or trunk with clear apical dominance.
Some definitions require a minimum height specification of 3 m to 6 m or a minimum of 10 cm trunk
diameter (30 cm girth).
Vine
A vine refers to any climbing or trailing plant.
Liana
A liana is a long-stemmed, woody vine rooted in the soil at ground level and that use trees, as well as
other means of vertical support, to climb up to the canopy in order to get access to well-lit areas of
the forest.
Epiphyte
An epiphyte is a plant that grows upon another plant (such as a tree) non-parasitically; it derives its
moisture and nutrients from the air and rain and sometimes from debris accumulating around it. In
Belize this includes many ferns, cacti, orchids, and bromeliads, epiphytes are often called air plants.
6
What is a leaf?
7
Introduction to plant identification
What type of leaf does your plant have?
Is it Simple?
(kidneyshaped)
(heartshaped)
Or is it Compound?
8
What kind of insertion does your leaf have?
Is it Alternate or Opposite?
A brief introduction to plant names
Names and ranks (from family to species)
Family
-aceae
(eg, Orchidaceae)
Subfamily
-oideae
(eg, Epidendroideae)
Genus
(eg, Prosthechea Knowles & Westc.)
species
(eg, Prosthechea cochleata (L.) W.E.Higgins)
Family: usually end with “aceae” as in Rosaceae, but there are 8 families that have alternative
names. The ones on the left are the older names, and the ones on the right are the names that were
proposed to keep all the endings the same. Both names are valid.
Compositae
Palmae
Leguminosae
Umbelliferae
Labiatae
Guttiferae
Cruciferae
Gramineae
Asteraceae
Aracaceae
Fabaceae
Apiaceae
Lamiaceae
Clusiaceae
Brassicaceae
Poaceae
(eg, sunflowers)
(eg, palmetto)
(eg, tamarind)
(eg, carrots)
(eg, mint)
(eg, mangosteen)
(eg, cabbage)
(eg, grass)
Species: Linnean binomial
eg;
Swietenia macrophylla King
Meliaceae = family
Swietenia = genus
macrophylla = specific epithet
Swietenia macrophylla = species name
9
King = author
Authors: this is the surname of the person who first validly published a name; the authors name
should follow the standard abbreviated forms found in IPNI which is based on Brummitt and
Powell’s Authors of Plant Names (1992).
Meanings of Names
Often scientific names tell us something about the plant. The specific epithet of Mahogany is
macrophylla, ‘macro’ is Greek for big, ‘phylla’ is Greek for leaf, so mahogany’s scientific name is
Swietenia with the big leaf. The genus Calliandra, ‘Calli’ is Greek for beautiful, ‘andra’ is Greek for
male parts, so Calliandra means beautiful male parts.
Sometimes a plant is named after a person. For example in Belize, there was William August Schipp,
an Australian botanist who worked in Belize in the 1920’s and 30’s. Many plants he collected were
new to science; so many species were named after him such as the silver pimento palm, Schippia
concolor or Dalechampia schippii.
Some plants may be named after the place where they grow. For example the scientific name of
Grande betty is Cupania belizensis, the Cupania from Belize, or the scientific name of pine ridge
coffee is Erythroxylum guatemalense, which means the Erythroxylum from Guatemala.
For a more comprehensive explanation of the meanings of plant names see Stearn’s (2000)
‘Dictionary of Botanical Latin’.
10
Families I
There are many species of vascular plants in the tropics; in Belize alone there are over 4,300 species
of vascular plant recorded. This huge diversity of plants means that it can be very difficult to identify
an unknown plant straight to species. Thus the first stage to identifying your plant is to decide what
family your plant is in.
Most species within a family share a suite of common characters that can be identified in the field.
Below are examples of the key characters of four families that are important in the savanna.
• Fabaceae
Leaves compound and alternate
Stipules
Barrel-shaped pulvinous and pulvinuolules
Pea scent to crushed leaves
Pea pod fruit
Examples include Pidgeon Pea, Cockspur, Salam, Logwood, Rosewood, Madre de cacao and
Qualmwood
• Chrysobalanaceae
Leaves simple and alternate
Stipules
Lenticellate twigs
Regular two-ranked leaves
Sand-textured inner bark
Examples include Cocoa Plum and Wild Pigeon Plum
• Melastomataceae
Leaves simple and opposite
3 – 9 nerves from base of leaf blade
Examples include Chigger Nits, White Maya and Sirin
• Rubiaceae
Leaves simple and opposite
Interpetiolar stipule
Leaves entire
Examples include Coffee, Noni, Hot Lips and Polly Red Head
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Practical Exercise 1: Leaves
Aims:
To familiarise yourself with the different parts of the leaf and different types of leaves.
Objectives:
1. Familiarisation with the structure of the leaf
2. Introduction to identifying different types of leaves
Exercise:
Complete the following exercise.
1. Draw an example of a plant with simple and opposite leaves
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2. On your drawing for Question 1 above, label the following characters:
2a. Petiole
2b. Leaf blade
2c. Midrib
2d. Stipules
3. On the image of a compound, alternate leaf provided below, label the following characters:
3a. Petiole
3b. Leaflets
3c. Rhachis
3d. Leaf margin
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4. What do you think that the specific epithet of the following scientific plant names might mean?
4a. Pachira aquatica
4b. Swartzia cubensis
4c. Zamia meermanii
5. List 4 different plant habits & for each provide an example of a common plant with this habit
(you may use common names for this).
a. Habit
Example
b. Habit
Example
c. Habit
Example
d. Habit
Example
14
Day 2: Wednesday am - Flowers & other interesting characters
Aims:
This session aims to familiarise the students with the basic terminology used to describe types of
flowers and other characters that are important in field identification. Students will reinforce their
knowledge of the families learnt yesterday and will be introduced to five more important savanna
families.
Objectives:
1. To introduce the basic terminology for describing flowers
2. To gain a greater understanding of characters important in field identification
3. To introduce five families important in the savanna
An introduction to flowers
Parts of a flower
Most flowers have the same basic structures with the same basic functions. The sepals in the calyx
protect the developing flower bud, the petals in the corolla are often bright and colourful to attract
pollinators to visit, pollen is produced by the anthers in the androecium, this is is carried by
pollinators or vectors such as the wind to other flowers where it fertilizes the carpels in the ovary,
which is part of the gynoecium.
Anthers
Stamens
Stigma
Filaments
Style
A whorl of these is
called the
Androecium
Ovary
This whorl is the
Gynoecium
Petals
A whorl of
these is called
the Corolla
Sepals
A whorl of these is
called the Calyx
Pedicel
Receptacle
15
Common types of flower in the savanna
Unlike the forest it is relatively common to see plants in fruit and flower in the savanna. So it is
useful to know which flower types tend to occur in which families and genera. Below are some of the
common flower types found in the savanna with families and genera that they are found in.
Malvaceae; flower open or with corolla tube, always has five petals and showy stamens that are
joined together by their filaments. Common examples in the savanna include Hibiscus, Sida and
Melochia
Apocynaceae; flower open or with corolla tube, always with imbricate aestivation, the five petals
overlap regularly. Good examples of this include Frangipani which many people grow in their
gardens and savanna white poison wood
Composite flower; unique to Asteraceae, identifiable by a dense head composed of actinomorphic
flowers, easily confused with Hyptis (Lamiaceae) and some Rubiaceae, look closely at the type of
flower within the inflorescence.
Melastomataceae; open flower, five to many petals often white or pink, always has distinctive
anthers.
Passiflora; very distinctive flower unique to this genus.
Monocot flower; flower parts in threes, most conspicuous examples are in the Hypoxidaceae and
Iridaceae which appear to have 6 petals (3 outer and 3 inner).
Cassia flower; five petals and prominent stamens and gynoecium all twisted slightly so not
actinomorphic, often yellow. Flamboyant tree, Pride of Barbados and Chamaecrista
Acacia flower; found in the Fabaceae subfamily Mimosoideae; identifiable by constant structure
showy anthers and reduced petals, may be a spike or round ball, easily confused with
Chrysobalanaceae (look at your leaves!). Showy examples in the savanna include Calliandra,
Pithecellobium and Acacia
Pea flower; found in the Fabaceae subfamily Faboideae; identifiable by constant structure of five
petals, two keel petals, two wing petals and a single standard petal, easily confused with Polygala
and Utricularia.
Polygala; identifiable by the fimbriate petal crest, flowers always in a raceme and by only having
two outer petaloid sepals.
Utricularia; identifiable by spur, normally yellow, occasionally blue or pink, normally tiny and
associated with water or damp places.
16
Other characters important in field identification of plants
Yesterday we learnt to look at our unknown plant to decide the type of leaf (simple or compound)
and the insertion of the leaf (opposite or alternate). Once you have established this, it is time to think
about which other characters might be important.
Latex
All plants have sap, latex is used to refer to milky sap that occurs in large quantities. This is normally
white, but it can be yellow or red; sometimes this can be found in the trunk by slashing the bark or
from snapping a twig, if it is present it can always be found by squeezing the petiole of the leaf.
Stipules
Most stipules occur in pairs on either side of the petiole base like Fabaceae, however some plants
have an interpetiolar stipule like Rubiaceae, intrapetiolar stipules like Malpighiaceae or conical
terminal stipules like Moraceae (for example figs), Cecropia (trumpet tree) or Polygonaceae (sea
grape). Often stipules are deciduous (they fall off), so look particularly closely with a hand lens at
young leaves or for scars on older stems.
Pellucid punctations
Looking closely at the leaf blade against the light with a handlens it may be possible to see pellucid
punctations. These may be large clear, round “dots”, or they may be a mix of clear “dots & dashes”.
Glands
Some families often have glands on the leaf lamina, petiole, rhachis or sepals. Glands can come in
many diferent forms, sometimes they are just appear as an oily patch or an area of discoloration on
the leaf blade, other species have glands which are distinct projections. Often these glands are acting
as extra-floral nectaries, sources of nectar for visiting insects that are outside of the flower; this is
usually provided to encourage insects such as ants to defend the plant.
Scent
Some plants have a distinctive scent. Snap a twig or crush a leaf and carefully sniff to find out.
Bark
Snap a twig. Does it snap easily with a “satisfying snap” or is it really difficult to break a twig
without making stringy bark?
Spines or thorns
A plant may have a variety of thorns, spines and spikes for defense. This can be a useful character for
some families, or may be specific to some genera or species.
Hairs
Most plants of some kind of hair, sometimes the type of hair, color or amount of hair can be a useful
character.
Tendrils
A climbing plant such as a vine or a liana may have tendrils; this can be a very useful character to
identify a plant to family.
17
Families II
• Malpighiaceae
Leaves simple and opposite
Intrapetiolar stipules – “rabbit ears”
T-shaped hairs
Often have glands on the leaf blade, petiole or sepals
Examples include crabboo
• Myrtaceae
Leaves simple and opposite
Pellucid punctations, “dots”
Collecting vein
Examples include guava and all spice
• Asteraceae
Leaves simple and opposite or alternate
Often hairy, feels rough to the touch
Leaves toothed
Examples include sunflower and daisy
• Apocynaceae
Leaves simple and opposite
White latex
Examples include frangipani, horse balls, dog balls, red head polly and savanna white
poisonwood
• Malvaceae
Leaves simple and alternate
Leaves palmately veined from base
Stellate hairs
Swollen pulvinous
Serrate leaf margin
Stipules
Stringy bark
Leaves slimy when crushed
Examples include hibiscus, pixoy, ceiba and ochra
18
Day 2: Wednesday pm - Making a herbarium specimen and further
identification
Aims:
This session aims to familiarise the students with the basic protocol in making a high quality
herbarium specimen. Students will reinforce their knowledge of the useful identification characters
and families learnt so far.
Objectives:
1. To introduce the method of making a herbarium specimen
2. To reinforce an understanding of characters important in field identification
Making a herbarium specimen
Collecting and observing
This section provides some detailed notes on the principles and different methodologies of plant
collecting, this shall be discussed in class.
General
Plants should always be pressed as soon as they are collected, with detailed collecting notes made
immediately, and these notes entered into a computer at night. Plants can be kept for a short period
of time in strong polythene bags (which reduce wilting), but this should only be done when pressing
immediately is not possible. Although photographs that complement dried specimens can be useful
in giving an overall impression of a plant and in subsequent naming, the plant specimen itself is
everything and should be meticulously prepared. Neat collecting is of paramount importance and
secateurs should be used. Well-collected and annotated specimens are of scientific value: poorly
pressed scraps with no accompanying information are not. Full instruction on this will be given in the
field.
Flowering and fruiting material should preferably be collected, as sterile vouchers are often difficult
– if not impossible – to determine to species level and specimens without flowers or fruit are often
considered worthless in regions where the flora is well known. However in many regions in the
tropics vegetative specimens are extremely useful and should be collected in the absence of fertile
material.
Basic Collecting Equipment
Hand lens
GPS
Local Floras
Long-armed pruners
Climbing spikes
Selection of self-sealing plastic bags
Small collecting bottles
Alcohol/FAA (for preserving fruits or
specimens in the absence of a heat source)
String
Silica gel (for collecting DNA material)
Knife
Compass
Wooden lattice presses c. 18″ x 12″
Straps with buckles
Drying papers (felts or thick blotting paper)
Corrugates
Newspaper
Drying frame
Gas stove (& gas)
Large sturdy polythene bags
Field notebook
Pens & pencils
Binoculars
Camera & film
Indelible marker
Secateurs
19
Field Notes
Good field notes are essential and their value cannot be over-emphasised. The dried plant specimen
must always have a label which gives all the information not obvious from the specimen itself.
Collection notes should always include the primary collector’s number, the names of other collectors
present, the date, the locality (with a GPS position), the habitat, habit, height, flower colour (colour
often fades or changes on drying), smell (if relevant), bark characteristics including slash, diameter
dimensions for trees, the presence of sap, and any other noteworthy features.
Always write your field notes clearly; remember that you will have to decipher them later. Further
guidance is given in the following chapter.
An example of a herbarium label:
FLORA OF BELIZE
Byrsonima crassifolia (L.) Kunth
Malpighiaceae
Date: 25th March 2001
Locality: Orange Walk, Rio Bravo Conservation and
Management Area, East Gate, 1 Km along Lemonal
track.
16°44′16.1″N, 88°59′45.7″W
Habitat: Growing in an area of open pine savanna.
Habit: Contorted tree to 10 m; dbh 17 cm; bark
smooth and grey with a red slash; flowers yellow; fruits
green, maturing yellow.
Collector: Bridgewater, S.G.M.
No. 2457
With Ibáñez García, A. & Gemeinholzer, B.
Recording and storing data
Any vegetation study will require data collection in some form or other. Even for the most basic
botanical collection, the following information should be recorded for each specimen:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Collectors
Specimen number
Preliminary identification (if possible)
Date
Location (including coordinates)
Altitude
Habitat
Description (size and structure of plant, colour, smells, bark characteristics, etc.)
Common name(s) (if available)
Uses and ecological information
All of this information (i.e. anything which cannot be seen directly from a herbarium specimen) will
be included on the labels which are eventually attached to the mounted specimen.
For quantitative surveys, a range of other types of information will also need to be recorded.
Although some people now use miniature palm-top computers directly in the field for on-the-spot
data entry, these are not completely reliable and it is better to record with pencil on paper (or on
20
plastic waterproof notebooks). The data can be put onto a computer later, and then even if the files
become corrupted the information will not have been lost.
If the same techniques are to be repeated in different areas, it is often worth preparing data sheets for
use in the field. These facilitate data collecting (acting as a memory-jog), and also allow third parties
to enter the data into a computer without having to decipher individual recording methods.
Remember that your data need to be used by others, so try to avoid complex coding systems and
abbreviations, or if you use them then make it very clear what they mean.
Locating, collecting, preserving and means of identification
Locating of plants is normally much easier than locating of animals, since they tend not to hide or to
run away! However, identification can be equally, if not more, difficult. For absolutely accurate
vegetation analysis it is necessary to collect specimens from every plant recorded, but in some cases
it will be necessary to be more pragmatic. If you are attempting to locate a particular species, then it
may be helpful to enlist the help of local people.
Collection of plants in tropical forests is made difficult by the inaccessability of the forest canopy.
This can make it tempting to focus on the more easily collected herbs and shrubs at ground level.
This, however, would mean that many of the more important species would be missed.
The first thing is to be able to find the plant which you are going to collect, and for this it is worth
carrying a pair of binoculars*. Of course, if you are surveying a forest plot then you will probably
need to collect specimens from all of the trees regardless, but the binoculars can still be useful for
finding the most accessible branches with flowers and fruits.
There are various ways of accessing and collecting from the canopy, the most practical of which is
probably the hiring of a local tree-climber. You can try climbing yourself if you are reasonably fit it is not difficult once you have mastered the art. However, it can be dangerous, not only because of
the risk of falling but also because of the possibility of encountering poisonous snakes. However
experienced you may be, it is inadvisable to be climbing trees in the forest on your own!
An 'extending pruner' or 'log-arm pruner' or 'pole cutter' (up to 12 m) is also an extremely useful tool,
allowing easy collection from smaller trees. This is a clipper on the end of a long pole, operated by a
string. A combination of a good tree climber and an extending pruner will probably allow you to
collect from virtually any tree in the forest, for when the giant trees that are too large or spiny to
climb directly the climber can shin up a smaller (neighbouring) trees and then cut off branches with
the pruner. In a forest survey where all of the trees are being collected, if the climber chooses his or
her tree carefully he can collect several trees from the top of the one he has climbed.
It is also possible to use mountaineering equipment to climb into the canopy (on ropes), but this is
not a useful technique for rapid surveys and is really only applicable for longer-term ecological
studies. Furthermore the equipment is expensive. Other techniques which are sometimes used
include shooting branches from trees with shotguns or rifles, knocking off leaves with a catapult, or
even training monkeys as collectors! Another technique that is potentially good one for large,
emergent trees, is the use of a chain saw blade set in the middle of a rope. The procedure, which
takes some practice, is as follows:
•
•
•
•
With the catapult, shoot a weight over the branch you want to cut, attached to a light fishing line
Use the fishing line to pull a thicker cord over the branch
Use the thicker cord to pull a rope over the branch, with a chain saw blade set in the middle
Pull the cord until the blade hangs over the branch
*
A tip to remember when using binoculars in the forest is that the eye-cups tend to fill up with detritus and ants as you
walk around with the binoculars slung around your neck, which then fall in your eyes as you look up. Blow into the eyecups first to clear them!
21
•
Saw the blade backwards and forwards over the branch (2 people required), until it is cut (N.B.
nobody should be standing under the branch!)
Preservation techniques used by botanical surveys vary according to the circumstances and
according to personal preference.
The basics of plant pressing, which is the technique generally used for angiosperms, gymnosperms
and pteridophytes, is as follows:
Essentially, this process involves cutting representative parts of the plant, folding them between
numbered sheets of newspaper, and pressing them flat in a plant press. The press is simply a couple
of suitably sized wooden grids, held together with adjustable straps. The numbering of your
specimens is important, and the number on your specimen must match up with the number on your
field notes. An un-numbered specimen with no notes is virtually useless!
Some botanists like to press all their specimens in the field, as they go along. However, if you are
making a rapid survey with limited time available, it may be better to put all of the specimens in a
big plastic bag, and press them in the evening when you get back to your camp (or wherever you are
staying). If you intend to do this, however, there is a risk that they can be muddled up during the
day, so that you end up not knowing which specimen came from which tree, and which are the field
notes referring to it. To avoid this, you can attach numbered jewellers' tags (paper tags on a loop of
string) to each specimen. Another advantage of using jewellers' tags is that if your specimens should
accidentally fall out of their numbered newspaper sheets, you will still know which is which!
22
information as possible about branching
patterns, growth form, etc. With very large
plants (such as palms) you will not be able to
make a complete specimen on a single sheet,
and you should make several specimens of
representative parts of the plant. In this case it
is important to make a clear note of what part
of the plant each of the specimen represents,
and how they fit together. If, for example, you
have a large palm frond, you might decide to
make a specimen of each end of the frond, and
another of a section in the middle. Somebody
looking at these specimens, however, will not
be able to envisage how long the complete leaf
was, or how many leaflets there were on it,
unless you tell them on the label. Fleshy fruits
cannot be squashed flat, and you will either
need to cut sections from them and press them,
or dry the fruits whole (unpressed).
Alternatively you may decide to pickle them
whole in alcohol. Various techniques have
been developed for preserving different plant
groups in such a way as to preserve and record
the information most important for their
identification. For ferns, for example, it is
important that you keep the small scales that
are found at the base of the frond. For orchids
and gingers, whose flowers are extremely
complex structurally, it is important to
preserve some of these flowers in threedimensional form in alcohol (but leave others
on the specimen to show where they came
from). There are other special techniques for
rattans, bamboos, and for palms in general.
There is an art to pressing plant specimens,
which one acquires with experience. The
important thing to remember is that the
specimen will eventually be glued or sewn to a
card, so that it can only be viewed from one
side. Thus it is important the both sides of the
leaves and flowers are visible from above.
The specimen should, if possible, 'fill' the
sheet with room for the label & without too
many overlapping leaves etc., and it should be
arranged in such a way as to give as much
More details of these specialist techniques, and of plant collecting methods in general, can be
found in the Herbarium Handbook published by the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew.
23
Your pressed specimens must then be
preserved, eventually by drying. The
best specimens are made by drying them
immediately in the field, using gas- (or
charcoal-) or paraffin-powered field
driers.
These are basically simple
frames with slow heaters inside, upon
which the bundles of specimens are
placed and left for 24 hours or so to dry.
A tight bundle of specimens in newspaper will not dry, however, unless the
sheets are separated from each other
with alternating pieces of blotting paper
and corrugated cardboard or (ideally)
aluminium corrugated sheets.
The
blotting paper soaks the water out of the
leaves, and the corrugates allow the hot
air to pass through the bundle, carrying
away the water as vapour. As the
specimens dry, they shrink, which means
that the bundles will become loose. If
nothing is done about this, the specimens
may then start to curl (a good specimen
is flat!), so it is best to tighten the
bundles occasionally during the process.
All of this requires a lot of bulky
equipment, which may not really be
practical in in the field, particularly if
you are working from mobile camps
However, the best alternative is to use one of the so-called 'wet' collecting methods. The
most commonly used, and one which is particularly appropriate to tropical forest field
conditions, is the 'Schweinfurth technique'. This is extremely simple. Basically, you
press specimens in the usual manner and leave them in the press overnight to flatten.
You should not leave them more than 24 hours, or the leaves and flowers will start to
detach themselves. When they have been pressed, you take the bundles out of the
presses, wrap them in more newspaper, and tie them up with string so that nothing can
fall out. You then put the bundles into large plastic bags, pour in enough 70% alcohol to
soak them without making them excessively soggy, and seal up the bags with tape. So
long as your seal is good and the alcohol does not evaporate, these bundles of 'pickled'
pressed specimens can be kept for weeks or even months before they are eventually dried
over a drying frame in the manner described above (back in the institution or herbarium
where you are based).
Mosses are usually wrapped in small newspaper bundles and dried in the field, if
possible. However, if necessary these can also be collected by the wet method.
Fungi should be dried.
24
Identification of tropical forest plants in the field is never easy, and it is for this reason
that one usually needs to make good specimens in all circumstances. However, in some
cases it may be necessary or at least useful to attempt field identification (e.g. in the case
of a survey of the local abundance of a particular species). This can be facilitated by
prior acquisition of field keys, if they exist, or of photographs or drawings of the target
taxa. Failing this, it may be worth arming yourself with photocopies of herbarium
specimens.
In quantitative surveys the collecting of sterile voucher specimens (i.e. specimens without
flowers or fruits) cannot be avoided. Unless these are from well known taxonomic
groups it may be difficult if not impossible to identify these,
One way to speed up the identification is to build up a reference collection of the plants
of the area in which you are working, ordered taxonomically but kept separate from the
main herbarium.
Determining the habitat requirements of a plant species
Knowledge of plant habitat requirements is very important for conservation management.
It can provide essential information for locating rare or threatened species, for predicting
the consequences of environmental change, and for decision-making in the practical
management of a conservation area. If, for example, you know the requirements of a
species which is threatened by the disappearance of its natural habitat, then it may be
possible to manipulate the environment in other areas in such a way that the conditions
necessary for its survival are replicated.
The techniques and equipment used for determining the habitat requirements of a species,
or of a particular vegetation type, have largely been discussed under the methods for
assessing climatic and abiotic factors, etc.
To recap, some of the factors that should be considered are as follows:
Rainfall
Light levels
Seasonality
Temperature
Humidity
Altitude
Position on slope/ position in relation to water courses
Position in relation to other species (e.g. epiphytes)
Direction of slope
Vegetation type (this is itself an indicator of other factors)
Soil type
Soil humidity
Underlying geology
Acidity/Alkalinity (of soil or water)
Disturbance levels
Associations with other species
25
Practical Exercise 2: Collecting a Herbarium Specimen
Aims:
To practice making a high quality herbarium specimen and collecting appropriate
additional data to produce the specimen label.
Objectives:
1. Introduction to the process of collecting a herbarium specimen in the field
2. Familarization with the supplementary information required for the the specimen
label
3. Familiarization with the process of setting up a press and drying specimens overnight.
Exercise:
In groups you will make a collection of a plant in the savanna.
1. Before starting to collect the plant you must work together to fill in the data sheet
provided. As discussed earlier, think carefully about the information that you will
have to record because it will not be available on the dried specimen. When making
the collection of the plant; think carefully the amount of material needed, the position
and orientation of the specimen.
2. Below is an example of a herbarium label. Briefly answer the following questions.
FLORA OF BELIZE
Pinus caribaea Morelet
Pinaceae
Date: 13th September 1928
Locality: Maskall; 1 Km along road towards Bomba.
Habitat: Growing in open pine savanna.
Collector: Gentle, Percival H.
With Proctor, G.R. & Schipp, W.A.
26
No. 193
3. Write down three important types of information missing from this specimen label.
A.
B.
C.
4. Write down three important characters of a plant that you might want to record on a
specimen label because they will not be visible on a dried herbarium specimen.
A.
B.
C.
5. Name three types of additional material can you collect with your herbarium
specimen
A.
B.
C.
27
Country
District
Collector initials
Collected with
Date (d, m, y)
GPS recording
(Degs, Mins, Secs)
Coll. number
Collectors Full Name
Location
______________N/S
______________E/W
Habitat
DD/DM/DMS
WGS84
Y/N
Distance from GPS
reading:
Waypoint:
Family
Altitude (m)
Binomial
Det by:
Det date:
Photos
Description:
(habit, sizes, colours, smell, latex, etc)
Y/N
Silica gel
Y/N
Local name, language:
Carpological separate
Y / N
Number of
carpological
collections.
Multiple sheets
Y/N
28
Total number of
sheets:
No. of labels
required:
Families III
• Gentianaceae
Leaves simple and opposite
Leaves entire and often sessile
Leaves shiny and slightly plastic-feeling
Examples include red chilar and k’es-ru-pam
• Turneraceae
Leaves simple and alternate
Secondary nerves pinnate
Pair of yellow or green glands towards the base of the leaf blade margin
Yellow axillary flower with furry 3-lobed stigma
Easily confused with some Malvaceae, but differentiated by the strictly pinnate
venation (not 3-5-veined at base), lack of pulvinous and 3-lobed stigma
Examples include wild damiana and butterfly tree
• Dilleniaceae
Leaves simple and alternate
Sandpaper feel to leaves
Leaves serrate with secondary veins reaching tips of teeth
Peeling bark
Often lianas or scrambling shrub
Examples include sandpaper tree, yaha and chaparo
• Convolvulaceae
Leaves simple and alternate
Normally vine
Distinctive, showy flower
Examples include morning glory and Belizean bluebell
• Polygonaceae
Leaves simple and alternate
Ochrea
Examples include bob, sea grape, wild grape and bastard logwood
29
Day 3: Thursday am - Savanna ecology
Practical Exercise 3: Savanna Ecology – part 1
Aims:
The purpose of this exercise is to provide you with experience of conducting first stage
rapid vegetation and botanical reconnaissance surveys in a biodiverse tropical
environment with tight time constraints. It is meant to mirror real life situations that
professional botanists frequently face as part of their research or consultancy contracts.
You will be expected to identify and describe the primary habitat you see in the field.
You will be expected to produce a brief description, sketch & brief list of key species
(~4) for each ecotone that you observe, with brief notes on the ecological or human
influences on each ecotone.
Objectives:
1. To learn recognition of vegetation types & ecotones on the ground
2. To develop the ability to describe vegetation structure subjectively and identify the
dominant species of an ecosystem
3. To develop the ability to assess the fidelity of species to specific habitats, ecological
interpretation of vegetation patterns and the calculation of time and resources required
to conduct full biodiversity assessments based on rapid reconnaissance
4. To gain further experience in field plant identification
Exercise:
•
Walk length of transect briefly observing the ecosystems that you pass through.
•
Walk along transect back to field station slowly observing & recording your
thoughts and bagging key species representative of each habitat.
30
Day 3: Thursday pm - Savanna ecology
Practical Exercise 3: Savanna Ecology – part 2
Exercise:
•
Keying out of key species to family, genus, species level those plants collected
during the morning using available literature.
•
Discussion within groups of the number of habitats observed and the likely time
& resources required to conduct a complete inventory of the area.
•
Consolidation of notes
Following discussion in your groups please write the following for each vegetation type
that you saw today:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Brief description of the vegetation type
Dominant families of the vegetation type
List of other species observed in this vegetation type
Environmental factors that may be important in this vegetation type
31
Families IV
A group called the Lamiales are very important in the savanna. Genera for each group are
provided for these families because many of the genera have different family placement
to those listed in Balick’s (2000) Checklist of the Vascular Plants of Belize.
• Acanthaceae
Leaves simple and opposite
Raised ridge at node
Leaves toothed
Often large bracts in inflorescence
Examples include red head indian, contra hierba, cholom-chak-mut, hulup and
maravilla de monte
Aphelandra, Asystasia, Avicennia, Barleria, Beloperone, Blechum, Bravaisia, Carlowrightia,
Dicliptera, Elytraria, Graptophyllum, Hemigraphis, Hygrophila, Jacobinia, Justicia, Lepidagathis,
Louteridium, Mendoncia, Odontonema, Pseuderanthemum, Ruellia, Sanchezia, Teliostachya,
Tetramerium, Thunbergia
• Bignoniaceae
Most species lianas or trees
Leaves compound and opposite
Examples include gerninda morada, garlic vine and mayflower
Two genera (Crescentia and Amphitecna) trees and shrubs
Leaves simple and whorled
Examples include calabash and wild calabash
Adenocalymma, Amphilophium, Amphitecna, Anemopaegma, Arrabidaea, Callichlamys,
Ceratophytum, Clytostoma, Crescentia, Cydista, Fernandoa, Godmania, Jacaranda, Lundia,
Macfadyena, Mansoa, Martinella, Mussatia, Pachyptera, Paragonia, Parmentiera, Pithecoctenium,
Podranea, Pseudocatalpa, Scobinaria, Spathodea, Stizophyllum, Tabebuia, Tecoma, Tynanthus,
Xylophragma
• Verbenaceae
Leaves simple and opposite
Square stem
Leaves toothed
Flowers weakly bilabiate
Examples include pidgeon berry, wildsage, spanish thyme, pañuelo de Sarah, and
blue vervain
Bouchea, Citharexylum, Lantana, Lippia, Petrea, Priva, Rehdera, Stachytarpheta, Tamonea, Verbena
32
• Lamiaceae
Leaves simple or palmately compound and opposite
Square stem
Leaves toothed
Leaves often verticillate (two pairs appear to occur at same node) in herbs
Flowers bilabiate
Vegetation often with pleasant odour
Examples include mint, John Crow bead berries, Charleston, fiddle wood and yax-nik
Aegiphila, Callicarpa, Catoferia, Clerodendrum, Cornutia, Gmelina, Hyptis, Leonurus, Marsypianthes,
Ocimum, Plectranthus, Salvia, Scutellaria, Solenostemon, Tectona, Teucrium, Vitex
• Orobanchaceae
Leaves simple and opposite
(Hemi-)Parasitic
Turns black upon drying
Leaves toothed to lobed
Inflorescence a raceme
Agalinis, Buchnera, Escobedia, Lamourouxia
• Plantaginaceae
Leaves simple and opposite
Very difficult to differentiate from Orobanchaceae and other Lamiales
Examples include la disgracia
Angelonia, Bacopa, Benjaminia, Mecardonia, Plantago, Russelia, Scoparia, Stemodia
Savanna Genera
• Utricularia (Lentibulariaceae)
Leaves simple and opposite
Interpetiolar stipule
Leaves entire
• Miconia & Clidemia (Melastomataceae)
Leaves simple and opposite
3 – 9 nerves from base of leaf blade
Shrubs
Often very hairy
Flowers usually in panicles
Examples include chigger nits, white maya and sirin
• Chamaecrista (Fabaceae)
Leaves pinnately compound and alternate
Stipules usually conspicuous
33
Leaves variable from 1 pair of leaflets through to many pairs of leaflets
Solitary, yellow “Cassia” flower held at nodes
Herbs or small woody shrubs
• Polygala (Polygalaceae)
Leaves simple and alternate or whorled
Inflorescence a raceme
Small herbs to 60 cm
Flowers normally white, pink, purple, rarely green
• Mimosa (Fabaceae)
Leaves bipinnately compound and alternate
Stipules
Spines often present, many different types, on stem and rhachis
Inflorescence a round, dense head of pink flowers
Woody herbs, shrubs and vines
• Xyris (Xyridaceae)
Leaves simple and alternate
Dense inflorescence head
Flowers with three large yellow petals
Herb
Found in damp grassland across savanna
• Hyptis (Lamiaceae)
Leaves simple and opposite
Square stem
Leaves toothed
Inflorescence a dense round head
Flowers tiny and bilabiate
Vegetation often with pleasant odour
34
Day 4: Friday am - Rare and endemic species
Aims:
This session aims to introduce students to the identification of some of the rare and
endemic taxa found in the savanna. Students will also have an opportunity to recap the
families learnt so far.
Objectives:
1. To introduce some of the endemic taxa of the Belizean savanna, their identification,
ecology and distribution.
2. To introduce some of the rarer species of the Belizean savanna, their identification,
ecology and distribution.
3. To discuss the meaning of rare and endemic.
4. To summarise the characters, families & genera learnt throughout the course
Endemic vascular plant species of the lowland savanna of Belize
Provided below is a list of the endemic species of Belize according to the checklist of
Belize (Balick 2000) with species that occur in the lowland savanna in bold.
Magnoliophyta
Family
Acanthaceae
Annonaceae
Apocynaceae
Arecaceae
Asteraceae
Celastraceae
Dioscoreaceae
Eriocaulaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Fabaceae Faboideae
Fabaceae Mimosoideae
Hypericaceae
Lamiaceae
Melastomataceae
Moraceae
Myrtaceae
Species
Louteridium chartaceum Leonard
Oxandra proctorii Lundell
Laubertia gentlei Lundell
Metastelma stenomeres (Standl. & Steyerm.) W.D.
Stevens
Schippia concolor Burret
Ageratum radicans B.L. Rob.
Koanophyllon sorensenii R.M. King & H. Rob.
Neurolaena schippii B.L. Rob.
Telanthophora bartlettii H. Rob. & Brettell
Crossopetalum gentlei (Lundell) Lundell
Zinowiewia pallida Lundell
Dioscorea sandwithii B.G. Schub.
Paepalanthus belizensis Moldenke
Paepalanthus gentlei Moldenke
Syngonanthus bartlettii Moldenke
Syngonanthus hondurensis Moldenke
Syngonanthus lundellianus Moldenke
Syngonanthus oneillii Moldenke
Dalechampia schippii Standl.
Gymnanthes belizensis G.L. Webster
Galactia anomala Lundell
Mimosa pinetorum Standl.
Pithecellobium peckii S.F. Blake
Hypericum aphyllum Lundell
Scutellaria lundellii Epling
Miconia ochroleuca Standl.
Dorstenia belizensis C.C. Berg
Calyptranthes bartlettii Standl.
35
Nyctaginaceae
Passifloraceae
Piperaceae
Poaceae
Cycadophyta
Polypodiopsida
Polygonaceae
Rutaceae
Zamiaceae
Schizaeaceae
Thelypteridaceae
Calyptranthes cuneifolia Lundell
Eugenia rufidula Lundell
Plinia peroblata (Lundell) Lundell
Pisonia proctorii Lundell
Passiflora urbaniana Killip
Piper schippianum Trel. & Standl.
Axonopus ciliatifolius Swallen
Paspalum peckii F.T. Hubb.
Coccoloba x lundellii Standl.
Amyris rhomboidea Standl.
Zamia prasina W. Bull
Anemia bartlettii Mickel
Thelypteris schippii (Weath.) A.R. Sm.
Metastelma stenomeres (Standl. & Steyerm.) W.D. Stevens
Leaves simple & opposite
White latex
Vine
Small white flowers (5 petals) held in dense clumps at nodes
Leaves narrow with mucronate tip (pointed)
Frequent
Can be confused with similar M. thalamosiphon and M. schlechtendalii, but M.
stenomeres has narrower leaves than both of these species, see photoguide.
Schippia concolor Burret
Small palm
Solitary
Palmate leaves
Savanna and forest
Frequent (locally abundant) in savannas in parts of Belize, Cayo & Stann Creek
Schippia concolor can look similar to palmetto the common savanna palm, however S.
concolor has a solitary habit (it has a single stem palmetto has dense clumps of stems),
floppy leaves with a yellow-ish tinge (palmetto has stiff leaves with curved spines along
the leaf stalk). It also has corky bark (palmetto has a fibrous trunk which is often
blackened after fire) and does not have curved thorns on the petiole like palmetto.
Ageratum radicans B.L. Rob.
Small herb Asteraceae to about 50 cm, distinctive pale mauve (blue-ish purple) flowers.
Leaves simple and opposite
Leaves fleshy, hairless & 3 veined above the base
Abundant in most savannas
Crossopetalum gentlei (Lundell) Lundell
Leaves simple and opposite
36
Slightly toothed
Decurrent petiole
Small shrub
Delicate inflorescence with tiny red flowers and small fruit, red when ripe
Occasional
Difficult to differentiate from other Crossopetalum species. Mostly found in Belize and
Orange Walk.
Zinowiewia pallida Lundell
Leaves simple & opposite, entire (no teeth), slightly leathery, oblanceolate to oblongelliptic, 4-9.5 cm. long, 1.5-3 cm. wide, obtuse or rarely rounded at the apex, leaves pale
green, pale beneath.
Decurrent petiole
Tiny flowers in cymes 2-3 cm. long, pedunculate, 4-5 times dichotomous
Fruits spatulate-oblong, 15 mm. long, 4 mm. wide, obtuse or rounded and shortmucronate at the apex, attenuate to the base, costate and reticulate-veined
Rare
Mountain Pine Ridge and southern savannas
Dalechampia schippii Standl.
Vine
Distinctive bracts on inflorescence are pinkish and unlobed.
Leaves are not lobed
Unlikely to be confused with other Dalechampia spp. which are confined to forest
(normally have lobed leaves and bracts)
Abundant in Mountain Pine Ridge, occasional in southern Belize, Stann Creek & Toledo
Hypericum aphyllum Lundell
Leaves simple and opposite
Unbranched, annual herb 0.4-0.65 m high
Leaves sessile (no petiole), appressed (pressed against the stem), tiny (1-2.7 x 0.3-0.5
mm) with no prominent midrib
20-50 flowers per inflorescence, which branches once at base (occasionally 1 lower side
branch see photoguide)
Tiny (petals 2.5-3 x 0.5-1 mm), golden yellow flowers
Extremely rare
Southern savannas only
Passiflora urbaniana Killip
Normal Passiflora characteristics
Abundant & widespread in lowland savanna
Only Passiflora in savanna
Purple and white flowers
Simple leaf, rarely 3 lobed
37
Wacky stipules & bracts
ERIOCAULACEAE
Paepalanthus belizensis Moldenke
Paepalanthus gentlei Moldenke
Syngonanthus bartlettii Moldenke
Syngonanthus hondurensis Moldenke
Syngonanthus lundellianus Moldenke
Syngonanthus oneillii Moldenke
Tiny herbs that are very difficult to identify beyond family (impossible in field), Kew’s
Neotropikey has this to say:
“Although Eriocaulaceae can be easily recognized among the other Monocotyledons by
possessing small flowers arranged in dense capitula, identifying the genera and the
species is not a simple task. The genera are usually defined by floral characteristics that
are difficult to see in the field. Species identification is also not simple for several
reasons.”
The three terrestrial genera found in Belize (the 4th, Tonina is aquatic) can be
differentiated by the following characteristics:
Eriocaulon - fenestrated leaves, diplostemonous flowers, and glandular petals.
Paepalanthus - pistillate flowers with free petals, style branching at the same level, and
4-sporangiate anthers.
Syngonanthus - pistillate flowers with fused petals, style branching at the same level, and
4-sporangiate anthers.
Recommendation: collect specimens and send for identification.
Currently very little is known about these species & their distribution, a few are known
only from type specimens. Seem to like damp areas (track ruts) between sedge clumps in
savanna.
Paspalum peckii F.T. Hubb.
Identification of grasses is a specialist subject and would require an entire field course in
itself, similar to eriocaulaceae relies on obscure floral characters best viewed under a
microscope.
Calyptranthes cuneifolia Lundell
Normal myrtaceae characteristics
Myrtaceae are difficult identify, but,,,
Tree, to 6 metres
Leaves, petiolate, coriaceous, obtuse or rounded at apex and cuneate at base
Branchlets wingless
Pubescence if any, grayish or yellowish- white, on inflorescence and young growth
Panicles solitary (not paired)
Flower buds glabrous above the middle
Flowers 20-30
38
Only found so far in savannas of Toledo (also found on ridge tops in Maya Mountains in
Toledo)
Some rare species of the lowland savanna
Chamaecrista fagonioides (Vogel) H.S. Irwin & Barneby var. fagonioides
Herb
Leaves compound and alternate
Scandent herb
2 pairs of leaflets, not overlapping at base
Leaflets glandular hirsuite (similar C. hispidula is glabrous)
Leaflets green and rounded in shape (similar C. hispidula is variegated purple and green
and rhombic leaflets with acute apex)
Abundant in MPR & rare in southern savannas
Chamaecrista rotundifolia (Pers.) Greene
Woody herb
Leaves compound & alternate
Leaflets 1 pair
Erect, slightly woody herb
Stem long pilose
Leaflets larger than and much rounder than C. diphylla
No petiolar gland (C. diphylla has at least 1 petiolar gland)
Very similar to Chamaecrista diphylla (which is extremely common)
Extremely rare, only found in Orange Walk & Toledo (DRFR & PCNP)
Inga pinetorum Pittier
Tree/shrub
Leaves compound and alternate
Leaves 2 pairs
Foliar nectary head small 0.5-1.5 mm diameter and round
Most of plant densely brown/yellow pubescent
Small pod (less than 5.5 x 3 cm)
Mainly found in MPR, rarely found in southern savannas
Krameria ixine Loefl.
Herb
Dry sandy savanna only
Leaves simple & alternate
Spine at leaf tip
Striking purple/pink flowers
Magenta burr fruit
Extremely rare
Found in Orange Walk and Belize only
39
For the future
A crash course to some of the major plant families in Belize by characters
Provided below is a brief list of some of the important characters that we have discussed
during the course. For each character is provided some of the major groups in Belize that
have this character and some suggestions as to how to differentiate these groups. This list
is by no means exclusive. The best guide to these characters is Gentry’s (1994) ‘A
Fieldguide to the Woody Plants of Northwest South America’
Latex
Some families with this character include:
Apocynaceae – white latex, simple and opposite leaves
Clusiaceae – yellow to orange latex, simple and opposite
Hypericaceae – yellow to orange latex, simple and opposite
Moraceae – white latex, simple and alternate leaves, conical terminal stipule
Sapotaceae – white latex, simple and alternate leaves, “coke bottle” petiole and rusty
buds
Stipules
Some families with this character include:
Fabaceae – compound and alternate leaves, barrel pulvinous, pea scent
Malpighiaceae – intrapetiolar stipule, simple and opposite, T-shaped hairs
Rubiaceae – interpetiolar stipule, simple and opposite leaves
Chrysobalanaceae –Simple, alternate leaves, lenticellate twigs, regular two-ranked leaves
& sand-textured inner bark
Glands
Some families with this character include:
Fabaceae – members of the Mimosoid and Caesalpinoid subfamilies often have glandular
projections on the leaf rhachis and petiole; these are commonly cup-shaped or spikeshaped; compound and alternate leaves, barrel pulvinous, pea scent
Malpighiaceae – many species have a pair of glands on the leaf blade (oily or discoloured
patch) or the leaf petiole (distinct projections) or as a pair of projections on the sepals;
intrapetiolar stipule, simple and opposite, T-shaped hairs
Diospyros (Ebenaceae) – two to many oily patches that are translucent against the light
and may form a band on either side of the midrib, simple, alternate leaves, two-ranked
and black inner bark.
Euphorbiaceae – vary variable family but some members may have glands (often as a
pair) on or near the base of the leaf blade or on the leaf petiole (distinct projections);
often have stipules & serrate leaf margin
Pellucid punctations
Some families with this character include:
Myrtaceae –simple, opposite leaves, pleasant, often spicy odour, collecting vein
Salicaceae – simple, alternate leaves, serrate leaf margin
Rutaceae –compound, alternate leaves, citrus scent, spines, serrate leaf margins
40
Scent
Some families with this character include:
Lauraceae – rank, turpentiny odour, simple, alternate leaves which are have a shiny
surface, are messily arranged on the branch & have messily arranged secondary veins
Annonaceae – rank, turpentiny odour, simple, alternate leaves which are have a dull
surface, are neatly arranged on the branch in rows & have neatly arranged, parallel
secondary veins
Myrtaceae – pleasant, often spicy odour, simple, opposite leaves, pellucid punctations,
collecting vein
Rutaceae – citrus scent, compound, alternate leaves, pellucid punctations, spines, serrate
leaf margins
Fabaceae – pea scent, compound, alternate leaves, stipules, barrel pulvinous
Meliaceae – sweetish odour, compound, alternate leaves, pellucid punctations, collecting
vein
Burseraceae & Anacardiaceae – strongly turpentine to sweetish or mango-like odour,
compound, alternate leaves, difficult to tell apart
Proteaceae – snapped twigs smell strongly of corned beef, compound (occasionally
simple), alternate leaves, serrate leave margins
Bark
Some families with this character include:
Lauraceae – “satisfying snap”
Annonaceae – “stringy bark”
Malvaceae – “stringy bark”
Spines or thorns
Some families with this character include:
Rutaceae – May have large spines on the trunks, and/or thorns on branches and leaves.
Malvaceae – members of the subfamily Bombacoideae such as Ceiba often have large
conical spines on the trunks and branches.
Arecaceae (palms) – many have spines, but it is pretty easy to identify as a palm!
Solanum (Solanaceae) – spines often on stem and leaves, simple, alternate leaves, leaves
hairy and with a unpleasant smell when crushed.
Fabaceae – many different members of this family have thorns, below are some
examples:
Mimosa– tends to have a variety of spines on the stems and leaf rhachis.
Acacia– Some Acacia have a pair of swollen hollow thorns at the base of the petiole
(these have evolved from stipules) which resemble cockspurs or bullhorns; these are
often inhabited by aggressive ants so be careful!
Tendrils
Some families with this character include:
Passiflora –tendril from the same axis as the flower and petiole base.
Curcurbitaceae - tendril inserted 90o to the petiole base.
Vitaceae – curled tendril inserted 180o to the petiole base
Fabaceae – some vines in this family have terminal leaflet which has turned into a tendril,
these always have compound, alternate leaves with the normal Fabaceae characters
(barrel pulvinous, stipules)
41
Bignoniaceae – lianas in this family often have a terminal leaflet which has turned into a
tendril, the leaves are compound and opposite.
Smilacaceae – pair of tendrils from the petiole
Sapindaceae – forked tendril, derived from part of inflorescence
Gouania (Rhamnaceae) – butterfly tongue tendril coiled in one plane
42
Appendix 2
Certificate
of Attendance
An Introduction to the Vascular
Plants of Belizean Savanna
awarded to
Awarded by
Date
Appendix 3
An Introduction to the Vascular Plants of the
Belizean Savanna
November 2-5, 2010.
Summary of Course Evaluation Forms (11 received)
Each question was evaluated using the following scale:
1 – Strongly Disagree
2 – Disagree
3 – Neutral
4 – Agree
5 – Strongly Agree
N – Not applicable
Instructors:
1.
2.
3.
4.
1
2
3
1
The instructors had sufficient knowledge to deliver the course.
2
The course was well organized
The instructors delivered the course in an easily understood manner. 3
4
Overall, I liked the instruction style.
4
2
2
4
2
1
5
7
7
5
6
N
Specific comments on the Instructors and the way the course was delivered:
1. The instructors had sufficient knowledge for the delivery of the
course and were easily accessible.
2. The course was delivered in a very efficient, practical way.
1
2
3
4
2
1
5
7
8
N
1
2
3
2
4
5
5
2
1
5
2
6
7
8
N
4
N
6
1
1
5
7
3
8
7
2
2
6
8
1
2
Course:
1.
2.
3.
4.
I had the appropriate/sufficient background for this course.
The course content was pitched at the right level for me.
The material being taught was relevant and useful.
I believe that what I have learnt from the course will help me in my
work.
1
2
3
4
1
Course handouts and practical exercises:
1. The contents of the course booklet provided for this course was
appropriate
2. The course booklet was pitched at the right level for me.
3. The practical exercises were well organised.
4. The photoguides were a useful tool for learning about savanna
plants.
5. The photoguides will be useful to me in my work
6. The photoguides contained relevant and useful photos
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
2
3
2
1
Specific comments on the photoguides. Are there any common savanna species or species of
interest that you feel should be covered in the common savanna species photoguide? Are
there any specific comments on the photoguide of endemic and rare savanna species?
“We need more photoguides.”
“The photoguide was helpfull.”
“It would be great to get (or be able to download) a hi-quality (res.) copy to use. Some NGOs may
already have a laminator.”
“More on the grasses & sedges.”
“The photoguides is very useful, probably the endemic and rare savanna species should include the
districts they are found.201D
Specific comments on course content, especially what you found useful and anything you had
hoped would be included?
“I found usefull in to learn about the parts of plants.”
“The course was very good and the photoguides and family name will be very useful to me.”
“It was very good and now used full.”
“All good.”
“The entire course was useful in many ways specifically for me as Park Manager and Fire
Management Officer. Knowledge of the savanna vegetation is important for the Integrated Fire
Management.”
“The family name were relevant – an intro to another aquatic system.”
“The content of the course was just right even though if we could include other broadleaf species.”
“Instructors made all easy.”
“Names and Scientific Names of plants.”
Any future improvements to the course that you would recommend?
“We need hand lence.”
“Was very interesting for me.”
“It was excellent.”
“N”
“Great job! Any possibility of a follow-up (Bladen?) in 3 months? Thank you!”
“Expand on the species ID in the families. More work on specimen preservation (practical).”
“The terminoly skitchs [sic] will enhance and aid as teaching tool.”
“An extra day to include some fo the most common broadleaf families.”
“All good.”
“Plant ID in rain forest.”
Venue: Any comments on the location for this course? (Paynes Creek National Park, Toledo):
“No. But I think it can’t be any part.”
“The location of the course at Payne’s Creek National Park was good and made species more thick.”
“No.”
“It was just perfect due to all thee blant we found.”
“Good location.”
Need to improve on toilet facilities.”
“Very good for new and starter for plant IDs.”
“The location was good as species were abundant and easily found also the facility was ok, the
cooking (food) was good.”
“Oh No.”
“None, was excellent place.”