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to Problems Grammatical Involved in Teaching English Speakers of Syrian Arabic by- :'M. Z. nTnu Presented for the in the Department University October, oury Degree of Ph. D. of English, of Leeds, 1965 BEST COPY AVAILABLE Variable print quality PULLOUT 1 'rata Pc,,Go 19i lino Pai o 49,. line 27 cubßtituto 'Ga11wI4t=on' 3.6 sub ctitut o' 'Ba1laHt&ton=on' for ' proo oclo' proo odoct' for P&&o 122, lino 11 substituto '6anitivo' for 'Qonotivo' 153, lino 18 cubctituto 'binayyoz' for 'binuyyox' Pogo 178, lino 13 substituto 'cardinal' for 'ordinal' Pa3o 183, lino 10 substituto for '? aw 1' 'traaiiod' Paso 183, =lino 11 substituto 'cardinal' Pa3o 183, line IS oubatitut Pw3o 225, line 7 substituto pa so 265, line 26 aubstitut Pago 267, lino 10 substitute Paso 257, lino 3,9 doloto Poo o! doflnit 'Lot drat) (; oath) to ! 9aaio l (ono) to ' 9asra' ton 'by' 'it' for 'in' ' faayost t for 'of' for aftor, ' aot orninod' o' for o' Sonyot' 'or' 'ordinal' for 'travollinß' Patio 288, lino 6 incort P¬zo 300, lino 35 substituto 'byuctIIu?? PcGo 316, lino 10 oubctituto ! bt d' Paco 346, lino 10 Substitut 'illustratod' botuoon for o' ayntcatioal' ' for and 'tho' 'byucIlu?? ' 'bL41 for ' ayntaotio' Acknowledgment the Throughout Professor guide. have encouragement most research timable It remaining, Not least debt in the students I am, of their throughout and sincere for must be added that course, ii am I grateful of depression periods my most grateful and patient all wholly errors criticism inaccuracies, a number of inclarities, absurdities. my aupervi©or, and constructive suggestions saved me from downright his valuable thesis has been an untiring T. F. Mitchell, His of the preparation work. thanks to him for that befall For such ines- are due. and imperfections responsible. and Introduction it While linguist is of seem to be twofold: factory attitudes material can be based. of the of the linguistics of linguistics. teaching firstly, satis- upon choice personal descrip- himself In 1957 lado textbooks which the intra-lingual concern con- language and, eecondly, concerned the where unmistakable provide, of what has come to comparisons contrastive to normal to the field study, language/a go beyond the able As a matter descriptive lingual he is common ground teacher, to to'language of to may choose linguist the tributions find language the can meet tive to possible linguist comparisons with the inter- be known as descriptive. (1) wrote, "It will soon be considered quite out of date to begin having previously without a textbook compared writing the two systems (L, and 12) involved. " the While teaching tends attitude into lags present to agree concrete behind. Textbooks for are awaited (1) Robert Zado, The University attitude with of those lado, the concerned translating descriptive-contrastive based many languages, with of this work inevitably on descriptive-contrastive Arabic in particular. 'Linguistics Across Cultures', Ann Arbor, Press, 1957, p. 3. of Michigan 111 work iv The present a partial the for basis in of Arabic speakers and Syrian general, Damascene Arabic. This language Syrian students On the other foreign English. spoken as may arise the native language are so deeply which is It tion. here referable hood, and not features many at school in versity transferred English the to the written spoken the very language. At (especially to referable the those foreign to the it is learning letned is is though those secondary of sharing acquired that and attested of the and unienough in certain languages) features child- attending school be expected language, in nevertheless unlike to situafeatures built-in which, that childhood since common to both transfer features become proficient students and structural which language, conflict English) such deeply not that of language language, spoken however, language foreign language, circumstances levels, the written features to learner that and not written, those the that such points to particular. and spoken fact case written the the maintained of a foreign teaching in rooted with in this referable are become a hindrance they are L2 (in between is learn hand, in Arabic by the justified is for of English English written provide could textbooks of preparation hoped, is it which, made between is Comparison descriptive-contrastive a syntactic and Arabic of English study is thesis will mistakes the written be in V frequent. language are cription demands restriction quite of Damascus, Arabic conversation spontaneous of samples were students on the of Arabic seems spoken by norm provided were those in from derives the attempted confrontation have that carries the with especially (including been not attempted. would statements phonological fact indicates, thesis lexical comparisons of particular (more grammatical considered; univeraity the to this of hundred two transfer reflecting title analysis complete by Syrian according recording selected Moreover, English reflecting are Arabic, Appendix. in and phonological be necessary Damascene classified features a more in As the mistakes idiomatic) based on an eight-hour and mistakes transferred. syntactical) the it variety, is the written analysed features features That in appear which scripts examination only one language and especially of Arabic The analysis Arabic since on the des- rigorous Damascene usage. educated of to description to base the justifiable Moreover, written it English of implication the of utterance. It will as to and Arabic, large extent found to comparison be seen, both by the reflect itself then, topics nature Arabic (which that of the treatment and range, the features. otherwise is mistakes determined which Moreover, would of both the offend English to a have been basis of the against strict vi theoretical exigencies In the Certain were mistakes transfer reflect of Arabic areas in which, seems reasonably the comparisons are based are language with on which the of, subject say, problems him when he is language. lingual textual than in so to the in his translation that of his comparisons to linguistic appears hold to learn own society, is between similarly the that statements they to to comparison whether would attention The difference between English, man concerned those of organization seems plausible conveyancing. between examination in English. with a bridge say, the texte. assumed were conflict performance It to and these recur, to value-judgments, addressing foreign and Arabic alldescriptive or inter-lingually; intra- of English ]Linguistic to be made. the prior features of Syrian light the was recourse initially, and has prompted and English derives categories) mistakes, has provided, and Arabic, English to of Arabic English Thus, Syrian found maintained universal classifying and contrast comparison by linguists auch mistakes. introspection" "bilingual specific to of process in from justification partial had to beliefe aprioriatic who reject its auch as those are made the faced confront learning intra- relation to similar analytical be one of degree, each language separately statements justify the a and inter- of kind. Substantially of made in use of rather vii object, subject, type is thesis consists In Part II in the two are nominal languages. conflict the between difficulties for and illustrated (and the examination scripts items leads in cross-idento complex mistakes of compared and two phrases in confirmed) written in are which learning by Syrian Arabic. considered and points are English by attested and description, contrasted, languages Syrians the with English, sentences and verbal stage deals in sentences each I Fart parts. be comparable At are of English such categories a generalized two of to both to relation of adjectives( verbs, with. phrases and Arabic English partial, and deemed in etc. or class concerned nouns, is it of both; facto comparability only we are what cause the the sentences, complement, sentence-types simple with say, of an item The of of, two languages tification to application Because and Arabic. the talk to reasonable the in of terms one set likely are mistakes students. to discussed from Transcription The symbols and brief used in reading the transcription conventions attaching Consonant b: a voiced f: a voice1saa labio-dental m: a bilabial nasal; n: a denti-alveolar nasal; 1: a dents-alveolar lateral; bilabial an alveolar plosive; g: a voiced velar x: a voice]i e uvular G: a voiced uvular q: a voicelss uvular H: a voicelras pharyngal 9: a voiced pharyngal ?: a glottal plosive; h: a glottal fricative; plosive; velar S, Z, T, D, are t, fricative; fricative; palato-alveolar a voicelrss z, fricative; palato-alveolar k: a, as follows: roll; a voicelrss a voiced them are to letters A- "r: forms of Arabic plosive; fricative; fricative; plosive; fricative; fricative; "emphatic"conaonanto d "non-emphatic". viii corresponding to ix For the Note: ly expanded) of back, in the tics z, S, Z are, of of the and lowering of the of the lip-position course, by characterized a feature is neutral with and contrasts s, is contracted); by flattening Lip-spreading mouth. tics. narrow articulation non-emphatic corresponding (laterally tongue of the front the for length; articulation emphatic the tongue is tongue the addition, raising its throughout non-emphatics, in the emphatico, (lateral- must be broad sulcal, for and t, tongue non-emphathe empha- d, T, D, plosive. w: a voiced bilabial y: a voiced palatal B- semi-vowel. letters Close Vowel e: half-close and somespread vowel, a shortjfront in blew; syll closed centralized what final back to close when ounded centrarl a short or long; half-close to front spread vowel; a mid o: a mid to half-close a: a short ment of front. i: u: C- Doubled Long vowels back rounded vowel; in the back notably open vowel, 'emphatic' otherwise consonants, environmostly letters and geminated consonants are shown by letters. double D- The symbol indicate forms semi-vowel; the in ® is impossibility either English used instead of a given or Arabic. of an asterisk form to or sequence of Contents page iii Introduction viii Transcription Part I: Sentence-Structure Introductory Chapter One.: : Sentences (1) (2) Simple in English Affirmative and Arabic 1 Sentences 4 Verbal, Nominal, A. Arabic Sentences. & Particle types B. English and Arabic affirmation Sentences in A. a Negative in Sentences b) Negative F. II Chapter 46 Periphrasis Tags Two : Complex Sentences (1) (2) Part of English Arabic Sentences in English Sentences in Arabic B a) Interrogative b) Interrogative C. a Questions. in English in Arabic b Questions D. a) The 'Emphatic' Verbal in English. b) Emphasis in Arabic. E. Verb Substitutes Chapter fii, Complex Sentences Complex Sentences in English in Arabic 75 88 : Phrase-Structure One : Nominal Phrases (1) Heads A. Nouns (English B. Pronouns X & Arabic) (English & Arabic) 99 xi Contents (2) 14° Adjuncts A. Determiners B. Adjectives Chapter Two : Verbal Phrases (1) A. Verb Phrases B. Verb Phrases (2) Distribution (English (English & Arabic) & Arabic) 207 in English in. Arabic Finite of Comparable Forme in English Present Simple a) in Arabic b+ imperfect a1) Implications Contrastive a2) I. Past in English Forms in Arabic Implications Contrastive b) Simple b1) Perfect b2) Present a) (i Perfect a (ii)Participial 2. in English Perfective Forms in Arabic Forms in Arabic b) Past Perfective b1) kaan+Participial b2) Contrastive in English Porns in Arabic Implications in Continuative a) Present 9am+imperfect in Arabic a) (i Contrastive Implications a2) (ii Contrastive Implications (iii Contrastive implications 3. b) Past Continuative b') kaan+9am+imperfect b2) 4. Contrastive in English English Forms in Arabic Implications Continuative Perfective a) Present in English Forms al) Saar+Prs. +gam+imperfect in Arabic b) Past Perfective Continuative in English bi) kaan+S ar/? uX+9am+imperfect forma in Arabic 215 x11 Forms in 5. a) Passive English b) Paaeiv© Forma in Arabic implications c) Contrastive (3) Non-Finite Forms in English & Comparable Forms in Arabic in English 1. a) Infinitives b) 0+ imperfect Norms in Arabic Implications c) Contrastive 2. -ing Forma in a) Gerunds b) Al-Masdar 3. a) Participles b) Participles c) Contrastive (4) A. Adverbs B. Adverbs 0. Appendix Bibliography in 287 English in English in Arabic Implications English 333 in Arabic Contrastive implications Al B, C, D, E, P, G, H 357 Translation of Texts Al Bp Go Do E, F, Go H 372 Texts 389 1 Introductory in Sentence-Types the Behind ber of it patterns patterns is to basis a limited discern of morphological patterns num- Each of elements, a number of in of utterances repeated. endlessly These recurring characteristics. variety possible are made up of on the classified is which and Arabic endless seemingly and Arabic English English classes these of words and/or syntactical will be called sentencM Sentences simple, The first (1) English commands, questions, into in and compound, classification can be classified exclamations, and complex is best into on the sentencea, characterized statements, one hand; on the in and other. terms of terms 'Word', 'Sentence', 'Syllable', The terms all linguistic that common coin, seem to defy any are definition left best undefined. and are satisfactory 'Sentence' the term though Yet, undefinable, remains The object one in grammatical analysis. a convenient being discussion this a one, namely, a practical of been it has English Arabic, study of and contrastive to consider found only those convenient as sentences in be handled terms which of a subjectcan sequences later dichotomy, being this on established predicate in the discussion criteria. and not on notional on formal in background its discusses the problem Pries some and 'The Structure 2 of his in chapter detail of English'. 2 difforcnt the rosponson features as by contrastive, tho sition of below) boing is tho tho to within, iglish, tho ordor, The typo, an woll rolativo (formally prodioato nunbor is it po- ostablishod classification second and intorrolationc on the classify contonoos and simple, und compound, and other. atcimple distinguish to aontenc©c: the in. basic following categories: Affirmativo : No6ativ© Declarative : Interrogative Any Dontenco will 'I thins: so' 'I don't think 'Do require the term two use of for Cf. desiiation. you think 'Don't tho of conranda, questions, classified possible to possible one hand; sentences is oath contain. on- the oentcnces, it word an statements, exclanationn, complex tho also, correspondingly with important. most sentences In. Arabic of und tho oubjoct made according cluuoos associated 1 irnativo-doclarativo -c! Co' - negative-doclarativo co ?'- you think co 2' aftirnativo - negativo -intorrogativo -intorrogativo. its t) Description important rol© behaviour of ac vorb of thooo playod. in which Substitut©c, In. the typen negative, interrogative, an tags and verb between IIlglich in sentences of for call ctatemonts, But, in first, are conaidored be nado Will with sentences, will outlino appropriate. of corresponding deemed to a general and coaiicnt. and contrast and what tho tho tags, study and emphatic typos Arabic in. Digliah, Cn outline Simple rovoal sontcnco3, aloo substitutes, Arabic. in emphatic following, will ouxiltari©u will different types by catogorion as well be drawn be comparable of simple 4 Chapter One (1) Affirmative Simple Nominal, A. Arabic Within Nominal to the according noun, the (1) lbeet (2) beet (3)a) (2) (3) relative Sentences, lbeet by the absence of characterized (1) by their conand also pieces) of the house (the (a big is big of constructions with associated or neither. house (the is article or both, kbiiý3(the kbiir definite the to whether lukbiir exhibiting (2) in Thus article. 'N - Adj. ' different structure: lukbiir structures comparable with adjective, b) beet (1) Nominal is Sentences. & Particle are distributions relation the in relations different obtain sentences (except trastive it statements main, types: three Sentences Sentences Nominal verbals & Particle as simple classified and fii Sentences, fii Verbal, to distinguish possible Verbal sentences Sentences Cf. big) the big (one) ) house) house) A Nominal Sentence can have for its piece subject a relative (the ' ? verbal a one who e. g. rubeH containing alli axuuk' brother), is your piece where the underlined relative won the verbal 'rubeH'. contains See ppJ4l ff. Z9 p. 1411 For the shape of the definite article see footnote J In (1) noun. is the only resulting construction predicate type of the (2) the is the second as 'The docentric In and the phrase. that opposed since (1) (2) (3) neither words (3) a) both the with (a nominal phrase known is or what to and 'beet' the a) and b) in with is a definite (3) noun, i. e. it by definite en- same form- members are prefixed of In constituents. prefixed belong as a definite a) in, terms any a) and b) we have construction occupied its (3) of no im- occupy cannot head-word), 'lbeet' resulting of it is they subject- class construction since (3) form of the In and the article one of-the the that as the can operate to other Construct'. typically positions to constituents respectively. article belongs component constructions as the an exocentric by either 'beet' the with an endocentric nominal Arabic class In filled form to article in it since positions it with is constituent. mediate prefixed (3) nouns. the nominal can fill b) is definiteness-indefiniteness constituents 2 'Language', Bloomf*id, Leonard 1956, New York, p. 194. is associated Henry Holt with the article. and Company, term in describing 'Head' is a useful which structures two forms, is functionally or more of one of which consist to the This is the head; the other whole form. equivalent being called 'Modifiers'. form/s to distinguish It is necessary two categories of nominals definite A definite in Arabic: and indefinite nominale. (see that is below) which can occupy subject nominal position (1) proper nouns (yuusef (Joseph), includes: The category ); (2) personal london (London) or demonstrative pronouns /... (? ans (I), ); (3) nouns preceded by the haada (this) ... 6 Cr. (1) lbeet (the kbiir lbeet a) b) In the beet (he bought btara beet kbiir indefinite), d is IT where separates 'lbeet', Cont. definite (4) and definite book). which This a definite - elements Ill is absent part in dis- (1) there is a po-. in a particle structure; three. or a relative (definite or compounded may be summarised /Adv. /Part. P. ,a the other nominal nominal or It sentence. their In sentence-type Rel. of relative + Prs. piece; -, N1, an indefinite ); (the lvralad boy) house), or another suffix with a pronominal (my brother), ktaab waa? el (Wael's (lbeet article nouns colligatin (? nominal ax-i a nominal a definite N/N/Adj. nominal; ) house) may play an adverb, suffix. P. is a following with an adjective, Ud N/Rel. (1) a big structures. comprise colligates syntactic only (one) house was sold) a house) (he bought the other from big features junctural that a pronominal as follows: nbaa9 the old wan sold) (the etara Sentences which piece, house lukbiir pause after Nominal with nbaa9 lbeet (1) tinguishing tential (the above examples may be added is big) (he cold a house) (he cold the house of lukbiir (2) baa9 beet baa9 beet (3) house (the 7 Adj., noun; particle Adv., an adjective; combined Examples with (WWaelis ?ubni (2) waa? el rujjaal (3) Uraa?el zaki (5) Uraa?el magi for piece the (Wael is one) Another with the by with colligates number with d (N me) we can initial in d (N outside) examples who slept sub-type exemplified pounded in above a man) ) Adv. Part. - + Pro-) a relative substitute Thus we can have position. naum ?ubni/rujjaal/zaki/barra/ma9i ( (the minal (Waal is d d (N N) d (N N) d (N ) Adj. - clever) (Wael is the nominal yalli is suffix. my son) (Waal is (4) waa? el Barra all a are: (1) waa? el In on adverb; a pronominal + Pro. Part. ?uxti sentence examples, a nominal sentence suffix agreeing (lit.: Adnan, (lit.: which in which with be noted should wherein an initial a noun the first nois com- nominal e. g. t'raZZaf i his luktarib su9ro_ Gaali (lit.: biy ©ister, servant) The book, ll; utub Gaali (lit.: The books, au9ron me rtman/olever/outside/with following 9adnnnn ?ubno rfii? joozh, my son/ of nominal a pronominal and gender, is son is my friend) her husband its price their is price is a civ expensive) is expen-. stvo) 8 Thin cub-type dd N-N+ of nominal Having constituent to introduce venient the reference is made to dichotomy is established tion the negative of cedes the 'aubjeat' (1) components. these inter of nominal in con- tpredicatel and when (see below), the latter whether , The subject-predicate on the basis alia sentence it are concerned, terms Thus in nominal subject. types components particle the predicate, + Pro. the different considered as its as far /Adv. /Part. j. N/I/Ad - Pro. thus: can be formulated oentenoo3 of which always of precedes of sentences the pooipre- follows the following struo- ture dd N /Re 1. the nominal the and the predicate a relative piece verbal the and and numbers, If in number containing predicate NAT/Adj. - in piece relative 'predicates'. be called (1) the 'subjects'; called with or P. the subject is and gender; a verbal, is also second operative position will.. it agrees a nominal, and when the agreement in between terms be will position in elements the initial of subject is this gender e. g. we must hasten to say that these terms are established on (see belovr) and do not necessarily formal grounds imply a in apriori belief universal They are simply categories. labels in the description useful of the structure of sontone ea. 9 Subj oet a nominal lwalad ? ubni /tilnii (the boy is my son/a (mace. z/ahazzab, pupil/polite) sing. ) sing. (fem. lbunt bunts/ti1x iizo/nhazzabo (the girl is ay dauGhtor/a puplil/polito) luwlaad w ulbanaat (the boys and &trlo Subject a r©lativo pieco ) (nass. Ging. is my son) yalli (the yalli (the ) (fen. bunts sing. raaHet daughter) is my one who went (plural) raaHu wlaa&i who went are-my children) yalli (those An has b©en_ implied in In object. of the a sentence relative position, sent ©nc es if; of nominal exLplec all the above, in nominal and predicate predicate (plural) wlaadi/talaaiiz/nhazzabiin. are ay, children/pupilc/polito) ra H ? ubni one who went subject ) not aontencon of the The fictcd. the can precede structure Ift - Iý the where subject ßcntenc©S of tho are definite und prediato following ctructuro 1ý - Adv. /Part. whoro the fix, the no form adverbial the of c. reoment or the position predicate, fi od as nominal of in. the f Pro. between operates particle the nominale, in and combined negative negative (see cent enc os with particle, counterparts below) in 9 the nominal a pronominal which of taken. always amtencos and sufprocodes classi- as tin. important, 10 for crit©rion. tho o itabliohing dichotomy. cubjoct-prodioato Affirmativ© N ogatiyo 9adnaan ? uff. 9adnaan (Adnon is 9adnam my brother) (Athen not my brothor) 9adna= nuu foo? (Adnan is not upstairs) in upstairs) 9adnan 9nudi (Adnan is with nuu ? axi (Adnan is foo? Cf. 9adnaun muu Sandi (Aänan to not with me) no) and 9 adna u. . 9adna ? axi foo? nuu ? act 9adnaan nuu foo? 9adnam 9andi 9odnann ii) Verbal Verbal nominal betwoaa priato1y will what with which employed are Vorbals considered are lined: Soo p. ! l2 special . aro These sentences be described are categories of various in and contrasted be comparable a few oxaaplos, for in centonces which the in verbal of a of elomente on. tho affixos, and sender proaenc© predicate ©stablished sgst©InB of number, to by the occupied place person, (1) subsequently following (1) the by the are characterized c©ntenc©a sentenool. association. 9adnazn. Sentoncea form in verbal muu Sandi basis of thoir distinguisning are apProtypen tend some detail En8Ußh. Yo=i3 with The are under.. 11 butn ? u=i (IIy ciotlior. balcklir goon to bod t9allz? nnat aa? oj (tho roaultc. or fit contencos an indofinit (thorn a pronominal with sin©na lgax'doon at Al-Fazdoo film Particle are nude up of one of sentences na9, you) tcHt, foo?, jamb, warn, and followed suffix a pronominal procoding cin©ma) for (9and, nominal, rauffix fli ? ulak aaktuub (there lott or ina particles with a nice + an indofinite o. g. Hulu bi is fit made up of conbinoä o nominal, fUlun fit Sentoneoo are particlo +a ypatorday) abu yaaaor ra? iio ys oloutod aer procidont) . &; Pa ticlo I"li fii nbaaroH worn -poatod TTullaab_ ntr (the studontc 111) of early) by a closed list ? uddaan) combined an indefinite of noun, e. g. Sandi Dyuui (lyoom) (I havo 6uosts today) ria9i t azl: art oen sinoia (I have two ciacna tickot Cf. '9and tional uDDyuuf' phrase the propositional the fact can be followed (near with only. that a cafe) (with und not guests) a particle phrase the the s) in. the by a definite ), a pronominal whereas suffix particle the or former cud is sentence occurs indofinito particle followed in a kind by lattor proposi. between, rosid'ing by itself nominal the of difference the sentence, and the particle is which in and ('jamb ? ahwo' is combined an indefinite noun 12 Particlo fron of this Dcntancon nominal 3entonoon A. (1) similar na9i ta: kartoen magi tt a kart (I (2) of two havo typo bo dlstinguiohod should Of. atruoturo. tickota) eon (the two tickets or ttazkarteen ne9i (the two tickets are with mo) cr© with ne) std (1) B. naa magi (I (2) or haven't (the two tickets are tt mzkart o en auu magi (the two tickets are (2), and (1) follow must the con=on: the negative particle. 2. particle and the the rust of the In rust ocntenoo (2), the be indefinite and is with associable must and the be d©fi. scntenco 'nuu'. particle o noun followring have an ind©finit a=ciato with associatod cent one cc havo two cnaract©riatica they and the nominal nominal the* particle, of variability nominal, positions nominal taaa'. the terns in are statablo the with 1. they no) (1) precede und pcrticl© with negative or iii not the particle, pazticlo me) of can. follow associable or the negative rite, in Thus with ß of relative form and the not (2) and indefinitcno or in the or otherwise (1) between definiteness particle, two tickotc) tt azkart o en nuu na9i Difforonce the t azkrart ©en with the n©gativo in ' fii' particle is .J 'maa'. Moreover, teristic that however, in they the ceded by a definite der as the fii sentences tences, forms verbal that with are nominal cannot nominal particle of the suffix to sentences the in may be included fii particle; sentences. are: (1) 9ando Dyuuf (he has guests) ?axi 9ando Dyuuf (my brother has guests) (2) 9ando Hafle he ie giving (bukra) a party (to-morrow) (bukra) iii 9ando Hafle (to-morrow) (he is giving a party ) ) and gen- person, by any nominal. be preceded charac- They differ, 6 canpre- them. same number, appended the sentences from excluded in particle pronominal moreover, share whereas Particle cen- Examples 1A. C B. English Within simple aentencea distinguish poeaible"to tepee and Arabic of affirmation claaeified it as otatementa, is types. several Type I The first (1) linked a verbal in presaible of of first is sentence together terms in The nominal type (1) made up of a nominal and of form ex- by a certain a combined category is position agreement the of person subject; the and number. the verbal, predicate. This which Bition; '-' 'N' (2) a nominal represents 'V',, indicates constituents (1) may be given sentence-type a verbal the formula, or nominal phrase or verbal phrase linkage (actual by agreement in-terms the in second (2) or potential) 11 in V, in first poand position; of the two of number and person. The terms 'nominal' and 'verbal' are used in the sense James by them Sledd in his 'A Short Introduction to given 1959, Grammar', Scott, Foreman and Co., Chicago, to English is form which occupies nominal a word or larger namely, a (pp. typically 83 ff); by occupied and nouns a position is 'verbal' a word or phrase which occupies a position a (pp. by 89 ff) typically occupied verbs Cf. he, she, it I, you, they asks ask and the man the men asks ask and I. we, you, the men asked. they, the man asked and 15 Examples of sentences The Assembly Birds sing Mother He left That (beautifully) sentences structural is nevertheless types type of in bal sentences nal and a verbal, formulated in been and fii sentences, I in & particle Such patterns of of number bada 1? ujtimaa9 (the meeting has started) TTyuur (birds butGanni sing) ? ummi butGanni (mother sings) huwwe saafar (he left) haada (this byi? zi hurts) in more elaborate as simple distinguished: English Arabic. terms are not frequent, sentences, frequency. classified have type minimal expanded of high sentences main this of pattern, Within Sentences are: hurts the verbal type (tonight) meets sings While three this of nominal sentences agreement and gender. to are Arabic, sentences, (see sentences correspond in statements ). pp. 4 ff. ver- a sub-type of made up of a nomi- between which Examples may be are: 1 rJ Sontonooc of this typo are cunaarlaod under the formula, (1) to iSli v, und are in Bonoral coaparablo ch o ont ono on of I. typo An wo havo coon, the in Arabic (1) TTyuur (tho distinguish to Dorv©o or aboonco of tho prononco difforcnt two artiolo Cf. utructuros. but(}, birds sing birds or sing) with (2) (1) is it with Tyuur (birds but Gauunt (that) clog aa ent enc © comprising by agroauont tionally in to oquivalent Arabic dared and the below definite (1) the fact an nd joctive article (2) and condor. noun this botwoen the in is by followed in 'the' and a vorb o noun a nominal a verb phrasal typo. article 11' Englich linicod are func- in conai- (pp. 141Pf) A mor© important In nunbor differences Distributional birds) singing ad ofinit an. indofinit© containing phrase or that while Foriula© rof©rring and thoa © rof©rring difforenc© the to nominal bot wo 11 -V can, precede and n-V or follow in small be written Arabic will letters, to F.i li air in capital 31013 the l©tt©ra 17 the verbal liary or the a nuthor directions stage for Contrariwise, in of certain froo occurs oloncnts 'Up Mary', cones lnnguagoo, r©strictod 'Eater of. prooodoi by cn. auxi- procodod 'Hora instance, Arabic, is rdvorbicl as in, in or it to tends Lich . whoro sentcnco, balloon!; 'Went the ate. cases whoa. one of in i]i nominal in except initially of the in. Arabic, verbal the ', aurdoror... is variation that the case bet w©en.. bi G Lm1 TT o er ? auk naafar %ufto ? an.a. this Behind b©tween that II with, corn, and. und and and Arabic, can occupy the later Those be called may by plural meubero nominal is co=on inflection. with, the the lb cnd verbal exposition. the bird oinGa) loft) your brother I saw him) difforcnc curtain to relative and their form this in. on however$ at at ommt overall fish lansuaSOE. TT oor biaanni saatrar ? axuuk tuf'to 7 ana tho poc What is in the will of foray iblo positions distribution. oo two be dealt innediato con- fact that, in II1glish, noninaals which (1) nouns (a sub-class of nouns charactoris©d an well co-calked as by the case-inflection a cociability (2) do not of appear its in pp. 100 PF- (1) See chapteroi. (2) two-cane cyst©n F11glish speak of a While most 6raars of in that it borno to be boing mind suet nouns, applicablo it to ainco Eaglioh only, nouns 'care' is not appliccalo 'the Cf. larger hing of structures. may associato with on nouns, Is Cr, sin gu lar the unless whose members class among its prises In Arabic, comparable hand, other '1', by the article (3) or a definite noun. The positional in Arabic in of of the constitutes by reflected Syrian the this type nominals between a conflict following a# an, what are deemed to be must always or followed of variation sentences positions relative of free the attested The class com(2 this, my# etc. nouns. position, subject i. e. preceded suffix of a closed and can be con- nominale the, membership: in a determiner, identifiers on the nouns, before appear or as markers sidered by acco rapanied the by a pronominal nominal as opposed and verbals two languages mistakes be definite, and verbal to the in English which made by fixed is speakers Arabic: continued A far-fetched England's rather people'. example is quoted A. Hill in his 'Introduction to Linguistic by Archibald ', Harcourt, From Sound to Sentence in English. Structures. 1951, ?. 187, 'She goes with the Brace and Co., New York, ' the street boy who lives brother. across s (1)James Sledd, (2)See 'determiners' (3)See footnote op. cit., pp. 97-8. below, (3), pp. -r. & pp4 o OF. r :t tici © Appeared the results of the examination. Sihan an hour ago. e Arrived the year. the students their ® Neglected work through in this ® In our English course year spoke our teachers English writers. about different Mahfouz in Amongst the Arabic Najib writers stands first class. The following mistakes feature as another as well G They had their In to order is Reference Arabic verbs, 8-term 'to be') within 'raaH' variable are a two-term are of after with is for 'she where should be pointed which in in English the person a calque with feminine finite has been equated 'the teacher'. speaker The tendency of there- what he considers verbal forms, 'SallaHuton with and and masculine 'She corrected of Arabic verb then and only 'SallaHet' to associate by the above example the by the native equated English (except forms out. parallel within tense present singular speaker form with tenses verbs contras- and English Arabic 'he went'. and corrected' is two Thus Arabic system. 'SallaHutem-on' '1? and ustaaze', between variable only the Arabic illustrated teacher' and Arabic and are rightly an appropriate is another the whereas the third respectively, Arabic forms, systeriSof mistakes the children difference being verbs above teacher for a basic to conflict comment: the English between feature tive of for supper account same kind call will which them friend Q She corrected m He went your the reflect 'she and this them the ul? uatnaze' corrected them' 20 with Tho association tho vorbal toxtc, an in contoxto, Arabic is rootrictod form luvt tho not apoakor l in. con- IIiGlich all the an in. position, p Mir wif© she speak© EaSlIsh vory 0 Ily dr. ughtor trio piano. cho plays 0 The t elovision. it costs auch. 'she 'oho speaks', imperfect Arabic jootival pro-cub; oun. occur post-cubjoctiva, pronominal fol- lplos: ox whore tho of to but oxaaplon, in notably lovin& by tho 'it playa', ' btufki' forces well. coats' are btul9ab' ,' equated with ' bikall©f' and , r©spectivoly. Before that could occur 'Ho wcnt, teacher your did mistakes vod than between. quoted (with and the a different (c f" corrected then, friend', 'She which them', bf and 'your a negative involved are alternative more may be variant declaration) between. or choice forms friend English a reflection, on the of part English. of of previous in. punctuation. and intonational a conscious two on. this quoted junctural is a conflict mistakes be mentioned should appropriate correct in. contradiction. it conncnts Eagiish in.. speaking), tures that in and with writing, the some of while page these concluding the foa- teacher', forma of 'The did Sol, i. e. the fact rono. inn und Arabic, the the conflict Arabic and the involopoaker 2 II Tyne Sentenceo type thin of N -Va sub-class in linked (a word terms number, or occupied in which expanded sound, of position become, The most frequent this sentence-type remain, ring, grow, are typically a position occupies which ). by adjectives the verbal turn, form (2) verbs', by an adjectival followed and are to a cloned belonging 'atntive may be termed of verbs of latter the and a verbal, where a nominal as follows: may be renresented (1) Adj" verbs occurring are: seem, look, appear, Examples smell. are: He looked It tastes anxious good Sentences of troublesome The children grew The story rang true The soup tastes good type I in this they that two elements in ival occurring element stituent of this (1) VS symbolizes (2) See pp. ici if. type have three sentences type in basic type of the third of sentence, a atative from are distinguished verb. I. elements In other place and not is sentences as opposed words to the adject- an essential an adjunct. of conCf. Rr) fýFý Birds sing It hurts with ö He became 0 It seemed Moreover, their occurrence with (non-otative) verbs forms adverbial in verbally and the the verbal the position Arabic types of be comparable of arrived these respects in Examples are: of type word classes, word classes the two of number The difference this of are is languages i Ga, bu? Drbaan xanled (Khaled remained angry) lbadle Tul9et dnyy? a (the suit turned out tight) the verbs in other to the what the distribution contrast at and has to forms, occurring post- suddenly) in which and gender that Thus in only referable though with between sentence-type. comparable of sentence-typo terms membership are each They basis adjectival (of. in agree by forms comparable a partially contrast adjunctival sentence-types concerns constituents bers possible in followed not are on the established forma, by an adjectival. followed and Arabic in which and a verbal a nominal are has are adjectival being other Arabic verbs stative English can occur the sense are variance be considered and English the that deemed to of the in mem- other separately. ry 2J SSuura bayyanet waaDHa (the picture appearod clear) TTa? s Saar baared (the English the the free in above examples type ' can is appear the the arise elements to transferred with to no problems however, of variation Arabic offer difficulties, general; positionally sentences parable in Arabic cold) of this sentences of speakers when became weather English. in subject of final comThus po- e. g. sition, bu? i GaDbaan aaaled dayy? a lbadle Tul9et DHa SSuura bayyanet wvaa. TTa? a Saar daafi This the free positionally following variation in Arabic accounts for mistakes: the beautiful Appeared ® scene. ® He became angry my father. the students. 0 They remained silent The last discussed sentences on pp 19-20 Loreover, all cases, rollowing reflect the since last arrangement, of. the Arabic tlso the 0 He went your subject can precede examples in which the as that same difficulty are friend. the verbal in to the, susceptible subject follows the verb: 26 bu? i xaalcd GnDbann dayy? a Tu19at ulbadl© bnyyanet u89uura waaDHa Saar uTTa? a daafi The following of the order light can be readily mistakes the Arabio of accounted in elements the in for the above sentenee©: 9 Remained my husband late till midnight 9 Became the weather hot in the afternoon 9 Became all the people educated and civilized. (n) II Sub-type A sub-type English of II-sentences Type may be recognised thus: and symbolised 3 N N-V In this than sub-type in being with the in the this Type II, verbs only of Type is become, occurring is sub-type adjective position verbal of sentences almost position the II. by filled remain, seem, in frame. this by a noun, occupied fewer Examples in verbs look, grorr, The third contrast are: The partners remained friends. The milk became cheese. The boy looked Here again a fool. Arabic has a comparable and a verbal are linked are followed by a noun of nominal. Exanmlea are : by agreement the sub-type where a nominal in number and gender, same number and gender and as the first %i V ? axi öu? t cunt oca m9alloa {i! y brothor a toaohor romainod Saz u wuzara zufa? anti (my friends have become (Her aon¢ turned parablo Ehglich the Thus hero. of sibilitios ct oro) out to be doctors) Tho cwiio positional with sentences of Typo U examples subject aboVe are is contoncos again to two con- noticoablo rurthor pos- arrcngeIQt: tit? i n9 all©n ? axi aunt ©en. Sa=a wuzara zufa? uati Tul9u dakaatra wlaadha 2. bu? i ? uxi r9a11er aunt©en Sa=u wuzara rufa? nati Tu19u wlaadhu dakaatra of the in oboorv©d variation 1. The two yoara) daltautra Tul9u Yrlapdha zini for following nictal: of Arabic arrongeaentc poscibl© for in. the light ccntonc©o of the above ou can bo accountod type: ß They remained poor the ® Bocamo the food cold 9 Bect o Taha first Uthi7.e the "ah ro as thoso reflects matter of the relative of oxaaplos on p. to apply Arabic position. country writer punctuation mentioned a tranafor a great of these a different (with arks Mosel= of the people structural of the is in just possiblo the writing), hero, i. o. the poaaibilitioa subject and the in atme oxa=plo in tho verb 2G an tho an woll in Ehgliah tho with Tho third in forma und pronominal Arabic. conpricos aentenco-typo by a&reencnt or pronominal of nuibor. pact forgo vorbal fglioh linked nominal vorbal III Typo a verbal of tho equating in number and followed which Hood not Thin a nominal t roo by onnothor then with in can bo roprocontod ßcntenc©-typo and roo. no follows: Vt Nwhoro Vt reprosont scatter, total its The nominal an object verb dofinable transitiv© sa e. g. in paoaivo im third occurring Exuaplo3 or compl=ont. is place in t orn& of as by as well 'A pooh was written 'GA an was become 'Ho Wrote, a- pooa' 'He bec=o a man' (Of. N activo Yorna. by hin' by him') to reforrod co=only are.. The correepoadcnt punched a policeman The president saw the report Tho explanation. Puzzled uß This Arabic in Chore number cui'i'ix is sentence-type a nominal and gender which do not typo natchad. by a comparabl© linked and a verbal cro followod agreo with by than. thus: n- vtn together a nominal Thin typo in by agreement orr pronominal may bo ßynboliZod r .. Exuiploo aro: lu? cuud byaal; lu laiiua (Lions oat moat) ? cna bulgab tonic (I Play tennis) xaal od Darabni (Khaled. hit a©) Bng1iah cpeukor nativö forcnt of this of Arabic above havo the following 1. n1: esV n2 3. vt44 al 4. n2 variant is corrected in of the in Eft&Lish in torias the the third n2 (by flu lu? cuud 1cim in) the in the firnt wo cm 1u ltiua) lug ßuud) R 3.laHum byw k1u-u then, if arraneomamt t: 1 iiah in n2, position, al E dif©loaonts Thus noninal. (byaaklu of boon the of os. (10 ßuud byt that have constituent 2 n. the to tho no problain longio two wo call in poaßiblo 1u? i3uud) (1laHum lu? suud byauklu-u) vt*pro. t Arabic, with the in nominal vt+prß 5. n` t-%--t In explicable arrangement typo and the offor aistalcos aentenco-typo position. 2. vt but again of nl thorn once poacibilitie8 smtences tho Arabic, of and are observed of Typo III aenteacea order of the 2 and 5. a conparaolo teacher) elonantn On tho order have wo , othor 1. in riund, to that hero in in D. case fro3. y although 2 (of. of 'She difforcnc© 28 of 6ontcnco-typo uad not anno typo as in_ Arabic. tho to that in. 3 In a ono (1) i; oroovor, in. modern possible variation within no ordor EaGlich, similar Thun wo can- have: not Q Eat tho It tho is lions in_ tho following moat. light cud Arabic ig1ish tho of fll. stakos the Pattornn n2 and tho attested suffix other, sh, all the on the are not and this students fact between oporatoa ono hand, and botwocn matched by comparable may explain the bought 0 Tho milk ttie p. 40 it ay £athor. Good boys drink it ovory pat- fallowing ui at &zo i: 0 The car (1)Soo toachor. my tirife Hucoin many books pronominal in. Ali terns the (1) 4 onä, 5, whore n¬rooaeat and vt on the that (1). D1Slioh the teacher xainod quoction. nattorn rofloctins ® She speaks ® Wrote Taha 9 lesson in 2 nattorn © They p_ay football my friends t They drink milk my children. 9 Explained typo in bo soon: should oo roflectinc difforoncoa positional of tho centencoc mistlos Itiotril; nl froo of dc.y. 29 Horo may have bought, to the use of 'The he hired), the nistalcoc F:igltbh. suffix thus, roflout to referable the Arabic? ttaraa-ha ? abi asayyaara lxaU. ib luwlaad lurmaaii byugrabu-u Sentencos of Typo IV consist of verbs a sub-class of trzinßitivo' for=la verbs of followed und object' Exampl©s abovo of: yoon. may be torned which by tvo to linko1 'Doubly nominaalu. other a The 113 IV pattOm -t " röprosent occurring patterns kul notably The n2. of a nominal t" vc1 171 ill whore Biglioh, und J _IV noia©r car, and Arabic to characteristics a pronominal Ehgliah whilo (cf. botwoon Arabic of aistakos, quoted boat, the that out pattorn comparable difforcnco transfer the loco out a bacic to bo pointoci should a more or ay father point It again ca in. this fr=O; 2a and 11 'direct doubly IT' is object' x2 transitive . fiat is verb, called in, traditional are: taught his son Frcncn fly friend flothor Savo no a present They sent him a ticket his children Henry told a story John asked no a question an i. o. ,a verb 'indirect t ©rminology. U 12 It and IT are 121 11 nornally order, Is by preceded di ctingui Generally When it procodoc, preceding. 'to' chocl by thoir relative however, 11 .Cf. tcu jht liy friend hin son Fronch Henry told hic children. a story and tau5ht Ity friend Froh Henry told to a story Arabia rid to ooionging 'doubly ',rabic This 9roa ? u=o (Wa.el gav© his vd "t" mother 1? uofaaz tja? al uttulmiiz (The teacher asked the by two may also nociinalu. formula n2 a1 a rose) is nl interesting in the to manors) su? aal pupil a question) to notice languages the wh to 1!y notthor gav© a prosent la ? taxi 9uTet hdiyye ? u=i where the which ward© ? awl 9&i. r uni 1? wduä (Miy iathor taught no good rnd followed may be given sent oneo-type waa? el Ni of vorbß a Mb-alaaa aro in which a nominal are: ples It hin non children. sentance-typo transitive' a_ Xai his nas a comparable a verbal. bo t©rne to both Illonci nlcro conparculo behaviour of 212 rind n2 proc odo than. my brother proc edel by part 1C Loa ('to' . in F1i ; itch C f* tJ and 'lß' in Arabic). However, oountertY rto in are last English example may appear 1. ?ummi 9aTut-o 2. ?u=ni other orrangemento in poooiblo Arabia. having no the Thun as follows: (n hdiyye 2 1 1 la? axi (n ?uruni hdiyye (n 9aTut-o 3.9aTut-o .1. la? axi (n ) hdiyye (n ) 1 (n ) 2 2 la? axi 'o' by a pronominal 1 the verb is followed suffix referable 1 is not matched in comThis use of pronominal to n. suffixes In between flict ning in contexts parable to English, English Transfer and Arabic. English explains a potential and constitutes of mistakes attested Arabic the of conpatter- following type : ®I bought her * The students * He sent In 2 the preceded 21 n. her English only cede nl whether potential Arabic a telegram to particle 'la' In other words, n2 precedes between often his wife. 1 n even preceded while or follows. English leads to in Arabic Herein like lies the her to his fiance a beautiful in can preanother and transfer of following: ® The teacher difficult set them to the students m Dr. Cook gave them to the fourth year students lecture. 0 Sami bought n precedes and Arabic, mistakes latter when the a particle the particle when n2 precedes, conflict practice a dress to ray mother for her birthday. to the teachers. ask them questions ring. questions. an extra ei') In. 3 wo navo a £atailiar tho vhoro in thin vorb, its procodon has aroa in toctod rofloctin& of typo no ntancou Arabia of oubjoct. boon alrotzdy tc2 o1 occurrinS nintahos :roaturo Potential in oxcaplificad of Typos this 1.rord ordor Is Ir, a= o foaturo conflict atLoatod nic- and III. /t- in aontoncoo includo: IV 0 He Savo then the 0 Send ne my family 0 They teach teacher a choico of throo by post. many things quoetione. tinny thinCc. un our teach©re T noV of this nontencen of Typo IV9 and third noriinuls, Seutencoo are of the this ' Vf '. (are The ' hol o patt use of indicate that pronoun( In person). the the notional two in to verbal a special may too fornulat IV, ouzao proof which may thus: od as folb%, Is: 'a' ar© substitutable the Typo pia superscript a, socond may bo symbolized orn tez as position sub-class and which nouns of by the varbc' silo tho that contcncoii in. the 11 - Vf 2,a %hero the boiz substitutable occurring 'factitive be called those belong sent=co-typo as io constituants difference the aurae number the have unlike The verbale nounu). typo two nouns is intonde3 by the ro: flr to the to name nano tl%l iJ This is there type a eompnrnble in in no difficulty offers sentence-type Arabic. or. English Arnbio Albert 1. We elected 2. John 3. The teacher pianist 4. the in thought English from Peter the thief that and Arabic Taus thought consider corresponding ntaxabna Hanan Haoeab a fool ra? iis caliim ?axi ? ajdab 1? ustanz aaawa xaaled byanno (1) a (hunne) jabnan a all while crm be shorm that my brother that the thief of of Type V, to be basically 2 and 4 as follow we may expand expansions byu9tubru 9anzet 1Harnami the above examples of sentences characteristic 1 and 3. John They but ende must be noted general nuHna president my brother They consider coward It since genernl share 2 and 4 both different : was a fool is a coward 1 and 3 are inadmissable: cf. that Albert m We elected was president (cf. We elected Albert as president) The teacher made that Peter was a pianist (cf. The teacher made a pianist of Peter) Similarly in Arabic, we can have : Hasan Hassab ?unno ? axi (hunne) byu9tubru ?anno ?ajdab 1Haraami jabaan -C! )-It is a common feature that the verb is used withof Arabic Since verbal forms are variable in subject. out a pronoun terms of person, /.. gender, to and number, no ambiguity as ". C)j eJ but ýr not: ® nuHna nt axabna o ali in ? anno ra? iic Q 1?ü 8t aaz a wawa 2unno xaalod In othor V in_ both of Typo riation_ in.. place the of third a main. clauno of in both clause, noun object nat© consistin6 scntenco3 complex 2 and 4 can bo oxp=dod sontencoc words, 9aaz of byanno and a cubordi- and Arabic. Fa6lich and Arabic IIiglioh han her of type this the like latter the the proc ©de (The With it. preceded in nominal. 9ayyan iwaziir the to referabl1 is minister iwazi it lwaziir Hassabha the appoint 9ayyan-o 9ayyan-o that ones, the the second G=iyye nominal, (f'incO mfattet uantoncoa un- centoncoo, variant with associated in with a pro- which cane follow may and 'la' particle third Arabic fr©©ly are is verbal by the xaal©d the subject of subject pronoun element, (huwwo) jabaan be fact Daglish in, which suffix byu9tubruu botw©en EaGl ch and Arabic the fron corresponding nominal (hunno) rich arises sentcnces other clever hin to conf3. ict A poteatial j on ad octivo rabic hin consider they consider clover) He thought Ono va- e. 6. nominal, 13h They (cf. into position. or C f. inspector) dd Khaled afatt ex. la xaaled la xarlod mfattoý the verb Implies Is likely a kind to of arise. 'hi&hliShtint' The use of of this a J 'I When transferred leads sentences m They to English, to the following him elected ® They appointed All the been types found to in Arabic. Sentences' to Tyl2e son my friend son n tenchor(l) sentences correspond to what three sub-types, in Sentences' we have English The following into considered so far 'Verbal called sentence-typen, in correspond, Arabic. VI of an adverbial of this type Type VI of the and number, or 'to verb are made up of be' by followed and of time or by place may be represented N11 to president of English 'Nominal Sentences a form mistakes: him to her be divided will general, to the last i la rfii? ra? iis in ?ubunha m9allem ntaxabu-u 9ayyanu-u which of Arabic reflecting have the pattern agreement a nominal, in third a nominal linked in terms or an sdjeetivsl, position. of per- Sentences thus: be IT/Adj. /Adv. (John) 'They English appointed secretary to my father' cr. to her Con', him teacher 'They appointed where a different obtains relationship of grammatical between the order 'to' the it. and noun preceding particle vJ divided be nd may i, tho third into is oloacnt (cub-typo B) or , : w1n1o0 Holen is Of cii throo sub-typos a nominal to accor1inr, (cub-typt) whothor A) , an ad j octival ucly urbi a]. (cub-. typo C) . A oub-typo my friend fly fathor Uraa a lawyor These =en aro foroignors3 Exuploi of The children uorc They are angry is beautiful Spring anpl©a , The The The of 13 sub-type naughty C cub-type is her© party children are outside in nearby. village Sentences of In_ these Sentences" . a nominal (sub-typo an. adverbial Sub-fie this typo correspond uentencoc a nominal a) s or on adjectival (sub-type c) (1300 p. 6). c waa? ©l bzfral (S;a©l to a horo) mays a ? =lira (l": uisa is a princoca) wlr. acina malaayke (Our children am cngols) to 'tlonina7. Arabic withi. colligatoa (cub-typ© Exzpl©s are: b), or rý iý Sub-typo b ? uutaa: na lL iif (Our t oach©r, ia 17 alul auxun (Tho food is lbndlo kind) hot) beoDa (Tho suit in Sub-typ© c whit©) uaayyaara barra (The car Is outside) DDyuuf bu jjnocno (The E;zo to iHaflo bukra (The party to what aro the between. II&lieh. coap, rablo between. the Thus dish sentences a nominal elements: and the (predicator), complements) or adjoetivul, corresponding In iSlioh it is are view to of ocntoncea i=odiatoly tho Aeabic (the verb. difforenco structural apparent 'to VI und thoir that we have (the adverbial of two nominal, and another thoro predicat©3), structural consist subject) type. 'copula' co-called scntenc©s und a basic the of three or VI rovoala framework tho (the copulative of Typo Arabic adjoctival, a nominal the , Typo of made up of subject) nominal, advcruial in the within corrospondin3 , elements: structural two (the e©ntenc©3 sentencos diff©renco while garden) tomorrow) A coaparisOn. dociod in are bot in boing IIigl. ish. involvod Arabic horo no botuoon countorporta, a banjo conflict fora ^ý 6" i, tJ botw©on the tontod two L=Suagoo, i iotalcon Somo of thooo in r©floct i-thich tho mictukos 'Keats, (cf. mother upstairs'. withim the it fore of afraid of death, ate). fravwork mistakes quoted of mistaken onittod. Its dinoiplino pootry words out that in sonn of the qua sequenco is a possibility 'I ; poou' this wrote The point to tho compared units wo have be made, a structural a reflection. are has boon wrongly bo pointed should and Arabic, iglish above mixture the mistakes above copula The most inportont thing Itt in its iin itficonc© Keats afraid of death Your uothor upstairs Hero again od by cn abundone o o1 at- aro: ® Hein a coaplicatod Q ® ® 9 ý of this caw your however, (the is that centoncos) in difference, difference. and the Thus the Arabic: reflect 1? unonon xaliiT ziu9agqnü iii ? aha= niZt o ha Z19ro fit raw9ito Keats xauyof ? u=ak foo? It c:odo or eXz 1plcc nun ulmoot has been pointed follow the on page out prodjcato cm baT al waa? el laTiit ?uotaazaa barra asayyaara ap_..ear (p. 9 ) that in Arabic thus: the cub j oct cam pro- sentences. Thus tho IJ U thio Sinco iglich Sloxibility potontial wo havo tont enoca, nistacoo of tho followlnG is iaatchod in not conflict a pot ontial comparablo confirraod by typo-. (1) pAt oachor my brothor Q Int aroatin& tho book 9 With mo tho Pon Arabic rofl©ct trh1ch n9al. laa ? axi nuat o9 luvst aab aa9i 1? alna is It the conflict; of points that obvious omission. of tho position typo of th© last alutnkos of the involvo und rovorno1 copula, two of cubjoct. Tno corr©sponds Sentences sub-typo 41 is VII Typo in a hi&h genoral of thla C9 tu, tho typo f'roquency to i11 ßcntoneos cane bo doriv03 fo11owtn6 in pattorn in from EaSlich Arabic and (coo p. 11 ). ccntoncoo of Typo VI, way: ba point od out that this Horo .a3. n -it should rrord coquonc o Cf. 'A toachor ' in En ich. is possiblo 2 2-Iy brothor? don't (incrodulity) (... in ronponoo moan lt)., you curoly ' brothor lcutt 'your c-a toachor, ho 2'. Iiovortholoaa to in which the aictcLj,: oc_in tho-contoxt woro unod quo«tion thl (Notico doom not in any ca0o warrant soquenco also tho fact the thoco that roaninc u, 34d) and zzictal. oc punctuation botwoon diff©ronco basic D16lich a syntax, rofloct und Arabic 7,1 -40'N be Examples are: Adv. ' becomes A man is here Some men are outside A baby is in the room Many letters are on the table may be made, Comparison very sentences it and seems in context the those, freely general category general for boy', good the from of deictics. one in which of place in 'there' - 'there' a good deal - varies a But this you'. this contexts certain 'There's/That's of. be.. ' belonging as - 'there' and disapproval is 'It complements Thus in for type 'There adverbial planning the closing'). consider 'that', demonstrative is early to is of sentences adverbial contain 'There's/That's language is between of reversibility, be' 'Today of approval example, terms reasonable as it -distinct with the of commonly in Adv. ' N is a man here are some men outside in a baby in the room on the are many letters There There There There table and 'It (cf. today' closing early to ' sentences be ... 'There be 'There more research area is necessary. The subject occurring (1) a noun and not a personal miners (1) Cf. of the 'There's subject only like you' in sentences pronoun. a, an, of this Moreover, no, some, type indefinite is usually deter- (see pp. w,rr) are more l.. common. than in verb noun. in ln_ sontencos or if the indofinit Arabic, is noun. is tho as that oaio the glich, 'are', singular; it botwoon tho ©xactly tho, most common rolationahip standard in which o nominal 'is' forms 'worn' occur in sentences is a pronominal o nominal. sentences Arabic fit and an with combinod by an Indofinit between 'fiat mado up of aro to ch oorrospond F i8l a particlo or Comparability and fii tho boing (in of Typo VII followod and suffix bo' liko: plural). Sontencon in VI the if Is noun (2) typo, contonco Typo of 'to vorb of thin tho occur scntencos tho Finally, oontenooo and tho 'was' dofinit tho that. this, (1) (uoo pp. iri tj o dot orminorc of in VII Typo following on the justified fliglish grounds: 1. Just of Type sentences derivable Arabic were in found to VI in from of B293-iah, nominal correspond Typo to VII derived bo can so are sentences sentences fii fron sentences (cub-typo of Typo c), VI in which (cub-typo C) Dn, li sh. (1) Cf. tho (2) as sentences C f. (S'lho can I invito mill=an. 'Thoro capo a &,roat to ay party spidor' ?) 1"toli, thorn' a always .9 2. Porallol boforo tho Arabia w to noun enayyaara (The cur with dotorninoro which occur of Typo uontonoon of indotinito artiolo fii VII, mutually in oxoluaivo G f, barra is outsido) licain in copula Arabic, iahen. EaSlish in used 'Thore Arabic, VN E =pl©s 'l: a, n' bottiiecn the EnGlish when the hau the rnd forma of abconce forma vorbal forms 'wan'. such canon in Adv. ' t,'ould und thotr sontonc©a corrospond Arabic to corrooponding in Bn3liuh 'vorn', the the Bi to Arabic Lich . aro the '1o', vorba] 'aro'; 'kann' contenco-typo 'fii kann n adv. ' are; bu jjnoeno kann w1aad ktit' nI (There wore many children in the garden) Doof bu lfaflo fii kam 9ugriin (Thorn woro twenty 6uosts at tho party) The 1 II11iah o articlo. rnc© countorpcrto is tndorinito fii barra (i) coyyaura (Ther©'s a car outaids) The di But in an a kind doilnit tho with to tho last two ccxl procodo examples; 'i`ii', may bo differcntly arranE3sl in that i. o. that dust an by tho fact Gonparabibty rotnforced -is -ltirthor dotoriinor(coo in Ea&Lich to uco a dofinito it is possible 'Thoro' tho (1) in tho procoding n footnote paso; cf. also tho be to tho tho butcher, with Grocer') paid, and aillian tho In Arabic noun. bo ucod with can article noun, Lhodofinite laazoa 'Sii w (cf. 1Hallaab nudfaglo, contoxta comparable iaan, w ulba?? aal' ) Ulla f- kann L"an Sli Sit lion Horoin. lctiir bu jjnoono Doot bu 1Haflo wlaad 9uiriin a potential 'kann' variation of In- ntnta; koD of conflict, since, talon tronsforrod following tho to the i&loh aba4r©H kacLn Pii bard lctiir tZutwiyy© 1MazDy© kaan fit above types, such as Hill's or the heart', for to call op. cit., contrastive cinma wrould have F116lisn for or Arabic, the e. g. O. S. be includod havo boon statonent 'Cold in loft to conkind, cubj©ct-prodicato (1) typo', to to Other ocntcneos', no contrastive P"347" bu anin©aa inniila purpos©n. of the 'equational thezi. (1) tho bocce coloatod 'single-construction and which of ? aflaati have typen are not which so-called treatment appear contcnco of others tcnco in Arabic titil. ch roflcct exclusion would rosult typo: a Yostorday was thoro much cold. 9 Lant wintor wero thoro good filnn The froo pocAtional hands, '0h I ', warn a separate out since they be made about r'ý ýý boon to To Dun up the sentence, found Lich that a major IIi group typos aontcnco of may be followed which end the of The in other of differcnce between ble Sentences in Sentences ytord order between parts in E2i6ii lie3 in the VI In Arabic. In and Arabic in order of Typo Arabic: V). through wore sentences of of tho the of a form absence typo and in, torms is followed I) 'the and p not those, all the to. the the feature to consideraelements. to of and tttoir Arabic to corresponding Nominal flexible a nasor group, basic relatively Arabic correspond by 'coriploionta' typen to subject', prodieator' called are this h sentences and when it an opposed to bott 'tho is corresponding addition a verbal, obaorvablo 4gl. ioh) relates found to called Biglioh of are (in which Thoa o Sont one os. The nominal, not. Arabic) Typo of elonenta in flexibility (in prodiaato' English the or has V correspond linked agreement elements, II Vorbal und numb or sentences through subject forms of poroon. 'the Typo of a nominal it and Arabia, I in. Arabia, and genier in (sentences order Typo of by other when.. followed fixed of patterns callod (as forms aantencoo by other of person, verbal giglioh sentences verbal in. torms number, in consisted which atntable typos difference counterthe copula inliah. Finally Sii Sentences sentoncoo in Araeic, of Typo tho VII woro corrospondonco found to corroopa to boin; brougnt out o pM c',: by trio vablo fact fron that blich nontoncea rooponding Arabic rosponding to uontonooo of Typo contonc©c En45liah VI, aro oentoncon of in this tho co dorivabl© of Typo typo way as corfron VI. aro dori- thooo oor- ' jý (2) A. Negative a) Negative Negative the of use same class the that is amply of justified. Such by which //a: of view to tences it in both is sought /a: nt/ deemed termed avoids to in derive, the since we are or is particle the in /wount/ affirmative-declarative to /xm/, from a contrastive going English from I' 'aren't euch tortuous usual say, tag the 'operators' conjugation from solution, with sentences. postfixed appropriate as transformsljf English association negative a solution //xl/, this adopt and the a separate is it from sentences negative (1) nt/ However, etc. 'operator' by characterized interrogative characterize recognition definition /wit/, the in (sometimes verbs that are mostly 'not' particle auxiliary between Fusion English in English sentences finites) anomalous in Sentences a negative of Sentences point consider sen- and Arabic,. senabove, we are concerned. here with negative As mentioned from affirmative-declarative sentences that are derivable in a fuller Otherwise, treatment negation, tences. of English intethe those treatment, inter of envisage alia, one should in by the 'not-' is presence. which excluded sentences resting 'seldom', 'hardly'. of quasi-negative class elements, g. e. a of 'He 'CHe didn't Cf. 'He seldom went', seldom go', but cf. he didn't Similarly, (i. go' nearly always e. went). seldom it like 'Isn't ', have ! nice which exclamatory examples forma, in this excluded affirmative are no corresponding context. t'. 7 in The operators can, could, have, has, may, had, question might, must, am, are, is, are: was, tive-declarative 'do' lexical alternant 'do' verb the carrying appearing in forms, in marks the not use He can They They Henry They (1) write walks lost fluently them novi see properly fast the match to); of the into nega- special operator the with negative and tense person infinitival any of form. and Examples the are: Negative-declarnt come early might You must B. French speak of association Affirmative-declarative A. used containing can be transformed by making sentences its and particle, above dare, were. sentences mentioned auxiliaries would, will, should, (need, to, ought Affirmative-declarative the shall, He can't They might You must not not 'T'hey don't Henry They French speak doesn't didn't fluently come early see write them now properly walk lose fast the match integrated in These forms are not fully and are defective 'You for degrees Cf. various s eakers. need not various 'You 'G don't to You don't need come' ; may come'. come' 'He dare' m You wouldn t can . Cf. also wouldn't 1JJ NeSative fii them; in cupies initial The and particle before dnd hence the sentences the serves negativ© predicate to identify particle oc- position. shape the of neSative varies particle it Sentences this whether predicate by a negative are charaetorlood Sentences, Thus in Nominal type. Arabic characteristically appears and Nominal Verbal in in sentences which particle Sentences N enativo bý Arabic precedes appeare follows or with the ae 'nuu' the sentence- before subject. the Examples re: . ffirm tine-declarative laTÜf 1? ustaaz is (the teacher rte ativo-dec1arutivo kind) nhsndes ? ubni (my son is an engineer) 9a 1GuSun 19aSafiir (the are on the sparrows barra (the luwlaad children In. Verbal before or the V. verb lexical outside) are Sentences, predicate, branch) the phrase made up of verb. Examples one or are: appar's particle the whether 1? ustaaz nuu lcTtif (the teacher is. not kind) nuu nhandes ? ubni (my soli is not an enlineor) .19aSafiir muu 9a 1ßuSun (the sparrows are not the branch) -on. barra d luitla nuu (the children are not outside) latter more i4he comprises auxiliaries fora of a cin6le followed 'naa' verb by l'9 Affirmative-declarative Negative-declarative ktiirý ?axi bidaxien (my brother smokes a lot) ?axi maa bidaxzen ktiir" (my brother doesn't smoke a lot) faa? u bakkiirluwlaad luwlaad maa faa? u bakkiir (the (the children didn't up early) got children get up early) Hasan maa_ruje9 ydaxxen Hasan ydaazen. ruje9 (Hassan (Hassan started didn't smoking start smoking again) again) ballalet. tGanni ballaget tGanni samiira maa samiira (Samira (Samira started didn't singing) start singing) Dall yHaawel yu? ua9o lmudiir lmudiir maa Dall yHaawel yu? un9o (the director (the director kept trying didn't keep to convince trying him) him) to convince form The negative has the form Imaal aloneýor,, suffix pronominal cord is operative by 'gam' between is terms or of by 'maa' and the which person, of the variously compounded with verb number, or participle and gender, ?anti (you ?unti maa-l-ek raa Ha (you are not going) ) are going) the characterised ?ana maa-l-i raayeH (I am not. going) raayHa (fem. sing. verbal in a verb ?ana raayeH (I am going) gam yudursu wlaadi (my children are studying) (1) pp. 3tt) (see pp. zcCC is more commonly, in which sentences (see a participle precede imperfect by of of verbal a cone. g. maa-1-on 9am yudursu wlaadi (my children are not studying) be stated is that 'maa' It should but suffix also with a pronominal infix having the kind of shape a maa-l-ek, maa-1-ak, mark maa-l-i, as maa-l-kon, maa-l-on, maa-l-na, of forms. compounded not just with what may be considered if '1', which serves to maa-l-a, maa-l-o, an independent series S3 fii In 'nau', and particle which ? ulak (there in appears msktuub a letter is initial the position, laratiye Affirmative-dec fii sentences for in appears a verb the in verb, shape the the negative imperative which ktoob(you (masc. ktubi (you of fem. ICtubu (you plural) appears negative counterparts (2) fora. In in the sires. ) write sing. ) write; write o. G. lartivo ? ulnk ntilctuub naa fii (thorn iu no l©ttor for (1) you) na. 9andi Dyuuf lyooii (I havo no guests today) you) the is particle Negativ©-d©c 9cndi Dyuuf lyoon (I have Guests todcy) further noSativo is 'las, '. This sentences which contain particle of such imperfect 'laa' sentences (3) fora, e. g. precedes lam tuktob (don't write) laa taktbi (don't grit o) laa tuktbu (don't write) (I have no guests to-day) 1_ Cf. naa Sandi Dyusf .lyoon' with (staying) (The. guests 'nuu 9andi DDyuuf lyoon' with are not The first is. the negative counterpart of a parne to-day). the second is the negative ticle sentence; counterpart of (The ' lyoon' DDyuuf 9cudi sentence, guests nominal namely, a (staying ' 9cndi' to-day) the where with ne predicate are ) (se© the 'DDyuuf' subject pp., precedes form is one in a system of verb forms which The imperative (2) the perfect, imperfect, sub-systems comprises and imperative in respect It is distinguished of affixal shape and in the forms its formal that since scatter, of constitute number distinctions ford, by it is characterised not other unlike (See f') tit person. pp. of See pp. £' FF. (3) . 1. -a I.' ý implications Contrastive In the light negative sentences involved in with others. each type Lioreover, negation and flict that two quoted mistake the mistakes Arabic. of mistakes with the lexical verb has been it in to order this 1. Although the positional in complete seems made English a conflict after, reflected the in of in The women not took their rights. (© My opinion not agree with his. in those days... 9 It not sufficed of conflict. of the person operator. include them the in of area con- languages. the negative by mistakes that so much to relate of two Arabic type point to chatter, the is out with picture the conflict morphemes than a simple difference the of appropriate sentences negative do not rather found to a special quoted association languages, attested be found reflects quoted wrong between the problems speakers to be pointed thing the context for will as to tense constitutes mistakes some of Nevertheless, this by corroborated the predict sentences The important of to possible and Arabic English of Arabic. the Some of facts above negative is of speakers is it English Such prediction by the of fact particles before of the the remains in verb, following the C'; 1 vw Arabic reflect which nnustiraan naa ? axalu H?uu? on. ra? yi naa byuttufe? nag ra? yo bi hadil. k ul? ayyaan mma kaffa 2. the composition. Bartes, of the the carrier aosenco essential, the in sults verbal other also use of ßnother The the operator of operator phrase) and torso markt, 'not', particle in verbs English, (2) he left poetry. mistakes 'do' lexical an indirect reflect even. when. the verbal phrase conflict: contains auxiliary: do not can come now. gI Q He does not oust go to The children 'They nowever, )Cf., (, Eig. Lish. religious 'They however, (2)Cf. . do not toil wrote work to-day. may play not, not au; d- without verbal the whatovor mistakes: attested followins the as person or (duxiy) tho application (1) I speak not to hin He wrote not to ae since Q1 understand not English 3. it 0. with in to 'naa' particle use of as well but following the the auxiliaries generalised operators, of phrase, the English of negation, the to of use iakos the in wneroas (in only Arabic Since neither to the in garden. do they ne but tä spin' - him, * in. 'do' as is not ro- tj 4. The mistaken as to negation. person- the and tense quoted wrong do not association lexical the with below to co auch the norpho1oo rather than of verb relate of tho with operator. 4 She do not studies all the year Q We did not went with than do not saw ilia since yost ©rday(cie The other and the 'do' of lexical reaohed verb and tens©, person.. is extrem© whon both of the auxiliary the with are associated Examples ) suc: n nistalc©s morphemes include: her lessons. 8 She does not learns 0 Wo did not heath then tincea they capo to her mother. 8I oulou does not listens as the 5. I.1istakes following; don't ® She asked hin to are Q Their father ao.aounted for negation the use 'direct' in of the and in 'laa' f transfer ' laa' 'reported' and to imperative particle speech has then by the applicable direct Jradic told put imperfect to don't of in play the For the in sun of and involving v¢rb in in both. the pat am native =ereas + infinitive fora licht sentences before speech. 'not on the both so-called 'don't' English has repoxtod speech, Ci'. J. Arabic Direct Englieh Speech: ? abuuhon bu Igams. ? allon " Reported Speech: ? abuuhon bu hams. ?allon : "laa laa tul9abu. yul9abu Their "don't father play to them: said in the sun. " @Their father told them to don't play in the sun (ec... ) not to play... ý. 'l, vJ Interrogative B. have been called The operators the but sentences. It of Arabic users to But they those first is relation to 'operators' its sketch is certain the between of interrogative most that English native difficulties to relation only similar negative sentences. sentences and their necessary. (1) front contexts noun or pronoun show the negative shifting to their of is limited interrogative parallelism in a verb the and. interrn'ative in to use. use of sentences: Affirmative-declarative Negative-declarative m'^ey can wait for usbe able to come He will You may smoke now They can't for us wait He won't be able to come You may not smoke now They don't speak French He doesn't get up early She didn't like him They speak French He gets up early him She liked (1) of therefore, in of not shape encounter and principally examples cornerstone use characterizes to accompanying The following operators the interrogative likely experience from English be anticipated, to are a rapid Apart the also counterparts Arabic the and their predication negative in Sentences a) Interrogative English Sentences 1. Deictic or them', under terpolations of predicative styles rary or restrictive as in 'Seldom motive contexts legs as 'Away went their from 'There 2. in literary goes the ball', inetc. he', 'wrote John', etc. as 'said 3. in the case 'be' in, 'Is John right say, ?'4. in liteafter sentence-initial elements with negative (never, meaning like nor, ) with, seldom, etc. have I seen such a sight', 'rior does John like /... ... Part I: Sentence-Structure p." !1 J .: Negative-interrogative Affirmative-interrogative us ? wait be able to come ? smoke now ? ? French speak ? get up early him ? like As 44 is the operator 'do', carrying the which marks in appearing Interrogative In Arabic, tences only 'reversal' interrogative appears of person the and tense noun or and the be 46 can use pronoun lexical of the subject, verb form. interr/ogative in of intonation involved or auxiliaries Moreover, sentences. be terminated 1? akul jaahe z (iii) (Is the food ready 5. a) 'informally' it, b) I'; in the will as in 'Had I known have told you'. Arabic sentences frequently particles ces can potentially cont. before Sentences in. respect by making sentences infinitival its b) interrogative auxiliaries not sentences on- page mentioned interrogative into transformed the sentences, negative case with of any containing for us ? they wait Can't he be able to come ? Won't May you not smoke now ? ? they speak French Don't ? he get up early Doesn't Didn't him ? she like for Can the,, he Will May you Do they Does he Did she differ not from features, as in all by 'sii'. the specif containing sen- affirmative there being no case of English interrogative Examples sentenare: ? ?) 'so' 'so after as in 'so can Joe', inversion conditional of formal style, the answer to your question, I would r1 cr; iii ? in touch fiihon ttaSalt (Have you got them ?) with Iii ? fii maSaari ma9ak (Have you any money ?) implications Contrastive between The divergence interrogative will to those mistakes Attested to correspond negative the for difficulties in encountered mistakes under sentences interrogative Arabic Under 1. first the types. The first in connection relate to with mouse of to English of type we have the from result following mistakes: a failure to use the a failure to appreciate operator as in: 2. Those which of akin sentences. a transfer reflect " Speak you seriously ® Saw they the picture fact and Arabic, of patterns. Those which 'do', (2,3,4) and negative different classified The second operators. with connection of respect conflict speaker native two in a serious the to point those and Arabic constitutes sentences cause English that another, operators use of and that are ? from result the ? one finite 'can', exclusively verb 'must' finite the excludes and the the rest forms. Attested of use the mistakes -9 are: 8 Do you can coma with me to 9 Do you must leave so early 3. Mistakes the fron resulting the ? ? pictures misplacing of infloctions are: 8 Do he writes 0 Do she slept 4. Conversely, ? clearly late ? both the end lexical auxiliary the invitations © Did they not posted lessons 9 Does she tkes Private ? VA-Ale the to in tences In the types of mistake Biglieh and Arabic, to English of Arabic following auxiliary ffrmative above between transfer a are in: inflected contaict verbs but which are the result the pattern. marked is neither the word order of 8I may borrow your car ? 8 You study in UD evening ? an. indirect types interrogative reversal the point sen- by intonational only there sentences: fron following of examples G=e ? features. nor corresponding use af- of 59 C. Questions iah a) Questions in Eh Questions in Eiglish to correspond and r©gularly immediately class followod by " C. There are those very -a the oral of consists repsonse (1) the repetition than other list the limited of words and to calls. These the response elici regularly 11 are questions. While both oral followins mit the 1. whom, where, not' gative serves sentences. when, Fries, r©%onaes are only. sentences distinguished from the evoke latter the Op. cit., bagim inadmissibility to distinguish begin with a quostion. with not of extensions questions Cf. p. 4.5. which word ) etc, Can he cone, or not ? 8 Who came, or not ? When did he come, or (1 that largo number - in which variety of forms a great (2) of the utterance und that word-groups comprise those that utterances reat ruage of responses - sentences, typically questions or are and ques- gzounde: 2. Moreover, .., former interrogative Unlike auxiliary, (tirho, the 'oral' of typically utterances of and interrogative questions responses, they sentences (C) Frioa's a cub-olacs that grounds Interrogative reaponso. an oral tions on the sentences interrogative evoke may bo oonaid©rod ? from like interro- an Go interrogative 3. While 'no' 'of by course', almost word form, form to belong the distin6uish sub-groups: words and ' what') and 'which', questions stable as adjuncts and , in it do not if which) of (in as subject the is question (in subject any one of the the to possiblo Involve and contain. any, case case the of 'whd, of 'what e. g. ? can paint such a picture this ? painted picture 2. Those the finite question the a few minutes. What artist Which artist of tho from ßonorally my friend sub-group auxiliaries, Who won the match ? What caused the fighting these following as questions first what, an 'certainly', can be followed Now, tomorrow, (who, oxpoct quostiono Yea, no, certainly. John, George, Mary, of the 'yoc', Cf. two major of such prodic are classified shifting question that sentences 1; Questions front forms question. Did he come 2 Who came 2 he When will come 2 forms of answer, though classes initiating Within the in etc. any list a limited ono of or typically sentenco words expecting of verb second and the (who, a torn do involve sub-group subject whom, whose, occupying ? and contain_ what, object where, 'inversion' ono of the when, how, or adverbial ), etc. position v1 in a full Examples answer. tilho did John. (I you coo ? of questions from differentiated and features distinguished second those sub-group of words, question both common to being go tomorrow) it easily) sentences order, by only otherwise, the affirnative word of saw wohn) (I'll Tomorrow (He did Easily When will you go ? How did he do it ? While are: tho the questions clearly are by question first words cub-group same word are order, and affirmative sentences, this In so-called context, 'dependent the tho act that 1 terminology, case, the it dependent Cf. sentenco. has been downgraded, sets status of question- a sentence assumes the fora Toll soo 2 Iahen did you leave ? How can you be so sure 7 ch. use Hill's In of such an affirmative SetB you cit., by A and B, What did Op. to element. set A (1) on the touch wh3dh. aro characterized questions', question to the to seems appropriate 19. mo What you o aw He asked when I left He wonderod how I could be so sure. C2 Dependent view, point of which are role dealt the of when Arabic b) Questions in Arabic questions in Arabic of interrogative ces, that guu (what), whom), and are English in like '... lunna la? ' to English) evoke, but parallel response hand they other they then. ssayyaara g ? eenta differ not also (or in they the both words (when), cannot kiif See p. tts senten(who, 'niin (how) be followed in affirmative the different inadmissibility etc., by sentences kind of of tags C f. (The t it hasri! htu ? car wuSlet, arrived, aaheek (® ? When did the car aaheek wuSlet ussayyaara, arrive, (1) cub-olasses not) from only ap- interoAgativo question that and the a sub=olass that from ? eenta to on the (gain (where), ween_ the diccunned. sense contain In become be considered differ- Done of order, us as will in-the they word are may also parallel extensions after in however, concern they response. a contrastive (1) tonsoß'. of of questions sentences, an oral evoke features need fron many foaturos 'Sequence the only interesting involve under with auxiliaries below parent they since context, present are questions didn't it 2) ?) 63 difference A major is the fact first and those sub=group paralleled both distinction the that in botwoon_ Arabic Arabic, in sub-groups auxiliaries as subject, operating Examples answer. second thereof, is not to corresponding sentences involve whothor or object, tho of Aub-group specifically, do not Arabic quostions questions in_Arabic Moro in 'shifting' or the one group as questions classified between of English. and Eliglish adverbial the thoy use expect of a fora in complement the aro: ? niin_ Galab (Who won_? ) tuft miin. (Who did ? you see ?) ? ?e ent a wSult (When did you arrive ? Ikiif saafart (How did you travel the Moreover, words quostion fixed order word-order of which either biguous) in in in expect a subject ?) relative Arabic English. the ?) order is fairly Cf. the following an. object; or an object sentence flexible different seta the of of afrond, in the elements as opposed to the a subject; (and a of po iLbilities questions, anarrr including first not and the thrd, hence is am- ýt r A. miin Set ns object 1. miin waa? el Galab ? 2. waa? el miin Galab ? ? 3. wan? el Galab miin 4. Galab miin waa? el ? 5. main yalli waa? el Aalabo (Who did ti7ael beat ?) B. miln Set 0sv 80v svo vos 0 ? yaili ss subject la waa? el ? 1. miin Aalabo 2. Aalabo main la waa? el ? ? 3. waa? el main Aalabo ? 4. vraa? el Aalabo main ? Galab 5. mlin el waa? yalli (Who beat Wael ?) C. miin Set or as subject It the not relative where the is the occurs is associated 'yalli' object sentences tences of the 'miin rsaf be pointed out e. g. object position is walad that preceded (B 1& ?' 2), in by except and is (B 5); and that miin N(vihero +V+ arises (Who saw a boy wherein '1a' particle when the is miin N stands ?)). main relative (In for 'yalli' senan be subject, it should the subject when occuiring or subject Finally, is whin except Nd. +V+ when sentences suffix, N cannot since wherein except in subject a pronominal sentences the S) sentences suffix, with no ambiguity noun) in object structure: miin (0V or a pronominal (A 5); of the structure: is main occurs in (8V0) with associated 'yalli' verb relative indefinite that 0 0 ?) 17ael beat be noticed will verb the (Who did S V+pra. la V+pr3.8 in 09 V+pra. 0 V+pra. 8 8 yalli V0) object ? rniin Galab waa? el (Who beat Wael ?) or ) S V+pra. in final occurs (B5). 65 followring The word=order in particles, e. g. 1. Aý the reveal examples containing questions poaaibilitiea other of specifically question weer. and ? eeatas weer: na= waa? el ? ( woen. VS 2, weer waa?el naam ? wean SV 1. ? eemta raaH' ? abuuk ? 2. ? eemta ? abuuk raaH ? ? eemta VS ? eemta SV S weer. V 3. waa? el ween naan ? 4. naan wo en waa? el ? ( V we en. B 5. waa? el naam ween. ? ( S V woen. 6. naam waa? el ween. ? ( V B ween. (%lhere did Wael eleep ?) B. 3. ? abuuk ? eemta ? abuuk raaHi ?e ©mt a ? S ? eemta V V ?e emtaB 6. raaH ? abuuk ?e eat a 2( V 5? eemte. ) is possible native of the light :En-the S V? e emt a) implications Contrastive the -? 4. raaH ?e eat a? abuuk ? 5. it rac to at predict öf speaker of Arabic above patterns Arabic least three faces in, connection. kinds questions, difficulties of with quostions in. F Elish. The first torod in lure. - to auxiliary mistakes kind 'do' that the in similar with connection 'shift' is the reveal to that interrogative if auxiliary, absence the of of difficulties sentences, any, other first kind the swimming of or failure to notably to difficulty pool ? fai- use the Attested auxiliaries. lo wing: 0 How wo can got encoun- are the fol- cpi © TO Whom book gave the you ? ® 'whomyou arm calling ? 0 Whero he works The second kind flexible of order to Arabic tho is of the transf©r rocult (subject, elements Attested F2iglish. ? vorb, question of the mistakes of the in word) cocond kind include: you ? how much he gave ® Your father ® What the teacher said ? 0 What bought you your The above mistakes to addition the kind The third fish 1 The nature tions. the order word following independent dependent order in independent of the mistakes attested questiozi omit is related has been 'do'. the different and dependent the transferred pattern- in error qu©sfrom can bo appreciated 9wheroin in since auxiliary to questions difficulty kinds the thoy difficulty of both reflect actually word wrong ? mother of to the the clause: p He gave ne what did he possess. ® You may ask what do you want. how do they to understand ý1 He tries think Cf. iuu naa ? ulut smt9ut (what &;uu ? ulut no distinction in Arabic. questions whore did is you say ?) (I didn't made between hear whet dependent you said) and independent 7 D. a) The' Emphatic' v©rbal to In. addition tivo and interrogative have still stress function: In to sh in operators and tags, quostiona, the carry describing the W. F. Twaddell auxiliaries, emphatic Digli by the Played contoncos, of the their of say role sentences. emphatic characteristics to the a in p©riuhraai important another in Emphasis noga- they emphatic grammatical has this role: grammatical "Occurftce for gran--atical stress and pitch as the locus is on the last Usually the main stress noun, signals. Elsewhere, main stress signals verb, adjective or adverb. insistence on the stressed a specific a meaning of contrast, some situationally part possible as against word or sentence But part. sentence on on word or main stress alternative (affirmathe truth insistence signals on. value auxiliary doubt tive whole, or negative) of the sentence as a against disagreement by hearer implied the whether expressed or or by thrl pecker atas the hearer's probable or anticipated " titude or reaction. Thus in questions, sentences, of by all addition verbs stress as well tration, of. its the marks following in role and tags, (except as the the to the sets person of 'do' operator aunciliaries) of and interrogative negative to carry and tense. non-emphatic is made use emphatic As an illusand emphatic sentences: (1) 'The English Verb Auxiliari©c', W. F. Timddell, (Providence. Rhode island), Prosa, University Brown 196o. Vj 7 IIsphat 1c Non-emphatic John can play well. Mary is going hone. George has smoked the John can play well. Hary La going homo. Goorgo. has caokod tho cigar. John did play Woll. 1!ary did go hoho. George. doos aaoko cigars. cigar. John played well. 1.1ary went hose. George smokes cigars. The following the sentences emphatic sentences eziphatic stress emphatic sentenco. above should the lexical where and yet the sentence be distinSuichod verb. is classified not is not in has ponding to that above. no way of to possible Arabic defined as as an smoke them) in. Arabic bý Emphasis tences the roceivoc (but he can't John speak) can write well (but he doesn't John buys cigars _nocessartly I saw John. ( but I didn't speak to him) It from corresponds This does not sentences to English mean, of Examples emphasis. marking emphatic set up a category in IIigliah of emphatic sentences that Arabic sentences corros- course, of son- enphatia are: Vufto (I did see him) ? Una akiid (Adnau did 9ana Hakaa fu9lan moan what 9adnaan yalli (I it) by I did lit.: God, it bu9t sniff sell . ; a walla in which the of the foraa Arabic sent ices are ohractezzed '? ald. id' ,' i1i91cn' , 'walla'. by the he said) inclusion GU Non-emphatic mphatic John can play well. Mary is going hone. George has smoked the John can play well. Mary ie going homo. . Goor5o. has smokod the eigar. John did play well. Mary did go hon©. Goorgo doom smok© cigars. cigar. John played wolf. nary went home. George smokes cigars. Tho following the sentences eaphatic stress is ©mphat sentence. John John I_ is It in tences defined as has ponding and yet s in bo distinguichod where the lexical verb. receives the sentence is not from the classified as on smoke them) Arabic not possible Arabic that above. no way of to should (but he can't speak) can write well (but he doesn't buys cigars -necessarily John. ( but I didn't sp©aL to him) Ezphasi b) above sentences emphatic to corresponds This does not sentences to in of English mean, of Examples emphasis. narking emphatic up a category set English emphatic sentences that Arabic sentences corros- course, of son- emphatic are: tufto (I did see him) ? ana ? akiid (Adnan did 9ana Hakaa iu9lan mean what gacinasn yalli it) (I by I did lit.: God, it; bu9ta soll sell walla in the which of the forces Arabic '? akiid' sentaaces are characteilzed ,' fti91rn' walla'. , by the he said) inclusion üý Ex pies of v u na Una lacken ?ult abaare view for defined as the grammatical the difficulties what ßiß" is emphasis maa Hack©©to (I muu lyoom are: (I caw him but to him) said I didn't talk 1-yesterday' not 'today' i1plicationo Contrastiv© In contrastive of the fact that is English, level, native a characteristically it the category non-exist$. would not speakers of English nt of in Arabic, be difficult Arabic ' oaphatic will 'emphatic' at to sentencoa', least at predict find verbal in acquiring pcriphra. ý' It glish of English d©red so far in tiona, a 'The role with connection (below) and English to stago is which auxiliaries emphasis, Twaadell' this at Booms appropriate feature this in Substitutes E. Verb on anothor those oonsi- interrogation, Again to quote quocfron when dealing Auxiliaries' Verb to akin negation, tags. touch with Auxiliaries: of t ' for the " occurrence the substitute ontiro vorb, echo as (predicate) in its-complements ropetiand constructiom 'Barbara 'You'll before can. road tions: will' we arrive hard and so is ' 'rotor's but Mac can't. working Tocharian is common as echo-substitute ].like. ' This use of auxilixy 'Will it it No, ? Yes-No rain in cnswerj)to questions: " won't' Here Ido' m=y againis in the made use of absence of the an auxiliary, so-called Examples as an echo-substitute. better than I do. He speaks iglish before there She arrived we did. Henry works hard and so does his wife. Do you smoke ? Yes, I do. implications Contrastive Arabic j: igllsh itself has no parallel usage. is In repeated, comparable or left to this contexts out highly in alto6othor. characteristic Azrabic, Exaaples ba9äna wuSel wSulna yuusef (Jo esph anived after. we did) ruHut 9a 1? ahw© ? -- ? oo/? e o, ruHut Yea/Yes, ?the to care (Did you go cý3 OF. c; r. the I did) v 'b are: are: rý h V. Here again the with we have a problem comparable and questions, terrogation, "an inevitable of an auxiliary (1) " echoing. Given Syrian ones in these students op. cit. connection since it of our corollary in interrogation, contrastive facts, after Yes, should with is be tackled negation, in Twaddell's grammatical negation, I graduated. I smoke. inwords, requirement and predicate one can understand say or write: 0 Adnan graduated 0 Do you smoke ? (1) which why r; r) :j F. in Tags F3icli sh A consideration. comparable Tags are illustrated gigli is in. Arabic complexes 'tags' so-called of the after in relevant Eiglish und at this point. in the co=as following sh sent enc eS: for A. 1. we must wait them, we ? mustn't 2. The children.. can. play there, 't thoy 7 3. They'll won. phone, can't there 4. There are many books, aren't he ? didn't film, 5. He saw this 6. B. John It the tor The does he ? smoke cigars, (so (so) (co) for them, must we must wait the children can. play there, they ? they'll will phone, 4. 5. 6. (so) (so) (so) there are many books there, are there did he ? film, he saw this does he ? John smokes cigars, will be seen that and pronoun negative ? 1. 2. 3. preceding firmative ? 1. We musn't must we ? wait for thew, 2. The childrencan_ they can't pltzr there, they ? 3. They won't will phone, 4. Thero aren't ? many books, are there did he ? film, 5. He didn't see this 6. John doesn't C. ? he ? doesn't cigars, smokes they main main selected. clause sentences affirmative clause is under examples 'tag' the in terms In the followed we ? can they provides of the particular by B' are followed under C are under ? 'echo' an examples ? of opera- A the tag. a negative by an affirmativ© followed by afThe tag. on affirmative r; e) 6J tag be initiated and can all Here, being again, the 'maheok', has one tag Arabic that 'auheek', is Examples faaDi, lbarmiil is (The barrel ? maheek empty, isn't buuza, (You didn't oat ice-Crean, The difficulties in this regardless (1) an a% 'echo' principle one tag of freely variant of sentence-types, all it affir- ?) ? did you 2) maheek ? set at home, haven't a speaker must particle, complexity area is you ?) implications Contrastive relative in an. operator Use aro: maheek ßi1 9aadkon taltvizyoon, (you have a televisiom only which used with or negative. maa ? akalt has its in. Arabic Taa native of absence t; the (1) main clause . a negative case of cu xi li arq, as a general or conforming main clause firnative with acta to related either im the 'do' 'so'. by consist what of tags in the precedes in be enormous 'isn't in view Tho usual Biglish. inö. criminate it, whose language of Arabic, use it' of being of the mistakes 'isn't taken it' as the the scope than is possible statement within A more refined limited thesis, is to form, it this written would as of detailed inter intonational consideration of alia envisage features characteristic of sub-typos of 'tag'-clauses. rý 6ý equivalent French syri ns. of Arabic 'n'est-ce 'naheek' pas ? ', which and is is probably fairly well a calque of known among r", Chapter Two Complex Sentences In. chapter one, with and contrasted In. the in. Arabic.. Arabic and from and tences following, what in sentences complex and distinguished be considered will were: outlined deemed to be comparable are what in English sentences simple are termed sentences both from English simple sen- compound sentences. (1) (1) We have occupied cally by verbs, sentence operate ý1) subject was linked to occupies positions patterns of 'clauses' of of two in to stated by nouns, category consists sentence which consists as a simple phrase certain a combined English noun-type which phrase type that The or a noun nal, of seen a predicate. and in Sentences Complex consist occupies a verbal, typically agreement of more a larger simple unit, a verb a nomitypi- or verbby occupied in expressible terms A complex sentences, the of positions tense-person-number. or a subject complex which sentence. 'A Grammar of the English I have drawn on George 0. Curma's V. III Syntax, D. C. Heath and Company, New York, Language', in my treatment in English. 1931, of complex sentences r ý. GJ In. a. complex between. the ordinate forms pronouns (where, main- clause the of imain. ordinate of subject From the outset quote of the elements on_ whether from it into of which is the object, or to to appropriate is sentences a sentence is following the Sub- expanding be emphasised or not(1)the sentence from Hill, example am. Thus a noun. clauses, Before complex should main: clause, the those exemplification). clauses: it to predicate, as subject, im the adverbs from parallel of re- rolative- (see below) : sentence clauses, subordinate simple lexd. ty functions an. element and adverb. sentences gniish, effect to ) or (that); distin6uish©d below for as a whole(see thus divided usually clauses clauses, jective further can; fanctioni a number con junctions etc. A cub- clause. by one of which, fulfils a simple of as an adjunct is It it clause subordinate or in. that eloments whose, )* etc. when, subordinate subordinating (who, distinguish to convenient introduced usually called usually lative is is and the main, clause clause it senteeice is that on. the distin- moro detail. the comp- made up has no simple. is ad. Thus to a simple sentence: ' ise statesmen, sturdy county' In: our beautiful have consciously merchants adventurous and pioneers, to youthful nation, our combined stve unconsciously and freedom, its and greatn©ss. wealth, 'Introduction Hill, A. chibald in'EZigliah', From Sound-to-Sentence 1958, p. 337. Company, New York, to Linsuistic Harcourt, Structures. Brace and PS.ry CC following the In- contrast, a complex dishes, Mary washes the If is John will #ýna Compound (and, two adjectives, while ordinate clauses sets of of the two position (between. complex Complex the a number (at sentence the begin1Ling co=ordinated and compound sentences is sen. to two sentences. Fur- introducing sub- both- in. subordinate the of ctm only clause) complex in occur sentences). Cf., below: sentences A. B. Because the door was locked, we broke hurry It -you -want to catch your train, When he called ready. me, I was quite a window. up. sentences A. The day was cloudy, and we went for join, nouns, door locked. the because was We broke a. window : curry up if you want .to _catch your train. I was quite me. ready when he called Comuound . co=ordinating of can. occur main- and the conjunctions two two conjunctions the complex i. e. two or nt a3,nB verbej whose function, clauses, in.. a complex neg from same status, co=ordinating sentence),, ) etc. or, (between initial inand position- but, verbs, position. by together subordinating thermore, medial distinguished are linked two units together f inito (--lxe-ate-more- sentences being conjunctions them. erb) ; _whereea-a-complex-rent... n in dry talns_on mpl teaces sentence: a walk. medial the r" r1 ý ;ý He makes good resolutions, Seize the chance, or you he went for B. ®gnd from what ono of may contain, which resemblance superficial the Cf. conjunctions. them, he makes good resolutions. it, the chcnoo. seize must bo diatingulahod and compound sentences may be termed of sequences both sets of the sentences, a number one of to two forms of bearing a and subordinating co-ordinating complox, compound, second and sequence below: sentences Compound sentences drinks tea. drinks Barbara Mary coffee, and The girls wept, but the boys went away. senses, or he would He cannot be in_ his right statement. such a wild Complex make not sentences The history of our country became what they were: ' Fools rush in where angels I thorn. keeps day was cloudy. the a walk, ® uzt he never keeps ® or-you regret will Both_ complex but he never it. regrot uill. help will Sequence you though us how our tells fear fathers to tread. you do not desrve it. sentences for therefore went a walk. cloudy; we The sky was he is debt; in nevertheless is chin-deep He always jolly. always boys the however, went away The girls wept; It less', with will 'however', and both property be noticed co-ordinating of occuiling that which the forma connect sequence and subordinating between. the 'n©v©rth©- 'therefore', sentences share sentences, con junotbns they serve tho to linkk. r, 9 differ, They they from however, cannot initial in occur subordinating in conjunctions Thus position. that have: we cannot ©Therefore we went away; the sky was cloudy. jolly; he is is always he always ONevertheless debt. in chin-deep In this boys the ®However, junctions, they sentence or inside mal also occur at etc. resemble end of the con- second Thus we can have: it. wept; wept. co-ordinating the we went for The sky was cloudy; in debt; He is always chin-deep nevertheless. The girls girls But unlike conjunctions. co-ordinating the away; such as 'therefore', forms respect, went the boys went a walk therefore. he is always jolly away, however. and The sky was He is always jolly. always The girls but we therefore cloudy; in debt; chin-deep wept; the boys, went he is however, for a walk. nevertheless went away. not Mary GMary drinks drinks Barbara Barbara coffee, coffee, drinks tea and drinks and. tea. or called (1) ®Fools @Fools rush rush Forms joining 'Sentence in in ang .fs angels fear to tread to where fear sequence sentences Connectors' by Paul Sentences', 'English ff. 109 pp. Harcourt, where. tread. (like (1) Roberts, Brace 'therefore', though & World Inc., etc. ) are others 1962, l call them con junctions, and still others them call by Joined sentence connectors and. sentences are (2) The distinction, therefore, Sentences'. 'Sequence between. classes to Needless to primarily the say, features distinguishing of comparable different a Having as between In sort of them Prom compound and sequence to deal It has been, said are often (1) See Fries, (2) Ibid, Cf, of op. the cit"., form of it sentences, a complex p. types. however, important in and may even distinguioh©d and sentences structures that are ces, sentences, within: sentence and one or more subordinate main,, clause clauses different with-the as muoh. classification. complex characterized is English, spoken of classes called applies and juncture pitch- boat sentence classification above sentences. written. phonological g. ve us 'connector' of (1) wivorba ; simple 250, footnote is appropriate complex consists sentonooa. of one clauses. Subordinate sentences but without 4, pp. 24o ff. 19, for him ch. where Hill's cit. a op. analysis, two is that sentence sentence consists of which. complex "are structures superpitch placed under a single which fix of two or nore morphemes", and whore the phonological dependent from distinguishes linking main_aantence a a sentence* (1.11. status'. Such clauses adverbs, or as sentence 'independent adjectives, into divided adjective, noun, have may as nouns, (1) adjuncts, and thus and adverb clauses, the heading 'Noun are below. I1oun Clause a Clauses can classified typically positions occupy be subject, in tion, Their spent Wet coming er subject a relative (how, (1) is he is clauses pronoun where, or of. pronoun. they Thus a preposithe underlined pairs: the seem to not time did not be certainly known seem to be certainly known. can be admitted visitor W owner calls His a noun did whereabouts now they An to Clauses' by governed complement, following the by nouns. occupied object, apposition in subjects under can be admitted doubtful coming are (who, is doubtful introduced whoever, by the conjunction ) etc. or a relative 'that', adverb ) etc. is a word or phrase A sentence adjunct not definable as these or verb, object, or of part elementa. sentence subject, features Pitch in the spoken language to and juncture serve distinguish from adjuncts a sentence adjunct of sentence In writing, by elements. sentence adjuncts are set off 'he took the path at the corner' Cf. commas. and 'he took the path, ' 'at the corner' at the corner, in the second being See Hill, a sentence-adjunct. example op. cit., pp. 329 ff, and pp-335 ff below. 1 t Object 'that. ', clauses a. relative I pronoun, saw the introduced or the in objects underlined I are also by the conjunction a relative following adverb, Cf. the pairs: accident saw how ho -was . k111ed t}ive Give me the book me what I want He asked me a Question. He asked the In by me when .Z .was RoinR following the pairs, forms underlined aro governed a proposition: the the He told He told The The = I took took explosion. explosion him him rominded reminded to to story story of of place place listen the crowd hero stood -we near near his promis© whbt -ho -said forms The underlined everybody whoever .'would in. the following pairs are comple1enta: We are not cold We are This This I I is is made it made it Appoaitl: 'that', must to be comfortable what -I wanted it to clauses, which not what we used my reason key -I. like onal be distin them 1iahed . from be mostly introduced by adjectival clauses, or are ü3 in. subs eat noun: clauses the lowing sontences, clause in. appositive clause im attributive The thought The figs It. first that the of sitional clauses that The fornal clauses is second, fol- a subordinate a subordinate death on after relative clause. sentences serves live were distinctionimportant subordinate in. t. er is " the of introducing 'that' verb 'ate' Moreover the to in in the as well the second as dirrereat distinguish cola. between the Thus many. first appo. sca- into on, after second cannot we ate relative clauses. and adjectival we shall that except oonooloo 'that' conjunction to tho as object clauses notional the whereas the can. be transformed 0 That contains live has no function_ both- tability the whereas tho we shall clause; That which tho C f. function: functions e enc n ent t©nce of function, be noticed sentence introduces first function, th at we at o wer(r in. wood en- boxou. . _ . will subordinate ob j eot or in death be transforaed wooden consoles into boxes. between. appositional in, view qualify of the the many fact preceding and adjectival. that both. kinds nouns, to speak of Q/I The distinction: or betwean. a subordinate function. objoct and a subordinate can, be seen. in. the ''unctioncontaining second, in clause a subordinate function; to that It clsuaea the the in clauses position. case of in to contrast the and does not clause appositive element, that the subordinate functions as subject, third sentence, which functions as object. become appositive subordinate substitute subject, functions, appositive The fact ® The tact, third, which in. in the sentence, will to the second have other possible the in the sentence, as a sentence function clause first first function. object doubt had the The good people no place of hnd really cone. come was certain. That the _en .had really Nobody that the end had really con©. . . -know In. the the function; appositive subject subject appositive sent onees9 in in clause a subordinate in clause following clause a subordinate o1o ico in that his clear by now that function flour are for clauses; a noun- or object, not conpleient, parallel exactly whereas noun. phrase no such, substitution: clauses. subordinate or is for and noun. to has been, it subordinate object possible of a. prein. the Of. he4son survived should make her grateful survival, should make her grateful. t Clauses Adiective Subordinate in a noun or pronoun They are adjuncts. that, etc. which, ) classified clauses to which main clause by relative introduced have clauses they as serve pronouns (who, whom, (where, when, why, adverbs or relative as) whose, Examples the as adjective are: there however corrupt, In. every seemingly society, those who have not bowed the knee to Baal. are Is hold in an English grammar. my and The book which I There was that about him that did not please her. I saw her ae . I cannot remember the place were Clauses and clauses are This is restrictive to set above off kind by introduced of pitch to appropriate especially clause usually termed from non-restrictive and written in ), in English; sentences as compound has juncture, rather than those cases no antecedent in restrictive Non-restric- pp. 128 ff. classify justified forms. similar (see see by a comma in clauses are be distinguished as we shall by features seem more restrictive the are clauses, guished and are which clauses tive of distin- are English, spoken it and would non- containing complex where the sentences. the nonclause, preceding e. g. the match, Our team lost This time the weather is difference. which fine, is a pity. which makes all the prisoner He commanded that should was carried out instantly. order by the novels She was much attracted his faults genius and whose she drew be set the free, which between of Kingsley, a drastic contrast. tI .ý Clauses Adverb that The statement to those parallel is partially only of clauses to those elements true. A consideration Yet in behaviour of (see footnote adverb under Adverb of clauses comparison, this forms the then 1, to in adjuncts p. 81), parallel as adverb Cf. clauses clauses to should comparable exhibit which relation which is simple justify to parallel sentences grouping them classified into clauses. have been traditionally clauses time, place, manner, cause, introducing each of of question correlated purpose, concession, could are majority great we may see ? main classification type the be done. as adverb relation sentence that classified clauses classified function. so that classified clauses sentence whereas also clauses other lantern lantern the the Turn Turn that as it should we . I have done it I have done it of (p. 76) can be shown to have functions so classified of adverbs, of a simple clear show no such parallel clauses clauses of the makes it clauses as adverb subordinate functions fulfil words with. etc. in sub-classes, (when, condition, The formal be sought perhaps these result, where, how, basis the as well for type of as in etc. ) some of S Following of classes a few are illustrating examples these clauses: adverbial When I was Young I looked at these things he went, he was kindly Wherever received because so that failed lantern The crops the Turn sub- the season we may see differently(time) (place) urns dr (purpose) (cause) lived that he cannot He has always such a life exne t (result) svrrmathy now You may go where you like you are back by provided (condition) noon that ten criminals It is better should escape than that (comparison) hanced innocent be men should one I must go just as I am manner They will cession) start to Needless clauses is survey which of the such of gerunds, etc. parable will topics But provide which use of present first complex the say, to be taken not as the tomorrow will tenses thouc! h it above sentences of sketch a frame of be dealt sketch in Arabic in the sequence, past of is in reference with and their cats complex It as exhaustive. participles, a rapid rains is are sentences rather the following the participles, what and deemed necessary. (con- and a rapid discussion chapters, distribution infinitives, to be com- Üý (2) to Parallel the in tences in Arabic Arabic English and compound, simple, in Sentences Complex classification it complex, is of to possible basis way on the a similar into sentences sen- classify of comparable, criteria. Arabic i. e., and the the a compound result a complex the by a member of lux, (and, ? iza, ? moo, sentences. "downgraded" unit, larger Although clauses but, to yet the status complex the and la? unno, of (when, 'yalli' enter joined sentences w, laaken, bass, sen- a compound lamina, sentence Hatta, if, that, so that, complex constitute a complex 'clauses', sentences are form and together a sentence. structure of behaviour are parallelism two subordinators etc. of can may be subordinate, constitute of relative constituents the their by a set and the the nor) or, One, may be co-ordinate, conjunctions of class it Thus sentence. mag ?unno, The or Chapter sentences combination sentence; joined because) although, Arabic, but, Sentences tence. The closed in considered & particle combinations. result wala type and fii verbal, different into and sentences nominal, the of complex and that sentenus not identical in between complex aentent English s and of and ý1 ý. clauses these two in. tho terms with lanEgla8o3 refereuae is to such both as to aiglish make tho uae of and Arabia amply justified. between Thus the difference in. Arabic tencea and complex is comparable to in. English, sentences Complex compound and complex that Of: between. the aen- cbmpound following aetat sentences A. 1? aale lkaatbe (the type=writer lu9eb fiiha la? anno waa? of ntaz9et fiddled beoaus© damaged Wael was with it) ddunye bard bimaataksi ? unno raH naaxod 113 it because (W '11 take taxi cold) a udros maa ba9rof? (I oan't study if B. ? iza-. aaa numut t=un* saa9aat hours) for eight I don't sloep la? unno waa? el lu9eb_ fiiha (Because Wael fiddled with binaai ? anno (B©csuse it ntaz9et it the ul? aale type=writer lkaatbe damaged) was ddunye bard raH naaxod takai is cold we! 11 take a taxi) ? iza maa numut tmun 13aa9aat maa. ba9ref? udros hours I can't (If I don't work) sleep for eifit Compound sentences bass, man. sta9malnaa Ä, 'Stareure: on.. -taltvizyo (We bought a television set but we haven't da? xams aaye? w ruuH ntuZurni for me for five (trait minuted t ruuH (Will ba9doen. and thou ? lumina. tub? ? ummak mag a magi you stay you come with me or will usad it) go) with your mother? ) u B. ® bass maai sta9malnat (0 but we haven't itar©ena it used ®w ruuH ba9deai ntuZurni (0 and. go then wait for . . tali we bought begIn_ or at the the the membership compound complex sentences, In. complex and the main, with subordinate is introduced by is analysable as an expanded to one of tence. the elements The rest of the in the is the sentence larger sentence is oust sentence. of in addition. diu. languages. possible to kinds cluuaea: of A. subordinate clause/s. or it connectors, in. both. two Eagllah, conjunction conctitutonts sentences a. subordinator the sentences, it following compound of the moreover, in. parallel distinguish, the from the complex fora-classes the of of have rather, the go. olauco, olauoo sentence; of you subordinate cannot between. and those not) s©nte oos can subordinate constituents contrast sentences tiniißh compound two transpositional compound to of the beginning the sentences compound between.. the appear and the ? will rna91 mother complex while introducing subordinator main- clause, The that with.. a: subordinator have the be noticed will a television xaraa da? aayo? m© for fivo minutoa) ® lumaw, tub? a mag ? ummak truuf (0 or 1-6.11 you stay with your. ) with m©? . It vizyoon. ! yalli' relative or element unit,, the the main clause and an adjunct con- complox clause. Cr. r; U tx ? aaa ba9ref uttaari (I know the date) ? eeata 9iid ? ana ba9ref (I Imowrhhca your birthday miilaadak is) j jdiide ? ? addeo Ha?? ulkanera (How much does the now oanara coat ?) Ptarootha ? yalli ? addeer Ha?? ulkcnora (How auch does the camera which you bought Saadafton: abaaroH" (i net then yesterday) laama kurt Saadafton. (I met then Clauses in : nigli operate in: a simiaar thereof, general gigliah, of syntactical s,s nouns, all them under in clauaen noun, adjective, behaviour ex=plea exhibit below). in which one term. clauses as in can be classified, Arabic and adverb; clauses to comparable and adverbs adjectives, or-adjuncts olaoants as subordinate subordinate of in. Arabi c clauses sentence (see behaviour subordinate case of subordinate classified Classification. Subordinate in tho manner to clauses grouping into out ah, not comparable justifies bu ljaam9a wab at the univeräity) when I As has been- pointed but ?) cost that of on tho form banie classified respectively. ljoun_ Clauses Clauses characteristic predicate, classifed as noun clauses of nouns; object, object TWO they of have syntactical can function a proposition, functsoas as subject coaplamont, and 19 to in. apposition ? iza (how), clauses Subject clauses being in. this Arabic. pr©cede nearly their main the clause, '9iit'. a kind of in simple where the Examples sentences, din this subject is whose usage from carry-over '? anno' subordinator (It ? anno pleases written which cam subject clauses cas© the main clause prec©doo pr©cedod by the are: la ? ummi ? unno nuskon ma9ha ktiir byuz9ujha (It bothers with. my mother much for -us to -live bi surrna.. obsorved speakers, (see p. 9 ), predicates cases rare spokoa. Arabic, educated predicates their follow the In of subjects or follaw clause). form case is unlike always ? o©ata (whcn) , kii± in co=on, are not characteristic particular But olcu ooo noun etc. Sub"loct instances the (if), introducing ween (whore), ?anno (that)* comprise: Forms a- noun. her) tzuuruuna you to us for visit us) der bu? 1aHaali ? maa ? utHamnal ulmas? uuliyye iit unno to for the me responsibility.. Z can _t -take . all . -Lit.: . ) the I take. all responsibility, can't. predicate predicate follow tho I ya3.1i t. yalli (What clauses are introduced clauses main clause, Exanples which is by initiated '? unnO' by the and usually relative are: butSawwaro is I think bisalli bu lbaaxira 2unno ssafar -that sea travel is antortcluing) . . . rý ba9urfo ? unno btu? d©r tun? ulon yalli (what I know is that tronofor you . -can machine) - yalli (what taonyo cnothor bugturHo 9alookon unno tu truuha I suggest is for you _to _buy it . Object clauses Object clauses occur introduced by '? unno', (iß) Examples etc. , In ? aalo thorn to after transitive '? eemta'(when), verbs and are 'kiifI(how), '? iza' are: 9am'ii 9allamni ? unno ? rolled ? u1D hia (My uncle taught ne to imitate . . . signature) der byi? iza ? ysaagdak a? alo (Ask him Y-he -i, -can -help -you) guu 9uml et mays acz? ? bt a9urfl 'y (Do you know sa -what -1Iai -did are Prepositional clauses prepositional clauses introduced by the relative by a prepQsition. are preceded ' yalli' been yalli Hadiis ? aHyacnau_ biSiir bu inaaa been s allt w (sometimes takes ogue place _i _a in the pictures) stage and those . Examples are: 9a lnasrali waa? f'iin between those luwlaad Tu19et naa- byitHannalu' aun yalli (she turned out -to be -on©. -or .those who -can not children) bilaa9buuhon byunbusTu luwlaad nag yalli (childrenare happy with -those -who -play and -with on the stand them) r Clauses Complement clauses in occur which are Complement occur the after type of the sentences by introduced (l Examples '? anno'. mun lahjet (From the on page 22, discuasea he wanted long negotiations would each country Appositive Appositive ? unno ) (lit. the agreement was reached its the of share costa) contribute Examples are: to they which su9uuro ? anno ? axuu (His knowledge that makes him jealous) raH his group ?unno evidence Adjective Clauses Adjective clauses is introduced biaallii yGaar munno him will compete with we are can be divided relative not SalaaHi itna overstepping our aawaz that and are apposition. 9anno maa najHet did news secret 9am nut by the in stand ynaaz9o brother lxabar Yxabbu mulaawaluton (Their to keep the attempt burhaan by'? unno' introduced are clauses preceded (This is diction) kul Clauses by a noun, haada to ulmas? ale ?anno 9am umzaH it wan clear he was joking) bayyanet Hadiiso tone of his voice Dall Tawiile ul? uttifaa? ba9d mufaawaDaat b idfa balad uzu? mun ulmaSruufaat (After that and are: ul? uSSa ?unno buddo yutjawwazzha turned the story out to be that her) Tu19et (Lit.: marry of verbs same group into 'yalli' two succeed) juris- groups: and is the first used when u the is antecedent any form by introduced A. is md Examples indefinite. (see definite bu9tu ddawaliib (did you sell kennet 9nndkon yalli ?) the tyres had you ynlli whose which to the have (in and number, form the that the of yalli duces the agrees relative is gender (I liked as the the with a pronominal house as in, I rented), verbal the with the where number adjective suffix of where the the lbeet as In, verbal 'lbunt who intro- girl 't? added When the the clause, same number yalli pronominal in agrees and gender. the '9ajabni clauses antecedent, (the 9arabi' an adjective as subject, in in contain in the gender Arabic), as object, antecedent, clauses bta9ref antecedent'lbunt functions compounded knows ? high) Thus functions gam t? addem ulbarnaamej the in devils) is sentences, in singular) while with not a garden) adjective verbal 'yalli' programme has antecedent. the relative tempts Gnalye whose cost ?ulo ineene a house which be noticed referable is ?nxDnr is green) iuldo cover 19sfariit magi mablaG bviari (I have a sum of money that will group antecedent 9nm tu? rnn ? vn11i book you are reading ?) 6tara beet (he bought element when the used 9uu ha luktaab (what is this fiiha mawaad ku]±utha (it has raw material It second are: luktaab naawliini (hand me the book B. the p. atti); verbal and sta? jarto' suffix '-o' J ', colligates and as the gender When the or sentence a fii is with jnrt' is clause or particle a pronominal the and is of in form the same nuunber antecedent'lbeet: adjective of constituents gender the verb'sta? with antecedent, the sentence, suffix whether a nominal the one of agreeing the of in latter clause number is and definite or as in, indefinite, Antecedent definite 19ulbe ?azra? loonha gaTiini yalli (give is blue) me the box whose colour fiihn vlbnrnnmei yalli waa? el biHubb musiiqa (Wael likes progrnrmes which have music) Antecedent indefinite Aufna fulum mawDuu9o saxiif . (we saw a filar, whose theme 9ando ?ulo rfii? (he has a friend in Adverb Clauses Artverb clauses the sentence sense that they like occupy adverbs positions Cf. lmasa (we arrived in silly) ?al9aab k:tiire who has many toys) behave adjuncts. wSulna is the evening) Gaabet uicazrs wSulna 1a=a (we arrived when the sun set) or sentence occupied adjuncts by adverbs or C: rl r hoon ehurna (We spent'-£he here) evening maTraHma ? ultuulna shurna (We spent the evening w ere you told us) bisuu? bisur9a (He drives fast) bisuu? mutulma waSSeeto (He drives as I advised bisu9ur §tareeto (I bought it at stareeto (I bisu9ur can them ducing into 9allamuton (She taught fii naSb (There is according of Examples 3uu y? uulu them what time, muu Daruuri was not although price clauses clauses in English, to adverb the place, type manner, clauses forms of intro- condition, (time) I come) lamma buji to say when a monument where ul9aDme Yusef (place) Al Adme died) ? aHsan bu9tibaar b9iid ulmasraH tie is better because is stage Hatta ? u? der ? utxayyalha mniili it accurately I can so that lahatta Dallo yusrab (He kept drinking till necessary) are: 9andma maatyuusef SSafif ul? awwal (The first row wSufiiha (Describe mag ? unno a high be divided etc. concession, at mun suu? u1HaZZ unfortunately) price, Gaali to adverb Parallel in it bought Arabic Gaali a high him) (cause) far) (purpose) it) imagine (result) suker he became drunk) law kaan byuHturem ? abuu maa byiHki (condition) heek "(-Lf"wie na he would not talk any respec or his father this) like, f1 "3 (comparison) la? oeto mutulma waSafto (I found him as you described him) 9am yJHki ka? anno 1naWDuu9 bihunno (he is. talking the matter as though $axSiyyon concerned 9nndo kaner ? Sawwar ? unno ubno ma9 maa ýjo hasn't photographed his . although -son-. (manner) him personally) (oonceaaion) he has a camera) Part Il to Phrase-Structure 199 Chapter One Noun-Phrauoo type A favourite of phrase a nominal features which A noun-phrase is so-called 'modification' modifier. The head can perform the whole that consists the member of the of the two a head in on those languages. structure of and a structure function. syntactic consists emphasis a syntactic which is with botwoen conflict essentially (1) by itself which performed by structure. in. 4ioun-phrase Modifiers A noun : dogdays, A verb.: adverb money to water, : gloom : people A propositional can, be one of tho men's trousers, running JLi adjective ji to rise give below English Noun phrasos phrase. discussed are in sentonco simple and a verbal and Arabic English of rooms, here, phrase dining-table burn barbed Darope followings wire, Pleasing annnero now : non above suspicion, places in the sun. (1) 'The Structure Francis, W. Nelson Roland gross Company, Now York, of Anoriocn 1958, p. 297. Enslish', The 1'ý j the In in the the first part head-words chapter be considered by modifiers part second this of will noun-phrase III or runctionins to first, be followed adjunct-words. (i. ) }esd-trords WWordawhich EagliG h and Arabic constituto into be subdivided can nouns and pronouns. JL. ouns in a major as head operate both English open word-class in a najor various of open it is the which b©ins chief to possible on. comparable nouns both word-olaos sub-classes, and Arabic in noun-phrases set up syntactic criteria. Both of belong Thus table while nouns, are (singular, 'collective ktaab, aiglish sen), IIau/plural: system different totally nouns, variable it is dual, nouns' dual: ktaabeen, nouns though of number, a category to and Arabic II1glish or the of the rather the to category of coun- (sinGular: systsn in and t in terms languages. two a three-term recognize system kutub this sub-class a two-tern and plural) plural: terms in necessary in variable systems within, a five-tern are the Ambic. and singulativ©: case C f. of singplar: r*ajara, in 1"10- 4ajar, gajarteen, dual: big 4 ýijllective: asjaar. plural:? The conflict number the in may arise which plural: two languages. connection different the of number reflects in Leaving exponency relations plurab and loan criterion-criteria, fungus-fungi, alumnus-alumni, in only three /s, Arabic by plural in spite singular ble from suffix and plural the Common plural other. (wlaad, ccuuc (byuut, SHuun) cucac (9ulab, sukak) (9ummaal, a more that clear complex See. T. F. Universities to appears complementary xayyaaT- plural' where, between correspondence is not patterns klaab, major always predicta- are: ?alwaan, ?aSHaab) Sunnaa9) the a less Mitchell, Press of two ) e. g. 'broken and one form patterns, ccaac is English into etc.. -aat, regularity and ?accaac It can be divided (-iin, considerable of cuccaac (1) formation sayyaara-sayyaaraat; xayyaaTiin, in shapes like which exponent like iz/. z, plubal of plural conditioned phonologically distribution types: type of aside child-children, one regular the with foot-feet, man-meng has ýajaraat, implications Contrastive category little speaker complex 'Colloquial 1962, Ltd., of Arabic pattern of Arabic', p. 36 ff. is moving plural from formation The English -e) Li IJ 8o that, except should be learned plural formation Another is fact the the for of fgliah they that appear Chapter other of iglish' deals with class 1 contrasting 3 are learning these in the no big of nouns in characteristic aharod which plurals conatitutes word-classes. of items, as separate to Dcamples irrogular iglinh regular problem. both forma many contrastive VII forms contrastive with 'Tho Fri©s's of those of languag©o of rolativo L3tructuro word-cla clans cos. 2 and class follows: as Class Class Class 2 arrive arrival refuse refusal departure delivery robbery achievement judgment Arabic depart deliver rob_ achieve judge nouns also other word-classes, vowel patt ern. exhibit contrast Ex=plea 1 bigness big blackness black goodness happiness kindness activity equality good happy kind active equal contrastive being Class forma to relative marked by variation are: Verbs Nouns Adjectivas Nouns ? Ual gaaf tool goof ? amiin. baltid ? aaaane balaade na= ? anar nooa ? anur sa? ill ? abynD sa? aale bayaaD ? akal ? akal ? aHaar Hanaar ra? as ra? uS ? axD ar xaDaar of 1: different is sition, relates appear a verb, perhaps the which fact in of the The word word-classes. as a noun, used to many words a great which of Arabic of however, of English, One feature speakers 3 case. down in He was knocked To round up the matter by as members which an adverb, an adjective, an extreme homophony, same form 'round' native puzzles can and be a prepo- Cf. the first (verb) round (noun) (adjective) is Mine a round watch (adverb) turned He round (preposition) house the He went round High-frequency are fairly shop, (1) sleep, words numerous in drink, hit, belonging modern English miss, love, to at least and include: paper, (1) two word-classes show, walk, drive, etc. hit in Hockett's F. classification of word-classes Cf. Charles New Linguistics', in Macmillan Modern The Company, Course 'A inif., he 225 H 1958, up where sets class which York, pp. food, day, friend, like art, strength, action, nouns cludes includes A function adjecnouns only; class which as which icy, false, likely, long, like soft, certain, sleepy, tives includes NA function which as adjectives only; class which like American, male, white, sweet, private, savage, words (cf. have functions a good nounal and adjectival which red, he is they he is American, Americans; and an are American, his than is they John American American, more are American, includes like describe, V admit, punish, verbs class sister); NV function have class only; which verbal bury, strengthen, like love, includes air, eye, words cure, change, walk, which build, have funcnounal verbal cut, which and elbow, nose, includes dry, thin, AV which tions; words like clean, class idle, busy, have verbal which and adjectival clear, slow, NAY finally includes class which functions; words like and blue, brown, black, faint, yellow, fancy, gay, damp, which functions. and verbal have nounal, adjectival, If Since tax the are also a clear speakers memory of fnative kind of this indication individual items of Arabic, for The following forms. of these can. cover and whom they in Arabic word-classes since a sourcelconfusion, distinctive have or statement have to be learned'as they cases, rule no general attested mistakes are confusion: GI wished to strength my English. English. ©The useful of studying Olt cultures people. I choiced it. OFinally An important the two languages is the fact they that teristic (and comparable) positions tifiable (and comparable) word-classes forms. of Thus( nouns The sun sets glams btuGrob also is possible in with fill certain to relation in phrases verbs to the other Within to (1) Francis, (2) Ibid, pp1342 ff. distinguish op.. cit., pp. verbs to structures different 325 ff. form of form a 'structure 'structures complementation, types iden- and extended west after in charac- mua. ulGarb occur (2) complementation'. it can colligate in s%red by nouns Cf. predication'. Nouns is that characteristic according of L. to the typo of pros eding J r, (o. s. vorbs tranaitivo whether or stativo) The conplenont When tho complement nitivo of object'; 'objective an object' or Direct Ob ect rect a trf consists *%'direct termed always of in verb two objects, the other 'object'. called In one of them either ' ew indi. Examples complement. is are: lieh My son. Is studying ? ubni gam yudros ? unQ11izi j ect Indirect -ob two books He gave his friend huwwo 9aTa rfii? o ktaabocm. Objective Complement John president the elected nuHaa nt axabna Hanna ra In and object, object. Indirect belong (i. obi ect the'sane to e. the the and an indirect formations in the indirect objects fact which and objective the latter, same substitution. Moreover, object either the proc ©des the object that f oj ect dir©c the and referent'). direct a complementation-comprising, by the distinguished former, direct of an indirect direct are a structure iis class complements unliko the an the direct objective coapleuant havo sentences containing a have passive can direct two or the indirect transobject `.) may appear as subject; transformation. He gave his Two books His friend a direct containing on the complement, and on objective one passive sentences hand, other object can have only Cf. two books friend to hi.s friend hie -frt d by him two books by him were given was given und his We elected is brother 0 President Unlike look, remain, Examples by us president by us. his brother sound a Stative of verbs (see p. ti ) as well 'subjective called which class a closed are is verb transitive verbs Stative class, president was elected was elected The complement complement'. brother belong comprising as the to an opm become, noon, 'bo'. copulative are: The partners remained uraka bu? yu rufa? a friends The water hecaie ice lmayy Saar et t al j are heroes ? a1ii aal Soldiers 1 junuud So far all correspondence 1 fish the last betweem the different and Arabic. deuce between partial except since In mglish '? abTaal' the last 'heroes' is example have ahoi ktndo exanplo, and Arabic structurally of a one-to-one in coaplement© however, '? abrual' equivalent corroepon- is to I only 'are horoes" in othor '? abTaa1' words not is ,which this is oontoxt a prodioato betwooa botwoon an abundance of glich fhglish and Arabic and and Arabic attostoci mistakes of type: following the by roflectod in conflict a serious constitutes rý ý. difference This a complement. ý l drew the that in the centre. thing place ® The first its one attention. of every thing its discipline. ® The most important in Syria. g It the first university the in its c amDd comparable by illustrated which (see examples above Another is 1gliah Arabic, Unlike what 'object'. requires also Sentence position copulative Type followed 'be' pp.; S ff. VI, of nouns in both 'prepositional may be termed is a preposition the 1an in ) ia8oß phrasoc' by a noun which may be modify othar nouns. number 1 (as many as 25 per C f. (trait Under water ulmayy) (ba9d dinner. u19aia) After (too? ubgubha) Above suspicion Nouns in, both (1) cm also nouns make-up a considerable g1glish, Cent) languages of Ibid, the p. single-word 299. aoc-ifiers of nouns. Im 1rn J ýl involving Structures are the in is (a) kinds: two of form base the or and those in. which t-es}. inflection the other with the and of both, Examples noun has modifying Noun-Adjunct house My father's Child's play A day's work image A father Child psychology The day shift between difference the as follows: cribed for we cannot (cf. a day') other for example 'The hand, the following two say boy's (though 'The book' some other constructions The first 'noun- the same noun of noun-adjunct. Cf. constructions where or 'the the boy'. of a child' 'The and be des- can by no means invariably, play kind appears may be substituted construction genitive 'of' with by a construction the it one another. with Genitive The the (b) plural can be matched as modifier, the construction' construction'. adjunct tuted the with and a noun-modifier in which J1819 'genitive the called the those inflection genitive a noun-head book construction the different ( --) of must mutual forma: house F) The house My father's image F-j An image like A father That That work of On besubsti- transforms separates since of my father a father. The doctor (_) woman's doctor of that woman That doctor who is a woman (_> woman doctor of trans- 9 Itit: In Arabic to form what as 'the is be modified can a noun (rjditionally construct' noun can be associated Hite construction. the with The first relative the head is nouns reflects the in precedes the in order the head in difference This by mistakes like two a comparison in modifiers different head Arabic. reflected as noun noun the modifier a defi- form house. ) emerge from of difficulty of to to , second Cf. Two kinds the '1' grammar the only article noun in Arabic construction baab beet (chouse door) (the door of the baab ulbeet behaviour to referred In this . by a following of the the noun languages. English, it constitutes the two of languages. modifier For whereas follows a conflict the which following: ®The book's pupil. doctor. @The car's The second (1) kind of difficulty relates to the restricted from other facie Constructs are distinguished prima similar in the to a subwhich modifying noun belongs constructions 'nouns by fact the that the seof material' of only class be the 'l', can associated noun with article whereae cond '1' in other both constituents can be associated with Cf. constructions. saa9et ssaa9a ulbunt ddahab the the girl's watch) gold watch) it of use as opposed to comparable construction Thus the with (2) the Palmer, used in used b. of absence according to of pet animals: a cat's between nouns d. is genitive, almost ohiofly to exclusively person: John's book; house; o. names designating logically names animals: intermediate and duration: time tho of construct'. my brother's words of and adverbs capo and according is basket; e. certain whiskers; the 1 names of persons: Fido's 'the human beings, a. inflection, in. the Jespersen, with designating names Genitiv© Arabic, inflection genitive tho restriction in names of connection have which noun. modifiers yesterday's correspondence. Since nouns, in the construct of this a transfer mistakes of tho ® The table's A The door's 1 (2) in following Arabic is characteristic applicable to to Diglish all results type: leg handle 'Essentials Otto -Jespersen, London, Allen & Unwin Ltd., Graiinar', of Diglich 1938, p. i43. Georg© 'A Hoffer W. Spoken English', Grammar Palmer, E. of Harold however, 1927, 37. cr., Cambridge, Ltd. Sons p. and 9 'The Genitive his findings in Inflected Thomas's Russel Bhglish in Applied Readings Prose', in Modern American in Now York, Inc., Appleton-Century-Crofts, LinGuistics? 489 inflected he genitiv©s of collected examples which beings. denoting human of words not ! I i Classification In both is '1' and the lcnguages lity in proper and can be lack speaking, definite the with For Arabic. not, cases, a noun appear in the less more or for number instance, on, con- variation 'the' articles, wo can in say: luwlaad 0 lwaa? el, 0 Johns to note, classified plural of contexts, interesting is to established lwalaü, comparable John, 0 the thomsolVon noun, of oxaaple, man, meas.. in basis cub-class gaerally criteria: niglish, article, both nouns land on the the Thus to applicable It and Arabic, EDiglioh and non=colliSabi but nouna of criteria. parable `' sub-classifications comparable similar .ý however, as a proper or ®lwaa? liin. that noun can associate with the class. in in certain Di fish the can detinit© e. g. 1. There are many Johns in 2. aI saw John yesterday. John ? Which you about. o. Ihe John I told In Arabic, nom Hite glglish on the the in can never appear article. In contexts examples Arabic hand, other has a noun clLWßiti©d plural comparable or associate with those with in an a proper the the dofi- last 4' 1. f il, 9uddet ? ußaon, joon wlaud (lit.: " bu SSaf f thore are many boys their class) boon mbaareH 2. a. tuft b. ? anu joon 2 joon C. Another is that yalll ? ultullak 9alee. sub-clans. of nounß in the parallel of uncountable divided be can Uncountable nouns. two into main that have singular concord), (those that have a plural concord) lacking tics, mathematics, classics) nouns of abstract a miscellaneous group (news, Forms furniture). what like plural may be termed countable of of this nouns. plural naglich a plural lacking a singular subject (wood, materials, (knowledge, should measles, gold, happiness) couraso, billiards, (phone- names information, be distinguished counterparts instance, 'damages' a singular are often from which is pattern. tho not 'damage'. Those nouns lacking ( annals, include class For the . homophonous their in lacking and those ; names of ideas rubber); aid fora a plural John in two languages nouns those types: (those Those (to) nano bellows, types trousers); (cognoscenti, no mark of plural (cattle, plural in fora a few words of clocod-olaas magi, antipodes) cleigy, folk). ;a few that exhibit v .... Within that construction (the as apparently plural suffix Arabic type subject (social sciences), drinks: =gabbilaat dishes) aurc , (jewelry) Those comprise saeento (1) genitive that what T. F. contain Mitchell component. possible to or. set up a sub-claca divided be may lacking membership (ethics) (appetizing (cold forms. and coapricoo ?u jtinaa9iyyaat ; names oß dishes dishes), drinks), two typos: into plural (mathematics), ? axlaa? Tibaat those pro-final a limited (communications), nuwaaSalaat rasa has riyaDiyyaat nahes: in and those singular first The is nouns which lacking those but the (cf. a gare of billiards) (cf. indoors) cultivation it also, of Uncountable the In appear appear of table a billiard indoor cultivation In caa thooo form, a singular byres), cattle's 'neutrality' the te=j3 plural of no mark carry lacking uncountablen as-? aalt and (fried group: and a nisc ellancous (payments) nadfuu9aat jawha. nu q . lacking names of (cement) fora a plural material ; names of Phrasal 'Some Eh6lish Memorial. J. R. Firth have an open membership and : fulfol (pepper), dahab (gold), abstract concepts: karam (genorosity) Types', Volume, Proprint p. 12. to appear in ,A .0 GoDab (ungor) 9 1uTuf between The comparison shows that nouns languages. The forms lack a form is 'news' in item again following the explain ® The news are 0 The furnitur©s which items '? axbaar' The sub-class torned 'collective speakers classified the basis as of surprising. we bought of nouns bellows, nearest claosifiablo ) and baTalonaat (pl. ). its Conversely nearest '? axbaar'. while corresponding The above facto expensive. sub-class membership (countable (uncountables in nouns of tho in is traditionally can be a source of difficulty nouns has no such nouns' appearance in are both Arabic), for Daglish category. recogiisablo plural lexical Fhglish). which F2iglish which 'collective their (sing. are 'nafruugaat' nouns' Arabic, of are a countable 'furniture and the jn mistakes: and 'news' Arabic a plural, different the reflect and lacks trousors, Fhglich, ) and manafiix that is Arabic in emerge so clasolfiod while banTaloon cf, (sing. ) ; munfaax (pl. items nounu, as countable Instance, both for however, nouns a singul4i, r in lexical corresponding of uncountable established implications, membership which and Arabic can be category For . F1lglich contrastive languag©s. thd. two are the different the from (gentlcnesa) as such and singular nouns on ., twj . Cf. concord ptterna. (1) Kruisinga tho following taken oxanploc fron have dotorminod to econoaizo The Government in tho to import foodctuf requirod chipping c fron abroad. that The educated class whatovor may paean - usually public EYiglich. what we may call school prefer has States Govornncnt The United to Italy£5.000.000 From an economic point and social important class of the popülatioa Absmc© of this is which problem in reflected is stolen 0 The cattle 0 The team is shaping Other uncountable in with connection- 'De-adjectival There nouns this of plurpl which the in the the class concord, of be doa t (Boo with pp., i' (r) nouns' are homophonous with they minister. will articlo to be considered still (2) 'de-adjectival Strang calls (though a loarning characteristics is group the most davon. mistakes: the field. with the languages dofinite of constitutes following from hands two of view was the Arabic distributional contrastivo nouns in oat©gory made a loan are not and P. A. Erad©a, 1953, Groningen, another class adjectives, compounded 'An English 62. p. (1) E. Eniisinga, P. Noordhoff, (2) 'Modern flgliah Strong, 11. H. Barbara 1962, (Publishers) 97. Ltd. p. mold . cub-claw of nouns'. Nouns and oubjeot with the to plural Grammart, Structure' 3iward , ýin ýý .... und must bo preoodod aorphemo) Examples with (sweet) i. e. agree nouns in (ugly and, number with variation. Cf. ul(}ani envies made to (tirod) which Bnglish can nouns, (ono) rich also liko bohavo with bu: 9a (an ugly and which the nouns forma aro which girl), operate are liko an subject ) 1? aGniya lfu? ara byiHusdu (The poor envy the rich) between The conflict accounts for the following ® The blinds need Q The poor envies which ) rich. vary of nouns which is (bunt 'tho'. tirticlo Pow, the preceding and gender corresponding byiHsed lfa? iir (The poor (ono) Sco ta9bacn unlike the cub-olans with girls) dofinito of Refo (ugly),, colligate number bug9iin bmaat first adjectives. buge9 q adjectives, they the poor, by the has a corrosponding homophonous to the are: Arabic fiulu :ý translations are our the Ma lieh attested and Arabic in. this connoctioa mistakes: help rich. of 19uayann byiHtaaju nusaa9adutna byiHsed lfa? fix ulaani Given tho na©ly, their characteristics number variability, of the sub-class and asaunin6 0 of Arabic that the nouns, op©nlcor A' 19 Y of Arabic nouns in transfer will II1glinh, kind following those to in tho thoy c&litionn by nouns and which other shade that they the definite but differ are capable 2 clan con in Q Of all (; ß, 'Of the by the is colours dresses aro und tho both fully Biglt liko fill. oh cd joo- typically positions cannot occupiod Examplos aro: of mo. have adjectival number and nominal forms corrosponding variation (rod is ar (ones) are distributional Fhglish 0 The yellow in Of nouns in in fligl. ish rind must (a red pen. ) ? cFi iar reflected abovo with appear C E. . The differemt la fill suit Arabic 1? uHiaar 9alaamet ulxz 1Huriur ? aHla (the rod adjectives group Thorn doesn't from article. in tho colour. blue of forms Comparable fdnctions last adjectives Red is an oxcitinC I an fond of blue. That of corresponding blind tann ho b oo ano blind the blind hao Fallon (for 'the blind man') tho blinds havo £allca (for 'the blind üon' 'colour-wlj©ctivea'. are but tived, to charaotoristico aro gonorat ed: related und Arabic V coo how rsictakoc wo can =a ru jj an]. ? a9na Saar ? a9ma 1? a9ma t--'u?o9 A0 19umyann wu? 9u Closely S. of characteristics and Arabic following the sigl ) nicer constitutes attested my favourite I prof or the we have seen, den&or) of a conflict colour izhich mistakes: colour blue I prefer the blue (one). ý, ý B. Pronouns Pronouns Digliah Because of thoir have been traditionally on syntactic purposes (we save as (they objects to it nouns ne, in my, then that structure, adjunct racteristic Personal ), the that ), us can be objects hand, latter have nothing like to differences pronouns of do not nouns (of. can be tabulated Second person. Sing. you you your yours plural no na go Ga we us our ours you you your yours g= genitive, positions (ho talks subjects prepositions differ pronouns such of colligate the sonn fill of other I me ay mine whore they cpoooh. of for can On the no na 60 ga n. = nominative, they etc. words pronouns First person thus invited part can be regarded because nouns relatable mine' and in of pronouns as a separate they by nouns: occupied 'I, however, grounds, nonsense), charactorictica, classified as a sub-class typically from morphological a scatter cyntactic the with man; 0 the cha- hod as follows: Third porson Masculine Feminine he him his his she her her hers Neuter it it its Its they them their theirs 0= con joint 9a= absolut o S' A morphological 1© extremely then of analysis (1) complicated. as a ooaplox (gc), my practical in 3 fora paradigm to treat way is dinonalono: aovorol botwoon by 'I illustrated scatter in rolation olation sion. obtains shouu (ga) wino A noro in thoao and person. gender, fourfold Thus the pronouns system operating number, cane, of a rolationnhip which to the 2 (no), grannatical of (na), ne mutual envirox ct oxclu. niSht be as follows: go ... with a following 6a ... with a genitive ' ne 1;hoso hat is fora that Is this my hat is over there'. (i) ... (ii) nominal ? B. fLino' Toga or in, the elsowhero a following finite with a preceding operator o. g. or B. with taxt, No, that's verb (loss as part yours vino, the oporators), of intorrogattwe the operators) r complexes (t) na .. (ii) (iii) with a preceding finit© with a procedinG proposition with a following infinitival too? 1 (2) See, for example, verb (loss vorbal(o. s. 'Is3 it ') Fill's MalYsia, itcholl' t F. c' fron T. Incorporated Transactions Analysis' in LinBuistic 107-8. 1958, pp. Society, op. cit., Synta6matic of tho p. 145 ff. Rolations Philological ne (iv) 0 19 free in variation with and a following in all 'A. me', A two-term though not all ber). Gender is the three tinguish ment nate 'you' are 'We'll the you on the the in to is the 'we' is taken criteria of John went -I relationships Similarly, you'll where 'they' 'you' justify be there, and the 'we' saw them exhibited you her and are excluded common designation and co-ordi'they', a component element justifying the person. Moreover, linking 'he/she/it' together 3rd Justification as person. way some 'they, them, etc. ' would then be provided them with by those exhibited as tionships He and accompani- in, say, for num- dis- example, in John went He went to 'we' as as let for singular. facts by pronouns, marked one hand, occupied is not Thus, for other. 'I' personal justifiable is of you and person on the which and provide ending like ) third it place This 'I' of the basis on the V. 'between person forms, phrase. designation mon + -s person, from and co-ordinate verbal of pronominal excluded go, in phrases (e. g. applicable marked category pronominal is (second members only 'He doesn't ? B. lie'. eydtem persons single of Whole that number to As to conditions other (e. g. ) it'. my/me doing (v) gerund, verbal a preceding with gc, comgender linking for by of such rela- there. by from the 'you' place occupied as 2nd person. by _.. Pronoun g Arabic has a conparcblo Arabic are in terms variable Arabic) in fora in the two tenses. To the conjoint thin gander, is parL4lel0 'variation a structurally of Second person Third To both absolute(ijrm, correspond (1) manc huwwo of " fora in nominative comparable Bot in Arabic zlural nuHna ? untu ? untt hiyyo feno personal to and a set ? unto vorbul hunno person the (masc. ( (fem. variation appoaring 2 una p©rsou have botwoon pronominal S1ngu1ar First but und number, that Eaglish) pronounn(in corresponds which pronouns The main difference respect exactly personal fora of porconal of person, in and Arabic (in not case variation. no corresponding Biglish .. pronouns those pronominal appearing in. genitiv© in noainativo conjoint fora(in Fhglich), suffixes. and in is two partial limited to only contexts: Correspondence (in Eiglish) following nominal 1. with a and a procoding ) (cf, (ib. th© capo of my book ; ktzb-i) (in Arabic nominal form) conjoint 2. with a pr©c oiling in gonitive ; prononouns ish pail Arabic) (of. both her IIi&. he saw ; verb(in finite in nominative ( in the case of pronouns fort) absolut© roaaf-ha) 11 frr Singular lot porson. maoc, 2nd person 3rd person Examples Plural nisi ak na kon ß0a. ek 1T1ä8e. O f em. on/hon a/ha arc: : aathi (he saw ne) taaitiuha, (they saw her) (my pen) ? alami ? alaraak (your The fact that forns(in two languages of pronominal one sot to both corresponds conjoint pen) the noainativo Eligl. ish) which absolute conatitut©s accounts for Arabic) suffixen(in und the between a conflict Mistakes like 6anotivo the tho followings 8 He gave our a present is then books This The F3lglish in Arabic pronominal haada (this by the in. genitive forz3 'taba9' suffixes, to absolute which e. g. taba9na lbeet house. is ours) ? aGla nun taba9na taba9kon (yours pronouns is aobe expensive than ours) fora aro aatchod are appended the ot of 0- cl ". ia While matched not Thus (cc. a noun associated noun is the definite markers in simply that article and are article), be defined suffix and a pronominal therefore a definite by a pronominal a noun may not mutually true, not form absolute following followed is which characteristic definite the with in of pronouns opposite genitive commonly occur of Arabic a rule the in English, by pronouns 'taba9'-forms indefinite range have a distributional 'taba9'-forms since the covers set form absolute genitive is 'taba9' the exclusive. in English. noun whereas an suffix; it more than are both definite Cf. ktaabi (my book) luktaab (literally: In following the taba9i trio light book mine) öf the mictakea above facts are readily of distribution, accounted ® The garden ours is beautiful 0 The government bought the house the above mistakes taba9na jjneene 1Hukuume itaret reflecting Hulwe ulbeet Arabic taba9hon. for: theirs; once, the is to Mr 1i ah Rofloxiy© Reflexive tional in porson, themselves. number, the set related tcnsi$iers the differ function, adjunct pensable sentence i myself I posted of in the pronoun, aro, horcolf, from the sonmyself, itself, the forces an follows: function immediately the after in rofloxiven Examples cotiplo that as the noun after font, name indieatos, r©flexives whereon the element. a distinct As their subject. to the Slash. have occurring posted the the letter Corresponding forms himself, pronouns personal before rarely, a set of of are: intensifiers', 'subject or sane subject The and Bonder. invariable and post.. propoci- the with yourselves, Examples are formally complement aroo He shot himself. She looked at herself Tho Bi&1ich occupy yourself, ourselves, in They positions. tonco pronouns pronouns typically which words t they constitute or, the have an on indie- arc: letter. myself. reflexive pronouns, Arabic in- has Singular ist poraon narsi fas. nafn ok naao. narao poroon is Dnglish which corresponds I= EaSlish 'self' to appears in English transfer IIzgli when using of Arabic The is still encounter anomaly (himself, forms (myself, theirselves) (Note that sub-standard Eiglish). is in the tho by the first 'self' Henc o, plural. of 'nafs' to write: of difficulty iglich of half speakora rofloxivoo. of the third person to the other forma in Arabic, unmatched analogically Attested and 'nafs', Whoroas invariable, relation being these Doran picturo. use ), or source in thorn invariability their etc.. but to the in wrong, rise is themselves) yourself, 'self' the another reflected plural. eh and say © They saw themself 0 Wo hurt ourself. There the 'solves' ac Arabic between contrast counterparts of speakers nfau/nafcha a striking their naTu1; on nafoon/nafohon f om. There nafsna nafoak 2nd person 3rd Plural forms correct, forms appear mistakes in like gives (hiccoif, dialectal the und following Af7 this corroborate pr©diction: thotroolvon if they when ho was shaving. p They are docoiving 9 He woundod hiuaolf intennifiors The English the 'nass' sane Examples forma to 'bi' which in Arabic by with) is profixod. to tho reflexive matched aro (by, think.... aro: 9aTooto luktaab Una binafci (I myself Savo him tho book) huwwo kat abo binafso (He wrote it hianelf) Arabic Since forms where ap©akers the uses tend of Arabic following and the prefixes a1Slich (by, 'bi' name set to trnncfor nistckea with) for=a of their are att©ated habits in the as intenaifiero, into corpus: by myself saw hin pI when he fell. told me the news. ® 23aick by herself difficult is it 0 The teacher by himself said no distinction 'I did it being myself' mode in and 'I did Arabic it to parallel by myself'. Eiglich English rar' h ii w Relatives who, whom, whose, that, The relatives to in morphological pronouns personal their haviour. 1lIýn be can appropriately gender and differs however, here, being pronouns, personal from terminology Gender used. that be- and syntactical the classification which, are close system, case, distinction to nouns appropriate a two-term of or human. and non- human. (whom, whose) 'who' Case distinction 'who', is to applies form and objective 'which' that that from within of 'whom' 'which', 'non-human' has a subjective form and a genitive function sentence sentence. Thus of the to use Hill's of a 'reduction independent a longer which syntactic consists Downgrading 'who', and downgrading, linking of forms; 'human' form 'whose'; form. a case-invariable The characteristic is are of to 'the that status', relatives (2) terminology. for intance of a sentence man came to dinner' element can be (1) Gender is a category not just a means of clasof concord, be like 'duchess' Forms considered may nouns. sifying but because "feminine", of the regunot because of '-ess' 'shop herl. otc. lar association of the form with concordial is also forms. This to the exclusion of other pronominal is recognizable in relation to he/ehe/it. why gender (2) Op. cit., - chapter 19. r' 3 _..,. doarnSradod the to the atatun 'who' of addition.. or a ninglo aontonco Ina and placement element longer by consttuo. Lion: 'The man who coo to dinnor exomplifiod in tho is Linking cltuiso, which clause abovo. In so-call. bo distinguishod should Quirk's broke hic arg' od non-roctrictivo tho fron rootrictivo words: " Restrict to their c%1clauses... are linked antoco-. dents by close by unity puncture, syntactic of intocontour, of the degree nation and by continuity of loudness. In contrast, non-rostrictivo clauses aro (rocogniz©d, by open juncture together characterized by a comma in writing), features, with the following intonation contour, and a change (Q¢peolally a fresh degree diminution) "`11 the in of loudness. a Exaaples 'It is about, striking John, A further (1)Randolph Beglich clauses non-restrictive are: past one o'clock, so there are few visitors which seems to make the coincidence a very ' indeed. one 'I told ' wifo. ram=atically of who told relative freely Quirk, Studies, fora, variant his and he told brother, the with invariable the other 'that' relatives, his 9 in except 'Relative Clauuos in Dciuoatcd Spokcn Fligliah', Vol. XXXVIII, p. 101. .A 0- JPl IJ clues©s, in. non-rostrictivo and in 'There were few people 'The mists whioh/that ' light. the obscured In relative have been the may be omitt rolativ© The (whoa) family Clauses the where od, he would cover object addrooo the top 'air' an of the island pronoun, would rolativo the of a preposition, o. s. (that) How auch was it /that whom. Boaotiaos or the object paoaod his examinations tho Rolla for admiccton. whore the clauses ovor occuro, Of. has who/that tho Kantor of candidate apply to hardly position. pro-propositional 'The st whoro it ho stole ho lived with relative is ? simply omitted adored aro him. callod by Jeeparsen. 'Contact-oluusea' here " Relative connooting word are without clauses any because 'contact-clauses', os what oharactori: called in sound und dense between the contact then is the close 'this is like in it: sentences and what precedes clause the 'ho love in falls with all the-boy and we spoke of' the 'all 'the ' boy' the sirlc' he and words sees, girls what be just Intimately with to felt contioctod as Lro is them. Ito pause possible follows what procCipc as with 11 before contact-clause. a Tho most in gi&lish outlinod. (1) Op. cit. rolovant (from facts a contraotivo Coaparablo P. 360 facto portainins point of Arabic of tötho u6o cf rolativou viow) havo aro as follows: now boon ' 1'. f,09 Arabic tribution has only one invariable the of the covers that) together below and which which, whose, be discussed Examples forms. range form five with (who, forms English functions other are not whose dis- 'yalli', whom, will which by English paralleled are: ? alga lauHaaDara Habbu 1? ustaaz: yalli kul uTTullaab (All the students the professor liked who gave the lecture) 9azamtha 2. ba9ref lbunt yalli (I know the girl whom you invited) 9aleehon. ? I told you about ?ultullak 3.. ?areet ulkutub yalli (Have you read the books which luktaab 4.9aTiini (Give 5. me the below be enumerated relative In clause compounding laab the (1') 'yalli' whose reveal a number five of point (A, of of the and 'l? ustaaz with as the 'yalli' These will subsequently. subject of the as a transformational for two sentences ?alga which By C, D, E) and be dealt sentences substitution, features of view. sections will blue) prize) may be regarded base-sentence) Habbu 1? ustaaz' is cover a contrastive under zar? a uljaa? ize who won the and the whole (by the second julutto implications contrastive A. in examples from interesting their book Aufna yalli rubeH (We saw (the one) The above are yalli ?) 'l? uotaaz. ' 'kul. lmuHaadara'. UTTu1- 0 frI yalli' Siailarly' of tho rolativo formational (2) may bo rogardod in o incl tho clru compounding wholo two tho of as the ob j oct as a tr=o- sontonco 'ba9rof citencoo ulbunt' '9azamt ulbuntI and (4) In it which ' y411i' forma a discontinuous ' hiioso' to. IIi&]. ish (2) B. In suffixes (lbunt I11I in antecedent ) (lkutub (3) wo have a non-human D. In (5) 'yalll' is usod without in all antecedent Contrastiv© which sketched are samples to the different related ' yalli' has subject or object above under b©twon of those 9aloohon (lkutub) dotinito are to Biglish und Arabic, of attested njstu:; as. - aecor- classified toaturos. case no case poßitions, A. B, C, D, and E, mistakes contrastive A. 141stakes Since and gondor an entocodont. oxuaploo by an abundance reflected FollowinS cnt ec edc t tho conflict a serious is number prononiml. implications The features constitute ucuallq contain ? u1tu11ak yalli C. In. E. The din6 pies©n relativ© the with 9azamtha yallt corroapondc olonont, with . (3) the and areeing suffix, pronominal rnd a succooding distinction dintinctioi tho whothor corrosponding it formal fills dic. ./1 . L. c. öI in the form from the point tinction fluous to the confuse of the of view the of forma different in relative pronominal form quires pronominal Transferring the English leads to B. Mistakes the The fact must to Arabic to the haada rrujjaal ha nnaas ay11i object of following mutually exclusive ) which were found rethe with to be (nee p. uuj). pronominal suffixes 'yalli ... pronominal attested mistakes: car for element English where an whom you used his lands wait who their suffix' yesterday. them... yalli ota9malt sayyaarto `larpon btuntuZurhon related relative that to the a pronominal mbaar©H use of superfluoun pronouns clause. when 'yalli' a prepoeition contain notes... Arabic reflect in the contexts is etc... discontinuous ® This is the 0 These people which which (my, your, comparable partially in suffix' 'whose', forms likoly who is to the use of the discontinuous The same applies the learnor, oupor- as in know the one whoa told you. ®I A The student who you have given 'yalli'... io English in the suffix functions relative relating as object piece, to the the or latter antecedent, ýýý .: t. J tho tho for accounts following suporfluouo attoDted. 0 fly father uoo of nintal; Is tho Ilictn;: os rolnted ' yalli' Becou3o ono whoa I owo him .... have hiss who nabo tho to Given on her in followin& Sh6lish I; ictal; distinction may conftico in Arabic, cpoai oro of cmcio Arabic, uistzikoo: bolt 0 The 6ir1 which I like fp The house whoa w© bought... D. lovo... mo. your botrayed distinction candor has no 6ender distinctions formal in pronouns oo; O The friend whoa you I dopendod 0 Tho rl whore . C. porconal, o3 rolatoci to tho ... uno of c relative without a pr ©c©din fi Lmt Qccadent . Since a transfer counts for ' yalli' can bouß of this characteristic the following p 1lho reads this end helping ® Y1ho hasn't which correspond yulli ed without to a prec ©ding Ei31ich ant oc ed tht , relatives ac. miotnk©s: poem feels .., who need help flood taste crnnot approciato litoratura. to byi? ra ha 1? aSiido w ysaa9ed yulli ya3: 11 raun. 9ando byur'v'm9or la uuoaa9ado byuHtaaj dor byi? naa : oo? saliim )rut: awvia? ul? adab rI ýY k howovor Cf. of ' ya13i' in thin tho connoction, and tho II1&1ioh compound distribution conparablo rolativo in pronouno -ovor, Whoever rowlo thin pooh fools... holping holp. whoovor and nooda .... I";istnkoa E. of 1. the buddi (I (I yal. li wont the wont yj iib is definite the cnt oc cdcht is Indefinite in fer the frequent used has Arabic which of is opposition being Arabic mistaken rocoivoa all recoivoc (in antecedent relative lur}! iib all 1) ; and that (in 2). irrelevant in otationa) or distributional stationo) l is it in this is In the caaoa, of made to c1vUDO3 wives with a group used swim. for success must work hard. riatics " II'igliah the which\cro so-called not roculta purrllolod 'zoro-rolativo' in o- F2iglich, both those trrnc- in auch onoo-. was 0 Every =4n asks conflict definit results p The women in the pant werd no more than look after children. and . in touch oI to followins whai ant eo odent, characteristic attostoci used to on indefinite following not context eorrosponding hon ucod the Now since in contexts a definite as the T aat ' yalli 1 cad 2 shown that of the the onnoottion lunHalT auf kul (that) a radio kul bi that radio raadyo J. comparison lndefinito dofinito-indofinito tho ant©cedont rraz$yo 2. buddi to rolatod from oharacto- in Arabic. and to u=h Roforonca 'non-rontriotivo' ., -1 has boon It when it of the pointod rolativo in iglich, in contexts 'The no such speak, saw yestorday the speaker of expects a rolative link to the spoal: tiro rola- of in poeciblo the the conparablo followings no to abeonco, to puzzling the native bocauso conprohcnsion this in clauco relative to pocciblo a bank' his and hinders Arabic, is t ont enc oa like oxtroaoly of a proposi- object omission is robbod is relative it on optional in may bo ouittod rolativo or the Whilo omission Thus Arabic. man you of of or tho objoct clnuoo. 'zoro-rolativo' a tivo that out havo boon. the would in tion ýJ he con- text. having Arabic EaE;lich of is bring not uses out clause; with the a phrase, has relative or especially but convoyed starts relative pronoun when the ante- clause. In a whole clause, a fresh for an obstacle a non-rostrictivo distinction subtle non-restrictive dispenses J2iglish an ordinary the constitute happens This a word or whero contexts either Arabic. clauses, non-rostrictivo clauses non-rostrictivo speakers codent no conpdrable clauso which fails by the sentence (1) altoSethor. Arabic to naglish and Examples are: xass wazno 9aBara kiilo. (He lost ton lkilogrannes, (1) Written Arabic Aii haada w which will bifiido ktiir do him a ]6t of Doom to havo boon intluoncod ) good, by Ehglioh /... .. dich of and the The sago forms 112ow cocond introduced contrastive rable of whom, are uyL3to1 of who o o, what, usually three with a postponed girl and how. wh on, intorrogativo intorroGativo , A,11 cdvorbo. '-over'. Intenciflor used as clause wordu quootion wily, called linking 'those' distinction by those point inherited whose father ',. Tho' introduces example structures different a. cloooci last ox=plo Tho clause. to as in: words, on the first Pronouns are also who He loves the J four may be associated the '" who, first the pronouns; In .. interrofativo 1gli ah uro: those r^ Iý bolonging Item in ý question of in view, Arabic a noun introducon between as will being is two kinds adjoctivo of important be seen charactorisod in clnuco; a rolativo tho words a fortune claucon fron bolow, a compa- by tho uoo forms. cont. It is vary translations in this throush case. particular find inincont to rod of clauaoa which nowadays aro co=on Tii jaranuhu clauooa, gaglinh non-r©strictivo o. g. quri9a 1? lla ii llayl, ? az9ajahu a=u mina. axxirin rota? waqtin (litorally tho lato (Hin boll : which runs was at night, dinturbod Thin pattorn hin. has bocono conthing which) thus in for to Arabic cued students anoiailato non cnough than holp to toaching tho to in bo situation ronort©d can in Ehgliuh. clausos non-rootrictivo understand 1i r Arabic Intorroßntivo Arabic has C1ioh C. aot Pronouns oS quootion intorooGativo Thoy pronouns. Luu (ghat) (which) ? nuu , words Ex=plot . izo uljau? ruboH niln (who ?) on the prize u hach corroopond aro: niin to (i ho/lilion), arc: ? ? racH waa? el nag niin (With whom did Waol Co 2) ? unu butfaDDof ? (Which do you prefer ýuu itarcot ? did (What ?) you buy 7) Those intorroSativo ' yalli' rolativo niin ? allck it that tho is yuu yalli (What is by the ? told 9ajabak ? onu yalli (which can bo followoä Q. 6. , gal. li (1-;ho is pronouns you ?) ? ono that appoalad jubto =a9ak ? it you brou&ht with Tho anno rorI3 Hazsrt tutu (I Giessod crn also ? onu butfhDDof nsiit (I forgot which you profor) you 7) you ?) intrdduco rubeH ul jaa? izo who won tho prizo) to noun clauses, o. g. /. r ý-J luu that ? ulli (Say in Howovor, or ' yt. 11i' whoco in antocodent tho end not forma wftoro niSlich contoxta clauco rdjoctivo uuo ctaroot ) bou&ht you abovo introduco dofinito, Arabic nalcoc C f. wordo. quostion cn ba9rof aiin ?u ja (I know who cano) ?u ja who cao) ba9rof uzgax8 yalli (I know tho porcon inplicationc Contrantiv© face that spoakers of introduce question by the sot a spootal of problo iu fo1louc-. w makes use of homophonous wh-forms clauses adjective words, resulting can be cuiariood Arabic 1. Sthoroas i&1ish to and the iflpllcationc The contrastive lust two forms und and noun functions not by clauses, in Arabia the and ad are perforued 'yalli'. relative Thu13, The on who died who died Who did I know ? you words Arabic that (niin, rru j aal 9aZiin aunt niin ba9rof ' ya3 follow can .' ? suiu, I*uu) alýlt kc 7 ºlirý so :o of conutituton at ? tuft niin ae©? died rho 2. The fact in was Great amt. the question a conflict with ý+r. ý .. +, v ýigliuh und givoo riuo to on lilto mistal; o What which uoao you sad ? 7 Q ittiich who won tho battlo which reflect 4uu yalli ? cnu yalli Arabic xallaok tu-"9a1 ruboH ulma9r^ ? *o 7 tho tollotringt ýý .. '. J (2) Adjuncts It has been seen that (see p. q1). In noun phrase were and a modifier in tioning the to will be devoted the noun phrase, Adjuncts. forms the in occurring called 'determiners', called 'adjectives'. within both section closed in func- The present the second section part of or adjuncts. noun phrase system may be divided items, items, and open-class Finer head-words considered. occurring the of a head consist (1), to modifiers namely, two main classes: into noun phrases which which sub-classification be will be will be made will classes. A. Determiners The term serve which Determiners genitive to identify include: conjoint invariable nouns, Liý tiator is 'determiner' the the appropriately head of the definite pronominal forms, op. cit., variable to words as a noun. and indefinite determiner-pronouns, I have drawn on Strang, treatment of adjuncts. phrase given articles, determiner-pro- and noun-phrase chapter VII ini- in my I Articles Among foray the traditionally to as adjuncts There phrase. 'the' the article', in With to article' , to dosig indeed. From the outsot articlo system two lansuaGes must of the they always form part the of a so- noun in an the knots appear to or articles 'indofinite Mhgliah: 'definite tic of tho o.rticloc the dofinito points of difforonco o the use of Arabic of and tho difference C. striking relator article distribution the e the be understood co11iFational since head Is which may be conaidorod exclusive first to given or noun-like the a discussion that is thoso (1) reveal t ompting the The as the of similarities apparent In hmd noun mutually . second, in, order Arabic 'an' discussion. The go bond / class constitute two are 'a' and which Is the of a following forms of quonco very 'articles' nano representatives central as dotorninora, classified to within possibilition the the fact behind torn nouns. 'dofinito the botwoon in tho a tioloe, ajlich .. frciokwor1with in article the that will Glich of articlau the a throo-tor Thus a a noun draws heavily 1) The discussion of the articles on Paul 'The Articles: theory Christophersonn's a study of their 1939, I. 'tlnks3uazd, Copenhagen, in Rinar EnSlial', and use the notional therein though have boon tranalatod criteria t oral. formal into in a couruo of ondloss (2) The use of the English articles This trio boing trio caso, to speakers trouolos of AraDlu. 0 . 0/0 0. 1»rithout appear can /' =1 r-' book, :a Conbinod pen. any ý" ý'1 .,. J (Coro-fora): article an applo; with .. Sinaulur zero-form a -form C. C ako 4413-4 tho-fora tho tho a anall nuabor : tho with o ako, poscibilitioo the rooult. p4t calcoc havo tho of nouns actually formal abovo A largo scatter. cub- do not nouns of (book, Singular: Stil cnoth`r, (John, in. tho as a rulo appear in : oro-fora (2) Anothor sub-class paso, boy), gencrally sub-class London, the the other mostly equator, coat . disproportionately to fora a- orn nor plural has neither (2) (3) (4) (5) cako in their possibilities fire; Plural 8ý'fL class (1) ri'vo caii© only five 'tho' and with contrautc nunbor too, items longor seems (butter, appears The Unitod troatnent justifiable. in music, one form (3) loicuro). only: states) of tho urtiolos rolativo 'sono', 'any' Some may Irish to regard, say, or the dcnon'thin', 'that', forms which aro uutually strative otc., 'a'/'=', the with classifiable articles, with as exclusive the behave like 'tho'. But though tho forms in question the forms, are nouns articles with or noun-like articles they cannot that by the fact distinguished occur as heads. solitude' or 'ßono proror Thus we can have 'Some non prefer 'The C'Tho but not prefer solitude' and only men solitude' however. Soo below, solitude'. prefer 'Boy ;' however, in a vocative Cf., context. 'It's however, butter' Cf., a-wonderful 'There dozens directory' Johns in the however, Cf., of are 'The Londons of thin Cf., however, world'. ý" -. on tho in, baala a poaaiblo (1) tho or ý1 _ .i poaaiblo olaaaification forma a noun of nouns ylolda can appoar fivo cub- claaaoa. SubC1a3u 1 SubClnno 2 cako (1) a cako a book tho tho cako book SubC laaa Clanc butter John Bub". a tho 4 DubCilaza " tho butt or o al: ©a books - the cakes the books, - In. Arabic, the (2) oporatoß articlo " Iquator .. .. in a two-torn ogctom: The above classification to on the Grounds cam be objected it implies that that a belief a form has the nano granit occurs. value C f. 'I oat an oCZ every whorovor natical 'There day' in ogg on your tio'. and j_ noro appropriate fron and_intorcotin6 c:laoaifioation, point a contrastive for hcndlinS the facts to the dintribuof view, relating tion. of the articles is that of countable vs. uncountable this to both IIlslish boing applicablo nouns, and Arabic. if. Boo P. 11% (2) Tho articlo appoars in difforont chapoc according following norphophonological rulon: 1. to tho initial bogina. Boforo nouns, nuaorl r n, or adjoctivoc (b, following the ning with a single consonant n, f, k, of ' l' it 4, x, g, H, 9, h, ?Iw, an o. g. y) apponro , boot : lboot, furun maraD : larroD, : lturun. be 1-than words of tho abovo typos aro, proo odod by a word 'ul', the article o. F, ending in a consonant, an appoars baab boot : barb ulboot. tho c. Phon a word begins with a cluotor of consoncntc, is ono of the abovo conconanto, /.. first nonbor of union 0 .. 0 A"A ýr und dorinito zoro-torn a countablo Definit© fora Here again- it the possible lowing sr Torsi. noun can havo tho Zero-fora to *. Conbinod with followin& numbor contracto poooibilitioo: Singular Dui, ]. Plural bzb baib©on bwa lbc, ah lbaab oon lubwaab is forms possible to in they which classify nouns uaoording may appear into the fol- snub-olasDoc: 12 zero-fora dofinito-fora .3 bnab baaboen bwaab 9aJaa9a lbaab lbaaboen idajaa9a yuu1Of lubwaab cont. taken the shape of 'lu', the article Hßaan : luHSaan, xzaano : luxz anno. e. g. ktaab : luktaab, tho of consonant 2. a. With words beginning with a singlo (t, d, T D, s, z, B, Z, r, L, J) it taken tho shape followin6 , is it conpoundod the initial the consonant of word of j jao1 bans glans, ru : ßukkar : acukkknr, e. g. with, rzujjaal. 2. described tho type a. are under b. 'hon words of in when by or consonant, a a word onding preceded first the bogin consonants, of with a cluster words the in aontionod consonants of which one member of the initial taken the the 2. shape of article a., under 'u', Tul9ot u6iana, o. g. consonrnt with a procoding biHubb ussahar. . fh, tV Lý 1 co©prioon Sub-class connicto or uncountablo proper nouns; nouns; 2 sub-clano 3 inoludoo and cub-olaos nouns. intersecting other the account by rizod the in oountablo sub-clan five case classifications o of categories of, say, collectives, of trastiv© flow point of can of acsociability with two uncountables, both in distinguished fron countablen, of their of the lack of the subsequently by nodified fi6lich number with articles the sub-Glances of gajartoca (big plural) articles fron is nouns: and Arabic, in both associability nouns of the a con- terns of lcnguawoc, the will their countablon and boing uncountablos First variation. unnoditiod throo lativo), ? aQaar described be boat to Cf. nouns. distribution the into characto- an oppocad Cajar (collective),, bajara (sin (dual), Lajaraat (little plural), Howovor, in which nunbor countable toko would by roacon a scociability be considered, particles with and nouns adjuncts. Singular 'The' For countablo3: with a consideration is countrblos it and within the table after noun nocousary sentence. the the of to 'The' countable anaociabiiity so both beyond can colligato noun has of the with previously 'tho' with sentence a counoccurred a. in tho cooaa that (contoxt uttorcnco to bo tho 'tho' in mado to formal ucod basic (or writ thoro The above of typo contextually Implicit (after author'), or 'the the state: formal In tionally eil of king, a 1112' door' a on the on the other, 'the 'the and would apoasor tailor all ntato=ont goon above in a the over font) far on to nay can be not only a book the nano . Mithin transpocablo 'tho the of oxploit, of a door of the :a door intondal coiloca- Dran© ' the ) 2111and ' Lho handle as in author to exceed the partly rs' a 212-11i' unit, necessary handle also wo can (in known may oo expressed handle but example, situationally a collocational analysis one hand, vn old 3ra^natically. between both was Imown the door-handlo), a The descriptive distinction this (frequently (cf. to , o. E,;. mentioning govorn terns, fora 112 an a rule of the and partly known individual an in explicit, of of a particular contextually talk is Harry'. notional knowledge that 'old as ctatomont i.'hon roforenco livod c villago notional noun The tailor villaßo. tho and rordor) or Thin nontion'). a countablo 'Onco upon a Lino small for individual a particular und hoaror ' ilirthor of with r+ J a book'. say, the door-hcndlo', : the door-handlo' scope of this thocic, , ", S r inadequacy the but the notional of hao porhapa definition demcstrated. been sufficiently In b the explanation the same tray, the use of of 'the' Queen of England' is more likely 'Queen an Elizabeth', comparison with tThe "Queen Elizaboth', such texts 'Elizaboth the First', 'the Elizabeth' 'the ins, say, intralingual from first the kind between, with (the) Queen, may well Government, provide in lationships an analysis nouns variant with Referree with both 'the' another the n-form is made to the is in what noun , contrasts (atatablo Faith' the recognition (the) be would examples explanation r emonic naming that has not in association yet use in which and the associability known as the 'generic is stronger The lion than the tiger A lion is stronger than a tiger than tigere. Lions are stronger up of re- been undertaken. with 'the' zero-form of of nouns regularly The old notional etc. a satisfactory The above use of contrasts Other the article. remains. Similarly of proper as one member of a class associated ble justify would the analysis 'the and 'faith' say, terms) in collocational 'Faith' to be undertaken. - still regrettably of and so on, but to appear 'the' uses, countable is in with of. freoly the plural. a counta- I' In Arabic, countabloo caaeo, individual known to both in what 2. and (b), implicit contextually is 2.1? Exaipleo uuo'. arc: ktaab gam yulraH ulrmu? a11oP tu .... ulwrazaara in Arabic in example definite-fora known (o); ? a? wa mun unnunur aaad The last 'generic and (a), explicit or oituationally b) mbaareH ?areet stagaalet (or writer byu6tuuo1 xayyaaT. groom aal 9a ur nni aauu? .... nuzol 1. a) kann Yii ru mun ul? ayyn c) article and hoarer contextually io known no the in to a particular reference opoakor knowledge whether reader) are uoed with i. e. 1. with comparable the the is freely variant the with Of. plural. 1u? suud ?a?wa mun unnmuura So far is no conflict involved between English and Arabic. 'A' with countable©: The use of a-fora noun appears countable such as the factor, appearance it from what lies of singular appearing behind in can be described negatively: in there a-form factors in considered countabloo a-forra(see the notional unless in nloo a determining connection the-fora, below). statement is a singular that which This the with in the atom prevents again of 4, 6$ a countable lean reTero at random out to an individual being of of ouch objects a whole individual a particular claoo taken when it of a countable more or no ngainat in uood in ito the-form. hand, On the other the type, Thus the-form of vie can in a countable i. e. those to frooly the a-fora having bo'. any both in a practical only 'The motor-car has become very the Teat quarter of a century. Arabic, by sharp definite Thus a-Porn in in English English, but where English and zero-forms during popular has no indefinite contrast, 'at/tan' to corresponding the with tho equational 'to verb (or 'A motor-car the motor-car) means of conveyance. ' but of sentences the copulative variant to corresponds article makes use requires zero-form the of an a-fora. in Arabia ctareet sayyaara jdiide (I bought a new car) the-fora to and ssayyara (A in: free is motor-car The use of example relates variation 9a aaliyye wasiile a practical the definite not of la only the to the Singular Saatar means of conveynnco) form in Arabic 'ganoric definite use' in both the laut (formally: form with they in: .Ar- £%)0 Of. . form plural (rotor-cars to nouns in Arabic, whether dual, or plural, tust of or countable be definite la ooafar ) but conveyance) Arnbio, of characteristic general a more means a practical are 9amaliyye waaiile aaayyaaraat that nanoly, uncountable, when occurring also all singular, in initial position. of English in English Arabic and two languages requires so far transfer since in results It is important ® But after short * They lived lies Herein article. a-form relate emerge from to the fact in Arabia, to a zero-form corresponds no indefinite that implications The contrastive happy of the a conflict Arabic zero-form following that a-fora Arabic between where attested to learn foreign time I began .... the facto having the Erg lieh mistakes: language. life. Uncountables Uncountables the-form in English appear in zero-form and only. Zero-fora: Lead io heavier History The-fora never than repeats iron itself : She poured some water into a kettle it on the fire; half a minute later was boiling. and put the water Ap f'" A The distribution can be boat in Arabic tables the uncountable position In 'subject i. e. aaaooiated with in an uncountable the definite with with the to the rotoPhoo sentence. moat be dofinite, a pronominal article, dotinito a following unooun- with article deoaribed occupies position', or in construct fix, the definite of aufExaraploo noun. are: 1Kadiid ?axaff raun urrSaaS (Iron is lighter than lead) Sefiitak btunwa ddunye (Your health ie sror.th all cajaa9et (Antar'a in this like uncountables hive we , reflected a clear appear 1n their conflict by an abundance zero-torn between of attested Engl ah miatakeo the following: 0 The poverty The learning 0 If the luck which weird) 9antar taaihuura is renouned) courage Since English tan e-tt Arabic and the are tranalationa him from prevented in this university helps me ... of Arabic lWur mana9o yks al 19ulum fii ha ljaam9a ? iza 1HaZZ oaa9adni diraasto ... ... completing ... his studios. .4Mn ß. .i ;1 'predicate In tables position' in appear Examples arises. (coo pp. li this in ) langungoo in both context, tt. to the correcpondo Now eineo zero-fora uncoun- aentenceo), oentenee in English. in appear uncountables nominal has been found of a npminnl complement subjective It zero-form. the predicate that (in no problem are: SSaHHa na9aade (Health is happiness) ijusur Hadiid (The bridge is In unless doing position' in there so. kitid the 'object (made of) a determining to the appearance appear uncountablea factor factors The determining relates ) iron are of same factors of countables in which mentioned the-form in zero-form provent© them from two kinds. Rho Eirot in connection (seo p. 04ý). with Exampleo are: (In a cooking recipe) tcrayyet zubde w dwayyet : butjiibi bu TTanjara N ba9deen btuxulTi ruzz butHuTTiihon zzzubde mag urruzz. (You take some butter and some rice and you put them in ) the a cooking pot, then you mix the butter with rice. The second kind the preceding be definite certain of determining With verb. regardless verbs (he encouraged), like of come verbs any other Babb (he loved), ata9mal (ho used), rotor is in Arabic determining kureh connected the object factor. (he hated), uncountable with must With gajja9 nouns operating ý to tho©e verbs aß object© /%J cannot in appear indofinit© form. Thus we can have Stara zubde (Ho bought butter) and biHubb uzzubde (He likes butter) but never ® biHubb zubde In the following in appear cannot all examples zero-form, but waa? el byukrah ulma9karo Wael hates macaroni cf. the underlined be in definite uneountabloo formt na twaa? el byaakol ma9karoona S7ael eats macaroni every kul day) yoom' ul9aSiir maysa butHubb (Uaisa 1ikcs juice) lxeer ma.a bimayyex (He doesn nun uglarr t distinguish good from evil) ddawle butdaj je9 ulfann (The state encourages art) s ta9ra1 ulkurub (H e resorted Since in English the-Porn in no comparable Arabic, conflict to lying) uncountables object effect gives position, do not the preceding on the object rise ®I add the benefit to ® She wants the eternal necessarily as it to mistakes the pleasure love is verb appear having the caso in of the following typo: A w. 'ý ýj Arabic: reflect which bujma9 ulfaa? ide w ullazzo 'budda 1Hubb ul? abadi Men preceded in do appear tables in form definite their by prepooitiona, almo©t zero-fora unoountobloo all Caoea whore uncoun- cases. be considered will in appear below. Examploa are: Eý rood Habatten =9 (Take two tablets bxaaf (I IL ul? kul with mealo) mini ulmaraD am afraid of sickness) gam, tuhrob mun ulwaage9 (You are running from reality) the following mI 01 which of distribution fact This of the article for accounts mistakes: have never worked in the teaching. was going to burst with the laughter 'literal' are translation of Arabic bi tta911im Yana 9umri maa ätaaalt Xunt ran TuYY taue uDDuHuk Exwplea preceded aside is of uncountables by prepositions examples made of iron) by an uncountable like are not : lbaab all with appearing others in zero-forts easy to find. maßnuu9 mun Hadiid Leaving (the seem to comprise a verb preposition 'big a preceding when door followed in an r h' ýr r Exnxnplca are: phrase. adverbial 9aamalon bi (Fie treated ýj luTuf them with kindness) Haakaahon bi GaDab (He spoke to them angrily) The above pattern a productive tempting is it and (abstract bles in question with speaks In blea, 'fii' as well uncountableB in reproconto spoken Arabic educated 'big and eondider up a of uneounta- no a marker of such (see p. S r1 ). pattern reflects noun of a nub-class consisting no problems offers be a loan tart thn, nouns) last This + uncountable auch cases by netting to handle sub-class adverbial bi especially of adverbs sub-class of examples from English comparable accuracy', to Arabic, examples she worked With 'particle' and sentences as countables, appear in and it Ix'. Mxy 45 suspected as the in English (see pp., i'r) zero-form. taOliim 4orooppa fiiha muTalaT (Europe has co-education) 9ando zaka xaareq (He has extraordinary intelligence) pattern like: the deterAination'. are: dawaam ktiir maa kaan fii usaune (There has not been much attendance to this year) uncountnExamplca of w" n J .. ti oentencoa correspond, Type VII, in which an the 'tii' ainco in general, to Englioh nouns uncountable 'particle' and appear of contenoen in -cro-form, above example© show. 'particle' and 'fii' of here, 1e no conflict Thorn ©entences corr©opond aloo to eenteneos type: the Nominal 'to --- verb have' + noun Example o are : 9ando lajaa9a (He has moral ?adabi courage) labaaqa 9ando bi (He has tact Here again nouns Hakyo in his speech) arises no conflict in appear also o since English uncountable zero-form. Plurals Only nouns countable only can appear in The zero-form the of zero-form appears appearing in this in are zero-form of the-form unless of number and the-form a countable a countable fora capable in there in the is (see pp. "lwsc'). and in Engliah. the plural singular variation rezemblea in some reason Exenple© that for it its of the-form He had bought us some presents for Chriatrmo; but Christmas came he could not find the ents when are: 4 0' "/ He ate the all Keep clear Examples the of zero-form of In the case of tables is singular two-term for for of plural both (a definite-form As is in countables other 'subject noun, with there is a zero-form English system the system and a the-form uncountables, reference of Arabic to the distribution countable the position nouns occupied the sentence. position', whether the to a in nouns, a two-term in Arabic). the case with described In nouns ooun- as opposed countable singular and definite-forms zero-forms best countable and Arabic: for between correspondence nouns, plural with article ' words. into we have a three-term Arabic countable English the the use of a one-to-one system -32 are: English of case case the- except rropollorn For whereas Arabic. and given to difficult jut are sometimes to result a others according 'Thoughts 'We judge there he van apple singular a countable, or plural, as well rust as any be definite, e. g. butsakker ddakakiin yoom uljum9a bi auuriyya (Shops are cloned on Friday in Syria) aainamaat man btu9roD 4aflaam mniiHa bu 99eof (Cinemas do not show good films in the sunraar) of is by A 0" P Here wo have a cano of conflict in appear countabies ® The flats thin to the following rise gives conflict in zero-form plural This context. miotnkoo: London. in expensive are English since in our cocioty. 0 The wives are well troated to their joy The parento. a are children .3 'predicate In complement, in no conflict sentences) in zero-form (predicate, contexts and subjective in in both the cane of the case of Englidz). are : Examples alaadi rjaal (my children are lja: 7aa? oz ? lam (The prizes are In 'object aPPO uin both unless from appearing comparable Zero-fora: yr kutub books) and pens hoäevor, do°inito in is this to those (pP"1,61tee " men) position'# there forn nouno nominal nouns appear countable in comparable languages Arabic; position' plural since occurs (in plural 12"1: r-i 3-. a determining factor form. considered Exampleo countable They appear which The determining itaru ? aoliHa (They bought wenpono) 2cuobu ?aSdigan? (They won Prion3o) in -oro- prevents factors in aonneot. on vrith aro : noiro them are uncountable "1. No conflict occurs D-.3£inito-form: a. hero. hum kunt bi lnna ?jiit r T, magi. london dtaroot la 66area jubt hridnayn ulhadnayn (flion I rrao in London I bought prononto I brought an3 when I oame to Dq=oouo the prononto with rio) b. ?ubni blTlabb ulk-utul My son 1ik: c., 3 books) oozi byi1 rah uLi2Plnat 'it huaba. haton pzrtion) INo conflict is arioeo u3od in the definite-Pony does occur conflict English unlike objects, 17horo the plurrl its in after Attested the plural verbs requiring Where the verb as to the associability implication mistakes countablo But 33eond occurrence. (b) where under in definite-form appears object. (') un3or of reflecting countable definite has no comparable the article this type the i'ocque. with the of conflict are: A People 0 Moslems love perform When prdceded behave like the dogs in England. the prayers by prepositions, uncountablee, i. e. they e. g. mnaaaod nooTaat bi lmuHaaDaraat (tile take notes in lectures) in plural countebleo appear in definite fora, aý ýUý luklaab bixaai mun yawner (Yacaer in afraid of dogs) bu Tiuro? buddna nubHa© man. (Pie don not want to discuss English Since tan countabloo/nppeor plural (unless by prepositions when preceded tested this reflecting mistakes there in zero-form is a determining the two languages. between we have a conflict factor), means) At- include: conflict (pra (sic) the is full 0 The mosques prayers 5 era with (congregation) is used here for praying people Arabic in books. the is found 0 .... not rhich is used by the great trajority 0 English of the politicians In English 'fit' and of sentences 'to verb have', both in nouns since context. both L'oreover, forms accompanying Examples sentences, Type VII singular appear as uncountables) etc. 'particle' in Guth to zero-form as 'ktiir' no probletro zero-form deal (many), of lexical (no well countable© in show a great the with and cause appear to correspond sentences and plural languages they or rhich in this with similarity gwayyet (a fesr), are: V& sawaare9 ktiir fii bi muZharaat ulbalad (There are demonstrations in the streets ºany 9undi Iwayyet mulaafaZaat buddi ?ullak (I have a few remarks to tell you (1) Of., however, the politicians of tir city) 9aleehon 'English is used by the great majority (of this country). See also below. of (1) "y - '. .. Sandi ?axbaar San ?axuuk (I have news about your brother) Adiunatn When countable© 'a' and 'the' head-word to distinguish in Arabic, are otherwise ghat i. e. structures with assciated comparable article structures belong to the colligation we consider Adjective obtain conatructiona dit- we have a radical whose constituents Thus if T oun --- is the with of the definite distribution cord-classes. different not na a Clod any more. recognized the fire. contexts as the different identical the whole phrase,, with is not dreads In comparable (see pp"4 f"), the articles e. g. The great Ian A burnt child serves by an adjunct, are modified colligate only, ference, Countnbleo_ with according the noun or with both to whether the article the noun and the Of. adjective. 1. lvalad uhazzab (The boy is polite) 2. ly. ad lumhazzab (the polite boy) The first example is the second, a noun phrase the article appears with (a a senteze e nominal which both differs from senterc e); Englich the head and with the in that adjunct go 0- 1 of there is type, is which concord a major Adjuncts As is in English tables to the case with the whole governed same rules here, nized there from appearing ric, as opposed modified adjunct the article is uncoun- simple above are recog- in zero-form by this This form. to the particular differs an adjunct a determining is Cast iron contains influence Foreign Arabic distinguished in + uncountable The countablea . of the case of as in belongs article too. Adlunct form unless adjuncts, The types and plurals. tables the and the distribution phrase, by the with when uncoun- countablea, singular appear 'lurnlo nrd otmtabloa im with adjective, Arabic. and English between no number categories the noun and the between difference the noun-adjjative of (among such other ) in definiteness and gender then, In phrneea, the noun phrase. more finds factor 1hich in muht be definite terra, in notional this this stun tnrbiyet than school both context, biHa?? e? ulmu9jizaat tta9aawan u1iuxleS (Sincere co-operation achieves miracles) lbeetiyye ttarbiye ?aha= (Home education is better e. g. iron. case since in them to the gene- use correoponda sense, zero- prevents than rallenble carbon its wny peacefully. diametrically and uncountable in appear u1zmdrase education) e. g. ýý i Thin difference giveß to iniatnkeo rioo 0 The great poverty made him work very love. 8 She wants the eternal Adjunct Uncountablea known to the the uncountable) thing the the-form quantity and hearer speaker implicitly, explicitly, in appear oanple, ( i. e. of the uncountable illustration Examples by an adjunct modified (aio) hardly the-fornt is made to a particular when reference reader) in + uncountable tho typo: of or denoted by (writer and (coo pp. wi. (r) or aituationally are: but We found sorge chocolate, the the dog stale so we gave (contextually ourselves rest further mention) moot of chocolate explicit it was stale; and ate the ; context of swells talking Mexico): in Ancient of human sacrifices the natt ol life, festivities, The public all turned (contextually horrible implicit) this fantastically act' on The only is its that the article adjunct. appears The first la? eena cwayyet manzuu9. lbaa? i. in comparable conflict to both with example cukalaaTa contexts in Arabic the uncountable tansy be translated laaken 9aTeena ifukalaaTa (... in thus tau9Zamha kann awa++ 31 lkalb u ?akalna and : a 9. ýý following Uncountnblen with What applied to uncountablc% when they equally applies io uncountablen in of in the-form zero-form nouns in general by adjectives in post-nominal lowing The resulting or indefinite exhibits in according terms eaten be modified but can be definite construction to the concordial behaviour of definiteness-indefiniteness. 2. Lajaa9et uljundi / Lcajna9a taba9 uljundi 3. Zajan9et jundi flanking definite. it Or. taba9 and are all only by, a fol. also Ur1jan9a variation, on not / free I for us is, reached position, In 1 and 2 the constructions in are: 9antar 1. Eajaa9at when in the pot. tea left and she made coffee literature The Anglo-Saxon which the whole, the work of clerka. noun. and the-form are: There was only one cup of took the tea that was loft, herself. In Arabic, That ? tea with milk Do you like She has power of persuation. Examples by adjunoto. zero-form Exaiaplea by aajuno*a when preoeded are follovrod can appear by ad junta. followed nd1unoto 9antar the / symbol The first are conotruction ^r I .iJ 1 is in definite because noun. The firnt a proper is the whole It construction will be noticed (the definite be can which Thus although yet the construction subject the position. noun md 'indefinite'. the modified that also second constructions 'taba9' form the case definite also by an indefinite is modified in 2 is noun. i. e. can occupy definite, 3 the uncountable In indefinite, 1 and 2 in uncountablcjin as a whole a definite by in modified in construction is the modifier because the uncountable uncountable in 1 and 2), moat be used between in the noun the modifier. and The first occur with in which I's} Since noun in either . either to the is the modifier the article does h ngungo no problem here. arises So far, post to correspond However, nominal a post-nominal of a noun modified adjuncts to pre-nominal a post-nominal to 1A in English with noun suffixed a proper found of construction construction genitive not part 1 corresponds adjunct in English by a clause in Arabic adjuncts in Arabic in exemplified or a relative have been in English. that corresponds by the case (1) both piece, to a sentern e reduced clause in this sense in equivalent to the status of a sentcme A relative element. in piece distinguished by the fact that it is introduced by the relative tyallit, ATP. I vi of which to a relntivo correspond it indefinite the noun is without in modified 'yalli', the relntive clnuac What in Englith. by a clauco juxtaposed e. g. kul 1umHaTTaat buddi raa&yo yjiib (I want a radio that reaeiv©o all otationa) Englith clause requiroS pronoun a relative to the noun in auch context for the following accounts vergence to link the relative ). (oee pp. %iytt. mistaken This di. where no relative© have been used: e Language tý .. or if ® We have is a link I met foreignerrs have inn y poets Mien the antecedent tine pronoun antecedent the This foam of the relative against the personal Illy-See definite, the modifying in comparable which in hoirver, in En ich piece to Fhglish invariable the rolnto except for in Arabic no the (©eo p. %ii ) Determiners Thq'tozms MY, your, to noun is of forms a variety Genitive can't speak Arabic. the Baure taste. acust be used to link noun. people. associates definite in article pronouns Pronouns in hin, formlý pooc her, ito, distribution fey have our, thoir, and are been given are parallel clone to different the names doO>Si each of 'Genitive term one aide emphasized which of their in a terminological Determiners' 'Possessive Pronouns (conjoint (3) (2) 'Genitive Articles'. Determiners', and between 'Genitive' The term like pattern which they / my your determiners, form (1) form)', 'Possessive the fact stressec like more specifically a mutually compromise them to the personal 'Determiners' The tern pronouns. relates The properties. they urticloo, with Of. system. exclusive that the apple / an apple the my apple 0a his friend. has a comparable Arabic in They are comparable the the definite with sive between relations the taining within These pronominal mentioned forms of the there, the terms is they exactly the pronouns with a preceding verb or tive determiners with a preceding particle, range (met a system of him, as well noun. Grammar, 'A New-English Sweet, Henry 75. P. Press, uxford, Clarendon 68. (Palmer, p. op. cit., 112 p. cit., op. Strang, exclu- with which those to on pageutt the nominal etc. ), in as that Exzu plop Logical ob- pronouns. personal tabulated been cutfixec. are mutually parallel independent have cover of pronominal and form of suffixes personal sense that article, system they closed-class An " ebcplütt association of the geni- are: kntorical', and1ii: .40. !1 i ýý talifooni ( my tolphono) zaarni (he vioited suutak buddi (I to ace you) grant the3e Since the whereas of Eaglinh arises at (ao well no verbs with a following ktaab-i book ti in but that the noun-phrase. also nouns' (1) and the genitive by the fact the previous learning ease problem, 0 The articles torized a pimple Of. level. an elementary dotorminero' noun, a minor and constitutes and and partioleo) 'Genitive corresponding colligate conflict though partially are bound forma auttixeo pronominal to nouns, are pootfixed of me) ones in they can function The remaining that as head-trordc. and can be divided they determiners only determiners function not They may be called into three are eharae- mutually no ndjuneto differ only from an adjuneta 'determiner-proexoluoive groups. 'buddak', like The forms 'buddi' pattern verbs etc. , from theca in that they do not appear with but differ that charateri: the affixes 1oroovor, they o verbs. raunt always appear with pronominal suffixes, and in 'bald-' this respect could be abstracted no a bound for",.. 1»v dotorminor-pronotma Vnrinblo This contains claaa rued (singular number in appearing 'deiatics' below). tion of these Z" AdJuncts terms of the verb na with to nub-oluoo fora plural the when labelled 'thin' (ace initiators distribu- characteristic are: This book is interesting These books are interesting Heads 2. Thin All is not these enough are not A corresponding with c6ntraats though the certain enough ey3tern of demonstratives English general demonstratives in Arabic in Many respects, chsracteristico are shared between is the doublo two systems. The most important role performed house by demonstratives, in noun-phraaeo, adjuncts is coffin comfortable), as in, chraoterintic which can function haada iboot or pronominally nuriiH as heads, , 'th ono'. 'thooo', by noun-phrase illustrating forma tho head in The two mernbern are corresponding Examples adjunoto Thio position. can be preceded Both meaberrs among noun-phraoa with 'denonatratives'. their and charaota- as Well and plural), subject or 'that' alone behaviour concordial oxhibit3 it that by the faut and is two netibora only as (thlo as in I r r" -. haada (thin mriiH denonatrativ©a In in Arabic. Do onntrativoo fora In tho und, nuabor can bo tabulated, torah of which Tho variation. gondor (Hasculino haad/haada (thin; hadank cthat j tFeainino hayy/haadi (this); hadiik (that) hatool (thooo) The forno variant haad thawlaj with as adjuncts atrutivea oxhibit syctoin in Arabic nouns. ; huüunk (thooo) (ha.adi) , und hadool 'ha' particlo uro hhhcn function- Cf. oj? aiaan ? cHriatn is bettor) of Arabic A characteristic by II1gllsh hayy , an invariable bofore haada lbarnaai ha lbarnaamoj (This progra=o shared tho moro about an follower plural freely first, But a nyntoi oingular, 3inSular( ing coarortablo), doaonstrativoo ctn precede doaonutratines is tho or follow fact which is that thoir all honda. not do=onThue hzmda 1walad nal9uun (This boy is naughty) iB frooly lwalad varlunt hawia with na3.9uun. in A more important charactoriatic definite domonstrativoo with a of Arabic the co111gability noun or indefinite w rý .4 ýf so that two diriorcnt wh©thor tho noun. in tho dofinito with tho tho constructions tho dofinito od with a noun aacooiatod function is to according aaoooiat Thus with thoy articlo construction rosultinS is colligation or not. articlo rooult an adjuncts a noun-phrano, and o. s. hand a lukt aab ithi n book) h, ýiceo 1 lu wlaad (th©3© boys) When colligating nominal haada (This kt aab is a book) hadunk (Thong Hariir zero silk) is It of Arabic The first outstnndin6 demonstratives the system with former, the function an adjuncts. toaturos, it will occurs encounter when both to possiblo two typos do not form may follow of a deaonstrativo a precede, that olonontary and the conflict but Given predict very or o. S. the rolato article when they in of to definite they it; a acntonco, points and that with can co-occur contrastive most unlike exclusive heads the in construction roculting and Arabic latter, the that mutually their that clear 3iglish between fact and tho heida noun Choy aro pro- an indofinite with thocp speakers nistnkon. definite r r""ý r+. vN prooodo articlo tho 0 Thin an in, a noun, watch in whon dononntrativoo Tho noconci occurs 0 Tho thin picturo because they there I! oi born group. ouch, come, Buch, dot orninor share the no number variation. chaructoricsticn, any, pronouno either, are and what. A. Fyn bed is adjunct uro mutually tall, both, half). of those spite this zany, F,roupod of and of genoral the among items sub-claac most, are: tiuch, noithor, Of. better function, oxclusivo to ovary, than his Each member brought method in good. -Zither than is. This ono is bottor I Savo two to Dach. liko 1 don't olthor. In noun-phrase distinctions finer am characteristics in the But in belonging enough, pronouns' genoral as heads and adjuncts functioning the nice. ' Invariab1o Forma t oraod together In dot orninor Invariable of aro uuod post- as in, nominally, having slow. thooo with tho no bod. contribution. nny I'vo itoaa, artioloo Thuc wo can havo ovor with coon. Como oxcoptionc, and tho initiators e The good eating applon. Some good eating apples. Any good eating applen. but not ® The each good eating apples. 0A Bone good eating apples. 'such' 'Many', the with indefinite the and 'what' 'a'/'an', article definite are not 'any', with are 'more', singular can aloo other 'enough', by heating distinctions 'cost', and plural items. 'such', and 'what' Cf. constructions. only with we take 'either', non-plural are 'every', constructions, Thus colligate the baby. B. Any errors that appear will be called to your Such clothes as we had were not appropriate. tripe 'Each', appear it. among these A. Any mechanic could repair that. Suuch an arrangement was neceaaary. I don't know what name they've given What with Cf. article. still cxclucivo and 'neither' Many a good wine has been ruined house 1 What a pretty I've never he4rd of such a case. There =utually relatively 'auch', attention. uninteresting. 'neither' e. g. I spoke to each person separately. You can take either book. He called at ever -house in the street. colligate A 4. ".4 q ' lfany' colligatoa tho isn't -rhoro Rnotnor tno tot. O. S. us. nia. itonn all 'Much' ©xcopt icn ,% much wood in tho kind oui. y in poßitivo 'I'vo Got 'I haven't - oolliCato with colliSatas only with building,. is that conutructiona, noGativo u silo' 'rho two pattorn. 1 COMO' affiriativoly cny' occurs in annworo, some, got any in function limitation of corrosponding both Th11 c ), and Group, oonctruotionc o. 6. uncountablon, occurs non-plural countablo uinGular plural to distrust WILL nice 5ho has min reasons Uoorgo' c minnt' friends tiitriin. with an hao trial 'Manya howovor, only to rolution the two q octionn, 'Havo you cot oomo ?' 'Havo you Got any ?' itoau Corroapondins determiner number of pronouns, rofornco noun with to the ti4nich they Jrabic diffor differences cnd their items 4th the in different definite collignto trog being in Ea&Usht article, und its the nunbor rointivo to respect colligational ariablo the pocaibilitios of the position. head- "'U a" ." .ý 7 ay (any/noithor), Thouo it o=o aro: (onou&h), (m=y/ ktttr twayyot (Goao), j1t It in to of thouo o about thou. bchaviour tho gonorali: appoar in. foiinino L-tiir© (many aasazino3) aro thoso ba9D (Como) %hilo (Cf. F'urLhcr=oro, their uutub dl ktiir lztiir (I thoro itma that it ba9D unman undorßtood =oat ' ý.tilr' hor najaHu occur only can ful= road a=y (==y an adjuncts, 9aloana collisato nowt of the -tar and ? al, not). both dofinito (ho has (moat pooplo u in cmoko) prooodo quoution can procodo have nnny picturon); boolm) . mau t' ulba9D 2oktar itona n an indofinito with with as hoc both uo and como did unnaaa bidax Suwur (I iajal1tut bu 1full function, 9aado na,liallaat c ktiir can. (of* yalli and ? acct cr colligate th. ilo difficult in forms plural on " most of thou und ? o1tar Further=oro, 9 ox=) (Cf. nouns. indorinito snd (Cý. ; ktilriin whilo ba9D, ? ay, an in (many/auch) ft,iisuu (Sono pooplo Toro placoc; /, rabio tho and Itiir und as adjuncta. noun, out that as groll ulio passoll HHoroovcr, (uouo), ba9D G4omany difforono most of them aro invariablo, Thus u iilo i ranyo l, , (sorio) , lay (that) . bo pointod should (core/zioot), ? iLltur muoh), (onoh) kul cnd or follow ? aroot M" ýr it Finally, rroupc according plural, or both Thus poaaiblo to ithothcr do) ; kul min, hulliyyot bukra (I havo kitaaýyo, and plural of to twayyot, faculty tiilm of arto tox orrow) Cf. A. 9undi ? ukul kircayo (I havo onouEýi food) guayyot wars? 9uriint (Givo no soap papor) ? ay Suura buddak (which picturo tt B. aroona (wo bou has many aootinSc constructions. ? do you went kraut ki ra yo t onou&i oardn) baa9u gwayyot da va1iib. (They sold Bono tyros) 7) a: ino) . with firnt tar .: ? Tuilaob ? ujtisiaa9aat colliSato on (cono 9undi cud lay book plural fullauot Z11'ikaut aodicino); attend with colli&ato lnr nln In Como n it road ul? aadaab (The uTTubb faculty aonctruotiono. (oaoh ono hnn hin (I and ktiir L-ulliyyot bankrupt); ainzlur, with ntö only with ., byunta9 (cny/otthor W*11majallo o. g. ba9D U conctructiofa, collignto wat iod na9o ktuabo bi throo into than Ft1 colliF rnd lml, ba9D, ? aktar, th4. n the thoy o. S. ? ay ktaub book) ; ? arooto were to divido and plural sinGular ? ay, constzuotionn, will is more students ktiiro , singalar :r ai. but ThDDof ? ay n yyuaraut (1Wr'hichcars do you profor inplioätiono Contrastivo of the In view items Arabic determiner the and pronouns, it find ktilr nrlly to it csc 'I hear haven't Tho positional can preeedo which to Fag11sh thoir the the of to possible BaGlich learning prodict botwocn conflict tho IIi lieh M61iah 'I got any', chars ctoristics thoir ito=n ucol of Arabio prononi. can Savo you aono'. of hozdc, itoas, corrosponding as adjuncts npoakoru ziany nativo or ro-d or follow only cn occur oxcoptod), puzzling in, oay, behaviour of the iteac. Sino o most Arabic and in from resulting Arabic (ba9D the with it of behaviour diversity groat compared difficulties 7 7) ktiir and 7c tar, when trenotorrod cacao niutakos liko: QI have books many. 0 He has children more. Itoroov©r, is 'auch' to both, dcnco not sinco tho paralleloll wo have a conflict of attoat©d nistakoß distinction in botwoon 'ktiir' AArabic, which liko 0 He has many money. 01 have seen much countries. in rofloctod tho following: 'many' and corrosponding by on abun- 0-1 .JM. Wi Finally, ? aittcr) co1116ato can of bohaviour conflicting O lost the 0 Some the the and two of the thorn directly, ' little' 91 loan' I leant' tho was in the nintakoo only in initiators, 'loan' and dofinito indofinito . 'leant' occur with thou&h rz'ticlo, articlo; uncountablon, indofinito articlo. All conctructionn nuthora' colli&atit6 with such f'owont' , ,' ' ordinal tho initiatint3 aboonco, 'fewer' 'ono' DiG1ish can colligato colligating thron an 'the 'littlo', thich ccunot follow tho little food houuo was stolen'. ' tho and ono' nu=oraln cbovo ,' ISar&incl bctuoon tho3o conctructionc. plural rouar' ,' tho with in article 'Fold' , and with oxciusivo with 'fowl, enci the ' littlo' in noun-phraao in, their constructions; countablos, dofinito occur ,' in. singular nutuolly there loast' tones, Of theses, singular and, Hero bolons noun-phraao. appoar articlo, for acoounto no born its in that others articles following 'loss', area of detorminor-pronouns group from tho differs only this dorinito )611nh chono to study Ei&lioh. difficult to ro,. are students writers The third the tho with Choir whilo typo: tho with noun, oxclunivo in (bo. D, ? ay, itona Arabio a dcftalto with nutua11y aro countorparto tho cono of tho Dino foucst' i. { r . last and tho 'Sonitivo is group (coo dot orninorc' torn (oxcopt 'both'), (tho covoral houcoc with tho liko ' oovoral' cinco tho along indofinito colligatoc and tho p. wii) and raroly it with road dofinito all tho o initia- noun-phrao tho woro with urticlo clocod) but , novor artiolo. Ordinal numoral s (first, ci=bora of this cocond, Dub-claDo but oto. ) bohavo third, can appoar with a prooociin e. 6. o.rticlo, Tho Tile first first (parson) odit ion to coo uau corvod wan in 1878. first. howovor, Cf., First First the and in Thoro' come firdt corvod. 1878. odition, plural, o no Tho follotrir functions and the in rolation clans tino for ox=ploz positional to tho socond chota. illuotrato tho characteristics articles and tho c4 junct of and hotsd the noun-phrano tiators. thoy saw uan uuitablo. Ono (dross) Half the Sow (rooms) available Sacod duo north. cub- ini- fr +. ýJ J to tho Corrooponding are the following Digl. iah (row) 71oul They nuuoraln. allil share , their with and differ characteristics curtain ,7 (little) in roopocto. other thoir Lilo the und the counterparts Group of dotorninor-pronouno forms: Arabic (ono) waof; od/woHdo third definite which EaSllah to 'all' 1iuh F cnn colliato by 'ku11', und can be procodod article correspond thoy countorpartu, 'half', und with 'nuca' Exaplou nro: lu? laal 1? aSdiqaa? yal li bu? yu xnanuu (The few friends betrayed hin) loft ýrubto : zaay ul? aliil cahharni yalli (The little tea I drank kept no awa o) luktaab ulwaaHod yalli (The only (one) book I 9andi Daa9 have wau lost) lu? laal yalli kucubhon nZarafu ullooraat the few pounds he earned were spent). Icull (All '? nliil' und 'waaHod' like EaSlish 'little' and they follow hca%i. their occur 'one' In but t3lnGular differ constructions sinoo positionally, C f. 9=do wa?t ? aliil 0 He han time little. . -tara ktacb 0 Ho bought '? laal', a plural waaHoci book ono which construction In Itself like a plural Ito pliuh fora, colligatoo counterpart 'fowl with , but .1 W lino '? aliil' r ' warA1od' und ? aSdigaa? 0 Sriendu 71aa1 row Ao to the other obtaining ý1 botwoon dirrors the nunoralo, that und tho C f. pouitionully. ayntnuatio hoad-word rolationc can bo cun: yurizod as follows: ' racHod' in dorinit and 'tnoon' moss follow or indofinit tho noun and aGroo with ©noco, as wolf an in Condor, lta. h zaaHod (ono book) luktt anb o en uttnoon (tho tim book) madras o waHd o (ono school) Fron noun mat 'tlaato' '9atra' to bo plural, (thron to ton) tho Pollowinr o. ß. tsnt ? la= (throo pans) 9a Ir (tea tuffucHaat apples) Fron '? ida9 ' must b© ainSular, 9i poriin (twenty kt aab books) (olovon) o. G. and on, tho following noninal it o. G. . 1. tuffaaHa mist (a hundred apploo) loora Ulf (u, thousiand tho following last pounds) In in. contrast This procodo -- 1I noun 'ono' 'tw'o' from constitutor many attootod mistacoo the font and a conflict of ulioro nouns bo plural. Tho for a groat typo: ai1o. or indofinitanon in in. Arabic nunorul numora1a and accounts an to d©finitonoca noun und the 2, must following tho all 'tuo'; onwards © Ho bought sixty o3. 0 Wo travollod a hundrod Aroo thoro 1. EaSlinh including nunorlan foaturo to oub joat a botwocn to1lowin to the conditions: 1. Both kutub nunorc1 und noun can bo indofinit books; ) , tlat (ton 2. Iliion tho namoral articlo colliGatos woes. u19a&r kutub v`ui't .. 3.1ý.ion the very Suww (thron pioturoß) pros oclo, tho noun, tho dofinit only nuweral Sroqucnt, (I follows both tho nu moral, article, o. G* uoen the ton ?) ton saw tho twenty the numeral the pons with (Where are the Doct u19ugriin o, o. 6.9atr iultla noun, ul9ztra o o. G. books) ; Guests) . which and noun . is not uppoar (whoro Stith are , aý a +. lion Fioroin only procodo tine 1rlth tho tho 1 a point of noun in ma&linn, conriiat, phraoo, wholo ainco and tno appoars artivlo, coilira. bororo only con nunoralc tho nunorol. Cr1" lu? 3.caa u19alra 0 tho pons tho ton. numorals ordinal. thoada in heads Ordinal Frog'? tinG to indefinite; numbers with ordinal the both from occur article numerals red in : are the ordinal foilowing their dich, to' definite. 9a4ra' ui Is heads, tho two oD. isutory possibilities, colliGacorrespond e. G. aaojaut) ui? c.vwal allzid the first voiuaol lunca naa Tulo9 1r u ja11ad u19uLriin %Tho twantioth voluno hasn't appoarod 'onrlict (t en j. nuaor1an, Itaroot ? awizal L-taab Tu1o9 naYl uluawvuu9 book to. appoar on. tho (I bought tho first ha is (Thin tnoir and their numerals &I-mall-10d' (ono) onwardc follow or both %tlien following, (©lovonj idagl' procodo l-tnon procoaing, Arabic. are oun oithor in arinins use of tho chin Intornationsil. p Firat in tho yoa. r rourth" connoction dounito accounto with artiolo for tho yet). tho ordina. lc wnoro Arauiu £ollowin6 Fair in Damxicuo bon is difficult. univorrsity conoorno providon mißta2: ou: in 1945. s In contexts 'eleven' Arabic onwardo, the which ljuz? nppenred form the a arrnll enn be called They articles. of determiners group initiators'. 'All' precede no miotakeö mna Tule9. 'helf' ever, can precede appears therefore ouch sentence, luasa 'both', 'noun-chrase explains hne not from ordinnla Initintorn Noun-Phrnne which Arabic ul9usriin 'All', otructure twentieth the (3 The pnrt reflects to English correopondinp, could the with not precede es in, definite, or plurnl uncountable indefinite the 'All the head-words; it but doer article, nice trim little school girls'. 'Both' and has two singular Both L ry Both the crumbling, 'Halt' can have can precede Hilf Half heads or het d, a plural e. g. and John the the people an hour is gnarled singular, definite there plenty old plural, and elm trees. or indefinite were in evening long enough. uncountable nrticl©s, dress. bend-words e. g. .0 0»r" 'l: uli' Arabic their Thoy show with of boing to ublo ucod both 'L-ull' uncountablo and 'nu; 313' (all, dofinito tho tho horo. charrctorictico und of boinS articlos, and an hoodo. an adjuncts colligatoo only ho d-words. . or uncountablo plural, nro rolovont countorpc. rtc rlich procodo half) with 'nuSSI hoad-uordn, plural colligaton countablo frith and with singular, o. c. lungallmiiu tho t oachoro) lull (all 1:u11 uddrhah (all tho gold) nuSS ul-; -a?t (half the timo) nuSS ul9uanaal (half tho tror:: orn) nnuSS bii: affi (half In onou&h) 'lull' collißatoQ ©a rith colliSat ? aroot kull (I road all with a dofinit u d©torainod o or indofinit noun, o noun, %ihoro= 'nu3) 11 0.6. ulmajallo tho ua¬azino) Ito. root Huss HuSSa (I bought half a oharo) Itaroot (I 1 bought nuSS u34ruSSa half tho uharo) It should o point out that whjilo '1ai11' in invariablo 'nuSS' in variablo (nuSSoon :t zo halvoa; nzaaS : holvon) In othor words 'nuSS' is a noun, and 'nuS: UUuSSa' in the oxa iplo Given should be roeardoci un a oonotruot. 4 1"thon tunctionin5 'Lull' cnd 'c' othor pooitionu, articlo 1kull (All nnuS (Half jr. an hoc$u in aunt appoar o= cub j oot tho with 'Lull' howovor, 'nuSS' but d- dofinit it, in o artiolo; tsuct oolliCato without appoar both position with tho o. g. ? uJu havo coao) Gaabu havc boon, abcont) ataroot u1Lm11 (I bought all) hr-root nuS 3 (I bought a half) In viow 'all' '1:-ull', and Arabic of the dirforcnoou of tho following it in in tho behaviour to pocniblo 11ah of prodict nictakan typo: love the all. 6I 0 The all werd brokcm. The numeral article 'tnoon' to corresponds ti ion associated 'both' tthan it with functions definite the an hotel, o. g. Itaroot uttnoon (I bought both) ttnoon =" "I (Both aro Good) Corrosponding of tho typo 'both to tho adjunct noun', Arabic use of has '1 'both' in ctruoturoc noun " oon ' whoro ... the definite article i " precede© a noun in the dual, connection relates e. g. la ikur©iyyocn rail tuHtaaj (You'll need both ohairo) lbadultenn dayy? iin (Both suits are tight) Conflict use of absence with the definite with in arising article 'both' 'two'. Of. You'll You'll need need in this in Arabic English, both hands. the two hando. no opposed and to equating to the to ito 'both' ,V 0- e ýi (0... ) Adjunot3 Be Adieetiven In the previouo the noun-phrase in occurring In both of a word-class both into thý English, of quality in adjectives the ing to the closed the frame (1) morphological and exclusive left rann Deems very --- the fr=e: nub-clash 'atative' following of as adjectives all to avoid the verb and by replacing and certain to fit ability in 'looks' identifies the identifying or the noun and the noun determiner 'becomes', 'is', words the open to sot up possible blank incompatibility, in is it defining their environments By varying by adjuncts, of on comparable primary 1) the --- lexical part the criteria. syntactical In In with. and Arabia, adjectives adjuncto be conoidored. will Englidh of has been dealt second major adjectives called class the section, present the closed-alaoo section similar verbs of 'aeons' verbs belong- (see p. Zs), the underlined sentences: In the discussion of English adjectives tt A &: Francis, pp. op. , cit, on I have drown mainly i wý an is The strong very strong. in very uncomfortable. The uncomfortable position looks The relaxed spectator very relaxed. The se girl seems very seif-eontrod. -centred ` Any interesting counde into roa story ng. are 1. The two positions ), 'fairly' 'exceedingly', or homophonous are 'present and from frame, in is very running'; ' the we cannot say '0 a girl to set murdered ). or 'a man' charming' of a comparable up a corresponding the '© the position and 'the Thus second. man' but man is rather a position running 'the differ first the almost immediately namely, or examples participle' murdered occupy alone, three The latter fit and 'the running' by adjectives basis 'past do not participles both (1) 'very', a copulative last the may fit they horse' Thus we can say both On the in called nevertheless Moreover, occupied possible verbale though running horse murdered'. a noun. follows turn (see pp. iiiff. that they 'the '0 the never the participle' we can say not in which and (like an adverbial as adjectives with adjectives the noun determiner verb. Stative Forms classified in following and 2. immediately noun, between horse' after and ' thorse man murdered'; (1) man tired'. syntactic word-class frame, of it but is adjectivoo these forma, H. E. Palmer calls together like with others (unchanging, uncomplaining, undeserving), which have no (0 to unchange, 0 to unconplain, verbs as 4 to unsuch 'Participial deserve) Op. cit. adjectives'. pp. 72 U. I ,' 1ý in Arabic. lowing Thug all two frames In list words of verbs 1. lvralad 2. Lw4lafl --- f III the blank is between that Saar --- --- in the tol- is following a verb that (see pp. 333n). belongs to the ctntivo In vorba Examples Saar Gani ktiir boy became very rich) Tu19ot n ?n ktiir turned tight out very SSuura 1n n1nimnne bayyane t trnnD? a ktiir (the coloured picture appeared very clear) lbunt (the 2. ta9biie Saarat ulw n?fe becazie very otanding girl TTa? s bnnred (the weather ktiir tired) ktiir is very cold) 1buuZa Tnybe ktiir (the ice-cream is very delicious) lu.: nhande am arrab ktiir (the architect iu very experienced) 1manZar sn aHer ktiir (the view is very charming) It will be noticed that in partial same 2. the position 'ktiir'. a noun and the adverbial lbadle diide (the new suit o noun and the to English correspond 1.1%Talad ulnultuhcd (the industrious ktiir ktiir position ) and an adverbial p. ii between that are adjectivea: 1. the first second position 1) aorrcupondenco prei (oeo is ^A to 'Active termed nnn? to; and pant So far, adduce comparable to recognize, which 'bane In Englio: i, in positions loving the morphological frame is vihilo English possible also which it 311 fo. pp. mark in necessary cub-claaoeo 'derived fitting also exhibit the nuf1ixea adjeetivo©'. both the fol. characteristics: 1. They are asnociated to fora and adjectives' syntactic in both To do no, ndjectivea' glide (nee two large languages, 'baue may be called to criteria two language©. are Partioiplan' It criteria. include which many respects morphological in both and B. anaIier) have been net up, on synthetical adjectives 1. correspond in participles the both 'Passive function adjectives in of mjarrab, and and whose Arabic, and examples Partioiplon' respectively, present two (nlawwano, form. n like. to last the Eriglinh, the so-called vrith comparative -or and -ent degroea, and superlative e. g. war cold fast 2. Baas adjectives that formed they nerve warmer colder faster Warmest coldest fastest are also characterized as stems fron by the derivational which outfixoa by the fact nouns und adverbs are -noon and -1y, e. g. erg , .1 Adjective Noun Adverb ctrtrge black Thlae 3trnrgeneno otrnngaly Most base adjectives 3. two syllables - un, A fair 4. brighten, g. e. 'Derived cheapen, n derivational with inhuman. -en, enlnrPe, form verbs the prefix embitter, as their Adjectives', and none have or both, -on, enlighten, enliven. narre indicntea, of adjective-forming by nre those cuffixec to free derived ndjectiven or forms. bound Some of '-y', as in stete, the suffixeß coon which form following: the (a) (b) nnturnl, (c) adaptable, 1 suffix by the addition formed begin unco ... on, (1 } fnlcely number of bane adjectives the derivational adding are e. g. binckly are iononyllabio, a few that except like tauffix binckncna fnlncreuo added to one- and two-syllable faulty, leafy, healthy, holy. '-al', added to nouns and bound stem: local, physical. '-able', added to verbs viable, The above (of. good nouns and bound fatal, and bound sterna: rar. nrknblo, visible. for oases of auppletion provide atntcr: ent should goodness yell) na well as for cases where core /. 0 .. 0. ý1 _ý' (d) hopeleoa; (e) to nouns literary; ý, . , ýý '-loan', and '-full added to nouns: hopofulp uaaloaa. useful, and bound otana: climatic, '-iah', '-io', '-ary', '-ar', popular, comic; '-ouo', and legendar, rogulnr; lavish; childish, added narvdloua, pernicious. (P) '-ent' '-ive', and convenient; abhorrent, added to verbs active, (g) '-en', added to nouns: (h) '-ed', added to verbs flowered, (i) and bound atoms: native. woolen, wooden, and noune: tirad, paken. devoted; booted. '-ilig', added to verbs: interesting, revealing, pleasing. (j )' ly Derived cont. to bound added nouns and Horne oteru:: , friendly, homely. orderly, tives i) not adjectives only in being are distinguished from baae adjec- marked by derivational outfixeo, base adjectives beside use other derivational suffixes (of. (depth) fora to deep deepness deeply). nouns -ness (1) This'sdiatinguished from the homophonous adverb-forming by the fact that its stems are nouns and bound suffix stems, whereas the sterns from which adverbs nro formed are adjectives. i but with -or 'friendly'. derived 'most' and to -er is older than John is more devoted than John Jack Jack is is also, the 'moral forms Of. certain arc comparable with to the Thus parallel English adjectives. of base and derived in English adjectives to set up two major morphologithose two sub-alaoneo it , in possible of bane adjectives sub-classes of and in Arabic. adjectives Baae adjectives belong to a number of phonological the most productive (a) caacec exhibit adjectives which characteristics patterns, of base the kindest of all the most popular of all. In Arabic derived like fours forms with constructions. Jack Jack suffixed never and -oat appear adjectives in comparable arc virtually coma two-syllable for Corresponding adjectives, cal except and -cat they that by the fact also i .j+. : caaTcr of which (skilful), (charring), are: Haa: cn (firm)# raaker (thankful)s, of aKer Yanlcii (reaourcctul). (b) caccaac : Tatraan GalTaan (pcnnilaaa), (mistaken), ankraan : a9laan (drunk), (cad). 1r* (a) (d) aaaiio cciic (cow), : boTii? (stubborn), lu (gentlo). ilf (now) : jdüd cayyec (61 cuc©c (h) (1) caacc (i) caaci caci : Sarin (attentive), (empty), (bad) (1) 'cc' indicator 9 a geminated , aayy©? (bad). (naG61nS), nu%od br arr (patorna11y (coaploto), ta= , (abacnt-zxindod), shy, X91 (gancroua), danl (Croon, (, tot). (da.=aging), (potconoua) : taxi (ugly), (ploantnS), conrr uaa raaDi (j) ruTob Drarr ? axDar (hood), jayyod buio9 , (hot), kind), ( good) , (gcnorouc) xayyor , (role=), (rude),, : Einarr ant) , ? abyaD (whito). (dolicious) : **uaex (dirty) iuuoj ifio , =iiH (bluo), ? a-"re, (yollow), hayyob (bis) (nn r? 117 (thin) : ? c! z1ar (rod), ; Ttiyyob (Gonorouc), badii9 kbür , (choap), ? a.3far (f) tcariia 9untid rxii3 (o) ? accac 5 (low) k-ati (conscious)* (faithful) nrd , . consonant. (wot) rrdi g . rC ,;.! Daso wijoctivoc of possibility of dictineuiohod aro in appoarinG Exanplos comparison. tho is morn ? ana ? aTfar (I pattorn ' 7accao' in contoxtc tiro: uun? of ? aye ar mun cayca (tlaol an c udho1o by tho than n111ru1 ltalaa) nunnuk nm moro broko than you aro) 1 citaabo bu 1? iid ?oia? is clowar (Hand writing run ulkitaabo than typinG) Salm 1? Lollo london i akbar nun bam, liz (London is lare; or th i Paris) Dcrivod tho suffix adjeotivo-forming speakers aro formoll k1) zu1 octivon Examples only. fry 9ariali (practical -i from nouno by addition and are used by oducut4d cro: oxa ination) ? uxti6aa31 Tabiib docttoi (speciallood waDu9 Haali (actual situation) huauu? nafet (inner poaco) =a%..uu9 9w tti (ronantic subject) in this end n& a vowol 'drop k1j nouns vuwul bufoco -1 In auctad, o. g,, tiC.?ii? a (truth) : 1la?li? i (truo); wayiiro (1linctionalj. s Ainotionj : waZlifi of "y i' << . manner of their derived comparative adjectives can appear comparable to those form. Cf. form '? aktar' in waa? el waa? el 9aaTifi ?aktar in adjectives distribution of what two languages differs the from of which, the following but '? aocac', patter them in appear two languages comparable contexts in the other a contrastive have been However, criteria. deemed to are in in Arabic (Waal is more intelligent than Samir) (Vael is more romantic Sanir nun than Saair) on more or less established behaviour, base adjectives which ? azka nun eamiir So far, the appear the in adjectives and euporlativo cannot the with '? accac' derived to English Corresponding be adjectives the respects, point of view, general class in the most important be discussed will below. Subdivision is made on two independent (whether the positional adjective belongs). It position should in applied to English variable at or Arabic. the or not, of morphological and second, adjectives, once that things of adjectives first, - a sequence be stated mean different lines is adjective (where, are the within a particular variability according to whether Thun in the English and they variability 'i -i the to refers in relates the to relation in subject Bub-type on the the number with has the adjective its position and relative phraooo, (see of Type II other hand, has two aspects: adjective pearance sentences as to no well nominal the of p. u) and Typo VI, in head-word nominal in in sentences; '? accac' following that form). the of concord noun-phraceo, and that Thus the of variability of in gender and with comparison adjective 'kbiir' scatter: masculine feminine plural comparinon kbiir kbiire kbaar ? akbar Examples to B (see p. 5C). In Arabic eubjest head in and and -out, -or position relative adjectives, other its to relative to the the with adjectives suffixes and superlative comparative position of colligability the are: beet kbiir (a big house) jneene (a big kbiirc garden) waa? el kbiir (Wael is big) raysa kbiire (baisa is big) waa? el w aayaa kbaar (Wael and Maiaa are big) the and the (ap- 4'P r -fN vraa? o1 ?akbar saun mayaa (17ael is older than 1:aina ) layla ? rnin mayaa akbar (Uaioa to older than Laila) layln ? run maysa akbar w waalcl (Waal and Maiaa are older The above examples than show that gender the singular, and that the adjective does not show any signs ooncerna not then Laila) in appearing operates only lYaoaao' fotia in or number or gender concord. Position the in adjective position reletive the ct sub sentences to ing its (nee pp. C ff. of ctive of no predicate ktaab jdiid (a now book) luktaab jdiid (the book is new) diid luktaab the book is new) in also of its and to nominal ) follows can follow cf. but noun-phrases, its head in noun-phraoes a noun and an adjective, as predicate, position adjectives, in head when functioning Thus the uj consisting a sequence the relative only or precede and, when functionthe cubjoct, (Doc p. 9 ) 1)s The relative in sequence 'a large 'kalb in flexible extremely in back (1) in position a cc que ioo to contrast Iln. J ice. the Where English and white hunting iv adjcativoo position of requiroo uo to Arabic dog' 'kalb and ?asvrad w ?abyaD' Seed kbiir of adjootivoo nay both nllowo Good ?aowad kbiir'. ? abyaD tr i! mlicntiona Contraative the light In it adjectives, is the native facing in of the speaker of forms behaviour to predict possible The problems English. of En.. iah and Arabic above facts of Arabic a number of problems in connection from result the partially as adjectives classified with in adjectives different the two languages. Variability Under relates terms to this while English (uninflected), Arabic of conflict versus has a three-term has a two-term comparison (-er form), system, first in adjectives in of concord The second refers adjectives. comparative absence the arise: of Arabic variability of number and gender case (1) two points the concordial of English form), term to the labelled fact that positive (. ant and superlative an uninflected the form and 'Seed' is not considered but a noun forming an adjective 'hunting' the in just preceding noun, with no a construct 'hunting dog' is to be considered a noun forming a noun. compound with the following t'J t, comparetive one, '? eccac', where English uses both forms. Cf. the cornnrntivo the comparntive than biy con is cleverer ?ubni ? azka tun ?ubnnk habits mistakes of Arabic The reds Mistakes to English are strongs. have flowers reflecting superlative the eines transfer reflecting adjectives }»y friends the and uood yours boy in Ltq son is the cleverest ?ubni ?azka walad bu SSaff Attested being fore been ooncordinl include: cut. in conflict of contexts of comparison ore: 0 The aeroplane judged that QI is faster means of travel. he is better therefore. of all Position Conflict distribution of the points: the classes relative adjectives. adjectives first relates of characteristics other from arising in the of differences in languages involves in the to to the different of class different position positional structures; the adjective the in two distributional in adjectives the to relation second concerns a sequence of ý'J in in adjective English will bought ® My father 0 Hot the tea which the translate ?abi Ataraali following the produce the subject characteriatica to or precede ai©takea: atteoted new me a suit Arabic in noun noun-head of there Transfer sentences. nominal ito follow as predicate, has been shown it point, follows in Arabic and can, phrases firnt the with connection the that r9 .J sentences jdiide badle auxun uksaay the Regarding of adjectives of Syrian English in adjuncts. fixed order as opposed variant (cf. to old based terns of relative on the long for problem is not speaker order of to the subject English. use of adjectives both the case a red woollen jumper, 'a long winter', winter'), cold it of etc) freely fixed of adjectives in the noun-head. have been recognised, as of and sub-types behaviour to charactorietice sequential recognise (cf. contrastive proximity the the lady, transposability order sequence-classes to to necessary 'a cold with a major in apply a dear positional one another operative Such restrictions is constitute to relation of restrictions It the point, in whose language Arabic. adjectives kind in second is Once the possible to q. Pw set up a eyetem the facto Part of co-occurrence. of the appears difficulty to be a sequence for include: which '(a) '(a) Ives shown by in, the marks (more charming) Moreover, the '(a) silly of adjectival old (not as 'very', fool', house'. Other group, lady before the 'extremely' 'dear old'; the the noun criteria superlative cf. never second also In the discussion of the facts of I have drawn freely on Mitchell's Types', op. cit. of I've is (1) type adjoct- of with form ® older) young dirty these 'rehoval' and the nice possibilities comparative of of baby', '(a) of juxtaposition identity phrasal '(a) collocational the of the boy', status the examples little the sequence may be called sweet old as to uninterpolability such adverbs big 'compound' Georgian inadmissibility final fine as well little pretty '(a) immediate from '(a) lady', limited the compounds, the for The to partly 'a nan', etc. such say, include of old adjective second er nasty relates old house', blighter', little dear little pretty ran', '(a) which couapounda, such of some- what adjectives in what example, class that separate compounding, adjectival 'meliorative-pejorative' two of otato classification fact the to which positional to relates Consider, determined. the of English fact within oub-typen in in illustrate is of phrasal of adjectives times U ., 'a sweet- mat'. adjective relevant to contrast, sequence of adjectives 'Some English Phrasal (4 'I for example, a very 'he'n nay, with, the 'it's tively, Examples like 'an with the type tain of an adjective position immediately however, that to relates the contrastive noun. ordor of type 'as of is which It that is they Africa' illustrate the conthe occupy noteworthy. be compared to sun' 'an African-hot (in) as hot African in lady' the preceding or, must generally which origin, ) etc. 'a hot old prodica- occur sun' the with to appropriate contexts. other The following a class of brown 'coarse to adjectives examples 'silk origin, of the 'stone scarf', finement in porating in the usually 'heavy sacking', of cf. regarded class red 'the 'glass of the need to recognise little curtains'. English green extensibility wall', statement a special '(a) adjectives: colour Consideration plex 'a dear of a phrasal but, Roman coin', old type periphrastic (and, Fi- invertible. do not sequences a co-ordinator face', bad-tempered freely are house' little vary) very of which elements even with contrast also ugly, moat ouch adjectival nally, (® pretty a very got adjectival 1 of beads' facts (silk, These 'give stone, way' countryside'. to further sequence. as an adjective-noun of forma hat', such complexes leads of black re- The com- sequence glass, an incor) etc. n' the Such a to material©. relating ciated. does not behave wholly should The examples as a means of the illustrate of often are summer', 'a large black the and are type distinguish 1. (a) 2. (an) 3. (a) 4. (an) 6. (a) See , all of freely dear old old little black English Indian long silk jagged forma, the hat old ('neutral' little acarf(ad (adj. j. matter is necessary we may differentiate thus ('neutral' fields of but (water): (iiellorativo-pojorative Roman coin which as 'hot-and-cold it such. 'a dry in least not sub-types; lady examples cf. determination, sequential relation- adjectival co-ordinators, distinguished, doter- winter' cold transposable with ocarf'. sequences with and 'a long face' a number of within positional mutual pro- silk oequcutial 'places' In take Indian exhibit such compound forms green 5. the oboe adjectives. forma They contract associated from juncture, within to material elements. case of other noun, no fur for accounting bad-tempered as 'an ugly cold of. considered of adjectival which the acco- are the material that manner of and the need to recognise mination ship the on principally ouch conp1oxoo however, to othere, all over cedence in of proximity matter which be noted, lt the with streou of patterns (1) view relieo type) + adj. + uda. colour of origin of + adj. + material origin) of colour)' of or forts) (which illuatatea a strongly to place shorter uarkkd tendency (unually forma first' monooyllabic) in adjectival oequencen) op. ti. t. c pp. and cf. his example , the ten fine old atone houses. scarf fn! I: n n" u F. '.1 If we take and coLipare ? ea'aarb ? eAaarb ? e9aarb ? esaaru ? eiaarb in as in adjectival nector 'w' 'a large example followi.. the in with English. colloquial forms in Arabic (and) normally facing the lassen .. It should S glish, is Indian ocarf' silk in Arabic iiariir Hariir hindi ?aswad ? aswtd difficulties enormous black g pocnibilitioo kuiir ? aawad hindi ? aswaa kbiir riin. di ?aswad kbiir Liariir kblir Hariir uindi hindi kbiir Hariir connection determination that, with the we realize Ar.. uic it the exuibiting perhaps a sequence comparatively separating speakers of sequential be nentiuned of more than rare, the ouch sequences. two con- (. ' rJ ýý V Chapter Two Phrasen Verbal (1) Simple in oentenceo of essentially En,glich a noun phraae'and one, noun phrases in English with noun phrases in Arabic. in English their considered Arabic In tense, and voice, possible ly am, are, is, in chapter phrase. and contracted following, verb phrases what may be with English in of which be' 'to verb is being, were, terms of are still number, por©on, The formal cumulate. differentiated raxinally was, In the variable exponents (the forms a verb counterparts. is of a typical scatter be, form conoint and contrasted A. Verb phrneen The verbal to were discussed be examined will have been found verb further been). five given differentiated: These are traditional-, named as follows: Simple Third zero, form Past tense Past participle -a, fora participle easier -ing, drives, : driving, : drove, form reference -ed, : drive, fora: singular person Present For form or unmodified -on : driven, the fora forma will respectively. ©ing, go, goes, singe, singing, ate, sung, ©peak; going, wont, gone, be referred speaks; apeaking; spoke; spoken. to ass 'x 11 /v Verb phrases to what 'full verbal, terms general of periphrastic logy not the one of in statable in auxiliaries) a system termino- of which classification used conveniently in (see table on page). in It 'primary', forms), and -ea liaries have did). which be (on, had), to, used to, of have no -s, forms. are, dare, auxi-ed, -ing, -s, or -ing -en, The primary is, auxi- were), was, include: The modal auxiliaries ought (zero, scatter have no -ed (has, need, must, 'modal' and the and most of which do (does, full with forms, are: two sub-classes to distinguish poosible the liaries: Auxiliarien and 'Modal' 'Primary' might, the is and voice of aspect following in forms, a cloned (othorwico i. e. verbal, of the that reference verbs' whose distribution than with only 'lexical 'true verbs', lexicon, the in thousands less 'free describable with combined are which are known as auxiliarioo, traditionally are of verbs English in can, could, should, shall, and may, will, and would. Have and be enter (have voice -en: + -en: passive). simple caking). (to ask), into verbal The infinitive and passive forces of be + -ing: continuative; (to + zero fora) fora perfective; perfective conotructionn (to (to have asked), be asked). aupoct be + occurn continuative Loroover, and in (to perfective, be j «ý. 1'VZJ-CC1i ASPECT V: :: NON-FI1aTr. S 17L (J SS:)ed (ASK) AAK)ed been (Af'K)aI (I i2 PH I'A Pit lexical verb flections --ero/ -c -ed, etc. Xx xxxxxx 'general' do/ did xx xxxxxx auxiliary rtoes }'A PA #i Mi\it 1Vfs S'ký3i,: i; Gii-P'rýtFi: CTIý'i: ý"ä Vý: be iý}: iýTSV'i: N IVi: hoTIY}; have PA FO! PR r, rr PR Tc3; SE F'I? 111 2ºWJ-Piir7CTIYF PA IV}: ACTIVE be zero AUD VOICE ItIFINITIVAL I2ºFINITIVt1. 1;ß'J-FI? tITE EL,U-"t. I`S 1ý; cc. TY. (have) being (A: )ed +`S': K)ine Won (w: Phi been taro, (A)# )tn ! ! 'A i`: xX X Y. xk XX X t ct PR PA iJý VA Y'SS (a) (i) (ii) (b) xx and aspectival voice auxiliaries " ............................ 3: OMI, ...... ..... AUXI chat LIARIt " e: 06 PR PA present past am/ in/ are "....... . "... "....... (could/ chou1d/viil/would/ca (/needfdare/uued had hzve/ had hat; was/ hav bat wer to) Cf infinitival ... " """ ".... art/ in are /might/cUnt/OUrht periphrasin) Vag./ war, * =1 ir, / are 0060900000 "..... to have/ Van/ Geore had ".. "". hav hza had ""... " """... ha4 .. """" ný ý aýý and passive continuative, being When they naked). (have mark perfective they In other to the the words first a discontinuous discontinuous be; after morpheme; complex -en of have the the order: then comes the in the to of the con- on). constitute a continuative element characterized following the attachoo have -an attaches to (be +- perfective component -LE paenive suffixed the have boon a fixed passive no that similarly and finally and a component by the component -en element follow comes firnt; + -en) (be + followed g) -in, tinuative lowing do, (to no in can co-occur, fol. by be element. Thun have can we V-3 V-2 V-1 have been being (ASK)ed be beim, (ASK)ed I have x been x (ASE)ing be x (ASK)ing to where verb, lexical V, ...., have X have x I I % I been respectively. (ASK)ed (ASK)ed X be unaarkea, , _____ continuative, perfective, verb v (ASK)ed X (ASK) and cape represent passive, and instances lexical of #. total sub j oct and Is 'have' 'thoy the or in, 'han John Sono ?' 'they e-& in (a) finit the A loxicol auxiliary. o forms (b) non-tinito vorb torus of in : ask, but (a) of ouxiliarioo finito formst havo, do, (b) 4vo) tho In. addition aunt bo recosnizod, follows: an too, to In. anyp form of coapriooc: has, does, catogoM. oa of so that 16 for (continua- anking (pcrfootivo) askod . vorb boing, to 'John, co, infinitival aukod , for. -.,a : havo, non-finite 'have' (infinitivo), s aok foray catogory aakod asks, (pa Tho Sore; the 'ASK' ao tivo) 'primary' a ooabincl a finite different vorb by pot onti al or corm Iliac, , co. , in have Bono', must have Bono' a noun or with tho Thun tho t onu o--porson-nunbor. of han cono' to in oxproaciblo agrooaont actual colligatos linkod Ltd forsxa in and non-tinito form A finito scattor. pronoun flnito inoludoa A vorb ,1 phrano had, tja, oo=prißo: aro, ýUa, in, woro, did. ho (continuativo) bo (panoivo) . bam. anpoct and voloo, zit typos aro two d.tatiu. tcncon sulchablo ^'1 Present Pnnt 'renne Tenne Sim I ask I naked Perfective I have asked I had naked Continuative I am asking I wan asking Passive I am asked I wan naked &Cont. I have been asking I had boon asking &Pas. I have been asked I had been naked Cont. &Pas. I am being I wan being perf. &Cont. as. I have been being perf. perf. In the that liary, Having English cues the of verb foam of verbal carries outlined (modal the all in Arabic phrase, marks the of possible of these is types foraa. appropriate it above, lexical whether tense excepted), auxiliaries distribution forms the naked I had been being asked asked 16 formal or any of the all firmt asked io always or auxi- and person. forma of verbs it necessary is But first at this in to a oketch stage. din- 4'.. S. r .. .I C. B. Verb to English Corresponding up a word-class in terms bility in Arabic leads Arabic is number, a typical to the recognition 3Sg. person p1ura1 ý p2rd ersoa 1st 'ers. Ste' P1ura1 Lase. Fez. (S ingu1 (P 1ura1 ar The these (1) -u katabt katabti katabtu -t - katabt katabna (Pr., Suf. above tabulated may be of possible'to set characterized by varia- tense, and aspect. voice, of related of three systems verbal of affixes. (2) Affixes Pr. SSU. 4Masc. katab. katbet (Pea. katabu is scatter (1) Scatter it verbs, which of person, An examination-of forms in phrases JS et (3) Pr. yuktob tuktob yuuktbu ytyu ti tu tuktob tuktbi tuktbu tti tu t na ?uktob nuktob ?n0_ prefix, affixes dif. ferent suffix; are radical Scatter Affixes Scatter coon Affixes Su r. S. Il ktoob ktubi ktubu zero to all (1) patterns; -` -i -u suffix) verbs, cS. katab though (he wrote; A It is characteristic forms the great that of all of Arabic majority of words are built of three consoon a framework By ringing the changes with nants. affixes, and vowel differences is possible to obtain on a given base it a great forms. variety of related Thus the base k-t-b gives us the tabulated (clerk, series above as well I as: kaateb writer), (letter), (library), maktuub maktabe maktab (office), etc. The base k-t-b in the examples is called the root, and each consonant See T. F. Mitchell, of the root 'Col-' a radical. loquial Arabic', The English Universities Press Ltd., London, 1962, p. 36. nAin +... . has the which and mii of the of loved) in affixes, threw) , {herd a rýeeond of has the (1) with aamo con- , (2) , and (3) may be divided forms and imperative imperfect, thou. botwoon and no vowels .a verbal (he rama place which , colligability perfect, groups: g and i radI0 their systems above three into and third bass a of On_ the (ho änd ffabb as second sonant have which walked), aonnonant, radical throe-radical favourite (he (1) pattern, r©spee- tivo1y: is It noticeable discontinuous other not only of forms relates is (1) the the }ioreover, three affixation hand, in to imperative of constitute differa the persons operative in. the second from formal its for contain both but shape affixal also it is and the person. by On the suffixes the number The imperative to necessary all recognize Qendor imperfect. of singular in only. and imperfect perfect scatter, whereas perfect distinguished and suffixes. prefixes and imperative only, both is imperfect with one person throe groups forum, is which not Arabic verbal A morphological account of description, this should in primarily syntactic concern our different the description detailed vowollings of envisage a forma. the different the in verbal of scatters obtaining See also (2) perfect respect that the that 2-iitchell, opo cit., to voice Affixes relating for presentation. easier pp. have They 28 ff. been will left out be taken for the moment up below, p. zcs n! F. and additionally groups; all nuaber, b, 2, below. of numbor, .. 1 person of the singular no distinction. exhibit und plural, singular firnt two of gender; are distinguishod persons. Imperfect both third persons forms first t, ro categories for the in 4 of verbs which and thud. and zero, colligate precede contribute the with the to contrastive two other prefixes =other of person, system distribution prefixes, which of b and gender, conciats which is und of givon C'i r' E. . ) (2 Distribution discussion the in English and Arabic, English are equated in. Arabic. forms distribution which rable, Thus uages. sent when associated verbs the is what yet and to speakers of the attested assumed English together with with. a view as well following, to what revealing as contrastive the mistakes simple Arabic past of English there forms. equated between the are The two lang- reflected in generalized of Arabic characteristics is and Arabic by the explainable pre- of since which compa- among lang- of English problems, the forms simple the roughly the etc., a conflict forms counterparts. English are b, distribution distributional to imperfect in verb since true equate the Arabic, only hold to to certain problems, best at between teaching of In. the in constitute transfer their prefix forms is in forms verb with Arabic tend with the certain expect Arabic contrastive create an aoundance forms one would of that of forms of verb many learning comparability bound to uages by perfect of comparable, is assumed verbs with the forms is equated English of range a wide it speakers form with the lie r'orms distribution of Herein of Finite Comparable of verbal deemed to This will of be considered will be comparable features similar ones. forms forms in Aracic, distribution be followed by a con- "a h. the of sld©ration. problems involved mistakes reflecting betweento be take will the contrastive Is It to convenient be quoted feature concerned. in and related The prooedum than with Arabic. take the first (present forms simple subcoquontly. constructions und voice and aspectival . ahd past) 1. form comparable nearest distribution, ono by ono and conparo forms Eaglich Attested of will forms and Arabic particular features contrastive teaching and the dicout3eod. form verbal each the Elish the implications contrastive in. .: forms simple a) pros ent The distribution. in considered is least the situation; a, story (1) if plot, including two to quote signalled from elsewhere eternal the with in the and the simple in present o 'The any chronolo. sentence elements, directions in, stage and past, Twaddell' by adverbial repeated headlines. forms best is simple compatible no signalled immutable the three is form present forms: "It indefinitely instructions; ritual since, 1 overtly future simple Of the forms. marked, meaning situation: or to relation. Verb) Auxiliaries', English gical of continuous present the summaries " 'The F22glish Verb Auxiliaries', Brown W. F. Twaddell, (Providence. Rhode 196o Island) Press, University or context and of ''a the Within is usually not (e. g. ration. not the is simple present ration. Cf. The to of sentences. simple He dies in with He goes ? Thus we cannot present tion. or yesterday, distributional its statements (1) op. last '0I does the than p. 104. the otc. ) in true, does of the of weekly, orten, always). simple present fact basis implies gone. simple repoti. adverbiale formal in have with the howe- you believe he should distribution constitutes that not forms yeaterdo hold 'Would later day, negativ© year, present days overy c simple present simple two the the go there Cf. grammarians cit., yesterday, time. characteflytic by simple past of whoro tho A further of associability (e. g. of of statement statement ' now. problem of contemporary one. have where adverbials permanence Sweet, This context, to (e, & time A more positive relates a negative past it succeed. ' unassociability yesterday'. a narrative associate the du. have we cannot distribution the present respect sentences, adverbials shan't as to some measure adverbials with. with this a difficult solve In. complex now, I statement relates statement it in however, I try Thus simple contemporary of and in moment), to can associate 'If forms continuous. me. I try the sentences, adverbial present present case, above is present ver the disturb ® Don't with at the now, simple of associated with contrasts. This framework -j This for thst ' C-4 f7 ýy is a statement (the time (he gets It in usually as well, I could when cigars continuous Cf. 'He's is getting Examples associate the I smoke twenty He travels 6 every in forms. Further present be seen within can Thus the which etc. week, may be called ) can associate to=morrow, and the the present with the past get up early. be looked of year, the of the simple simple present mostly come, travel, of upon as a contexts. verbs, (go, adverbiale following are: cannot certain verbs type. summer. defined of above nowadays'. characteristics motive the simple of the establishment more narrowly simple of day. facts for criterion the with forms every early often of master associability property adverbiale present The above distributional kind the sole morning cigarettes go to sleep him weekly. that the not with simple very or recurrent Cf. 'I always smoked sentences. to buy them. ' Moreover, the precent afford up at of morning), can associate complex can also I always They pay these since or phenome- an action every however, out, of permanence present, six all a year). be pointed should adverbiale simple up at Germany twice (he goes to or that east), good for and holds application,, the in sun rises habitual is non of of general V wr future ), etc. time e. g. those arrive, (e. g. next fly, C'.0 to-morrow. to Paria He flies to London The Prime Minister returns takes The airplane off in on hour. C f. also, his He roads paper week. next The committees meet to-morrow begin. next month. Elootions The simple form of all of future adverbiale clauses. adverbial time to verbs Examples the study can also in. complex all will be over. simple present Further characteristics where Some of the forl3s" ore those connected it of is with the freely to verbs the mostly sentences, talk before I'll I leav, arrive he talk to him until -apologizes. cases. with associate f they I won't those pro jagt. in are: When you wake up to-morrow, j. to-night. variant with which this senses to thoa. can be noon the present characteristic (see, hear, perfect applies ). etc. DUMPles a©: (I've have gone up lately. heard) prices hear i (has told tells friend no) ... stories me My who writes _ (I've found) the film you told no about vary amusing. find I The the simple simple prßaeat' past g. e. , present form in. narrative occurs contexts, also in tho Sroo variation, so-called 'historic with so They dien, When behold, men coming. the English thron of one Boas on ... Away runs the Biglish sen.... the in Walking and fires. of the with forest, he sees a tiger, of demonstration, In. situations freely But marls the and. offers. The nothor is married again, and has a Pont uto. rorused all the father present the staple fora, continuative on television, an eye operation. he taken aim, present oun vary Thus in. a deaonstxutioa (an romove :I strange, tho ronoving) Cornea. Moreover, hate, love, (©. s. fora where verbs associated believe, öther with connected verbs fear) in appear ndverbials of states with may appear the First likes 1. she likes nobody. al )Distribution b- Imperfect in. the simple or (in SSubuH latl events the (every yoom form. present with like: day), Thus 9aadatan bu heel etc. that; on procent i. o. when Exai pleo aro: out to be rigIt turn us. right now oh© b+imnerfect Arabic in of Exaaples night), are: l or vorbs they sentences recurrent (habitually) (at to Dngliah genoral im simple advorbials horning), duration. she likes correspond' verbß associated regularly states of aiaplo form, He'd better he-may hate and them this in the continuative contemporary him. For the moment I believe He loves us now, but to-morrow of mind or dispociti are habitual daaytnon ? allyaanan (always) 9 (soa©tiaos), cý +`, ,ý tiýý w bidallilu 9aadatan SSabi ? aktar nun ulbunt (They usually boy more than the spoil_tho ana. daa? laan. 7 (i always bnaam bakki. ir sleep early) ? akle nnaas byaaklu (People eat a light xafiifo meal in bu SSeef ljaww byubrod (In. the summer it Seta waa? ei byuktob. (Waal writes They also both time, includo: höurj an S eut his occur kul with a4verbials and complex (to-morrow) (next (later) with tutur© The advorbials v ba9d Exsýploa saa9a (in Of sinplo byutxarra letter) lj aaye j us suno graduate will neat ba9d saa9&- byu9111nu nnataa? oj (They will announce the results Moreover-; parallel. inporfect I. n Eiglish, E%amples assoclatod are: (My brother 'historic day) yoaý) , etc. bukra. bub9at ulasktuub. (To-morrow I'll send the y axi night) sentences. ba9deen l the yoom homework every l jaaye ssuno , enC öS SSubuH the morning) bu lleel cold during waZiifto in. simple bukra girl) present', are: to the b-verbs and in year) in. an hour) use of the can be used situations of simplo in the present so-ca11©d "demonstration". form n0f-, 7 1., bu iHaara kann 9alaayuddiin yul9ab yoom mag rufa? aato. b ýs? nlo 9an ? uamo bi; uufo waaHed sacHer, .... Used to play in the ctroot Aladin One with his frionda. day a magician He asko him about his name,,, ) sees him. tr San. sutt b bi5cmmom ? saa u1? ulHusun. ami w anno ... yu C ubha. (The pribe hears of Sit Aihuen and dooides to aak for her hand. ) In. a doaonätration (l) of theorem: a.. gooaetry boo daal DDulu9 jiin 9anuud 9a uzzaawyo mum mýunnazzol (wo draw a perpendicular from cnglo (b) to tho baßo (a-c) In the is variation however, 1.1i) imperfect verbs extend learning (1) clear with to simple all d©monotration of adverbials forma. by tho alias lank the (©. g, forma perfect with inter context, Bath c typ©. earlier Implications from b-verbs in. the and not are characterized Contrastiy© is It draw) are frooly ' periphrastic may be called what association. potential not with But in. the forms. b-verba imperfect examples, : we shall unnazzel types, two perfect with variant rail first different the in. Arabi present cases, examples generally fora. and this above given conparablo with is bound to Eilich howovor, Comparability, bring that does about problems. Morphophonemic al. t ©rnunt s of b include first the person plural prefix contains /ni/ loon /n/. the verb ) n 0- ;.) J 1. ß"I Thus f©ot forms time, the in Arabic of verbs are return, set Arabic, however, verbs giglich future or simple in the reports, we cannot in only is have sail, form such to in. Eagli arrive, the Cr., or only 'Frog 'he takes now on:-ho 2 hours can associate contextual distribution: of with future when. associated of a comparable a conflict on_ his imposed The restriction restriction. between the two with e. g. in. nowepapor imporfect with adverbials style. any particular exam to-morrow', (father's a night' future ah: his sloops case of of 0 The police are much stricter with bad drivers bout your money. ® Don't I pay you next worry however, time MSor©over, while styles, restricted not future In two a small advorbials sentoncos. certain of with the in only of otc. futuro of come, go, leave, present association in_ Arabic b-verbs simple English, of can appear and complex advorbials adverbiale embark, verbs all cdverbials rrdio Thus in case These include: off, and b+inpor- Dhglich so acsooiabio with associated take off, the in with verb-class In sentences. both the of forms present compatible are different. is in. simple time simple membership languages number both while ' oi",n, in 'In in future. week. a roportaso; rutur© ho studios ©dict). on. the verbs membership in. the adverblals, on imperfect languages. simple and on. the present as. opposed b-verbs, The ignoring to fora absence constitutes of such R i.. by speakoru rostrictionts Jý of Arabic in. tho rosultc following ii at ckeG: later. ®I explain. everything 0 Thero' a no time; we diccuas b-verbs Imp©rfect The behaviour quenc© under ac3itencoa b-verbs in complex forces in present of Arabic two hoadinga: oomparabl© und English 1. Conditional contoncos forma contoxts may be 2. So- Sontcncos; Sentences conditional main- clause whether the or perfect 2. ?iza (If the verb in the form, conditional this pencil, appear in the clauco is in e. g. ha 1? olt aaa buttriilak this I. wouldn t pencil, buDDat rag ha 1? alas you_loso b-verbs imperfect sentences b+inperfect ? iza Dawwa9t (If you-lost (1) siapl© next of Tenses. Conditional In of The behaviour in- English. contrasted in_ complex of imperfect from that differs the details) (1) week. Gooro buy you another aaa buhriilak Gooro won't you onothor I buy ono) ono) far that this is be as the mistake as It pointed out a should (of 'Wo details discuss the But our aortgago) goes. Context Perhaps is sentence perfectly good olsowhoro. a. next week' "now" but between the is week", the reason and "next contrast bo before is can. a-dofinit© anowor necessary more research given. n 0- f" IAV It in will two the cases the the the main situation, English requires and the which the is in simple the past forms appears in form respectively of the English to be expected in the learning following mistakes: ? iza telfant ulmasa maa butlnn? iini ?awa9iik ? iza wassaxt ? atle btaakol lxayaar buxtanr ? iza 9aTuuni ulHumur btu? der tuHjez ? iza ruHut bakkiir rzaHallnat Sequence obtaining the of verb verbs iiHa them noun is necessary and the clauses and the to verbs in the the describe relationships main clause, and Arabic. English it English, operating yield in verbs between In it heading, this of both me Tenses of behaviour in English Arabic, reflect Under of majority in the evening If you telephoned you do-not-find be smacked if you dirtied " You will your clothes I choose the red oneo. " If they gave the choice, @ If you went early, you can book good seats. which the before equation generalized forms., b-form a modal Now since and to perfect imperfect explains same imperfect form a mechanically Arabic the clause. present to b+ Arabic, with in simple correspond in where sentences, verb primary that be noticed is in different necessary the main to clause, relationships. redivide since also according different typos to ný n FJ .iJ Genorally speaking by a present can. be followed fora a pros ont in tho o laus o main form in. tho noun clause, or paßt ©" 6O to-morrow. He ea ye he cam go to school He nays he went to school y©ct©rday On. the usually, tho other though form in. the hand a past not uniformly, noun. clause, by a past followod in the especially in main clause fora in. 'Reported so-called Speech', e. g. He said he had often, done it said to see He quite went -them -ho to this behaviour different the only I the verb although (1) appears had my lunch verbs. verb in (think, the example, a noun clause whether case the latter in past about in_ the noun- clause the the for verb the Cf. fora). perfect in at school. I. had. known other can occur (in 'wish', With in the to consider necessary verbs. certain of a verb no=ally d wish With of or pant present noun. clause I`I fora past is 'wish' statement general is it often. it thou. say, to appear malm clause in is is it believe) the po.Bnibl© simple in. the past for present, (1) corm, o. g. "This torus follows: in notional as This -is often oxprossed do-is it if is howev©r, not obsorvod often fixed sequence, . habitual, to repreaont conething as customary, characsired ", Curao, true. PP-354-5o; Olt, op. univorsally as teristics or fl He ask©d the .r guard what He told me that Mary is pings -boautii idly. on, the In- Arabic, in can. appear is clause ? ultullo told .I ? ultullo told .I which starts. whether verb, in. the noun olauao the the main. ocot&ing in form, or perfect in verb e. 6. biikra bruu him i. o to-morrow) ruHut nbaareH him, yesterday) went .I sentences of possibilitieo in Arabic for is terns verb, and Fhglish by an abundance reflected can be accounted of forma constitutes Of attested a hhis difforence, him from that I I ® ... can profit saw and QI hoped that I Mini Sh b ofor© ho c_. which reflect and at ing. nettles the worko hard, §uu ba mel kul yoon dray) does every what _he . Auu ba mel kul yoom day) did he every what The different is train diligont, head, form b-imperfect in: the b-imperfect ba9ref know . -I grufut knew -I. complex other the quite know that seem to Ho . didn't time Arabic, W tuft ? anno bu? der ? uatfiiid aunno L byul! buxlo t,? ? . cLmmajt unno ,?. abulma a conflict, rzi at ak©a which e. g. C 1'". 1 17 i. j , The 1.1 Contrasted simple past. (except in in ways sounds, lar the case the after the other different widely a closed class every -- (1) an. open class other (1) verbs, of voiceless which past week, once, day, often. is or volood This is the r©gu. have clasp, and as they bringt think; catch; t©ach; oreop: oropt sloep; slept leap ; leapt moan : meant indefinite Ecnaples a norphomo' form e. g. compatible previously; and the adds after a closed formation, past vorbo sounds. form principal prosent /d/ plosivos, two are tho or nuabor pornon. wimple of is vorbo of for There tho burl : burnt learnt learn; dwoll; dwolt send : sent (a), (definite bo'). b©twoen can. be listod, The simple last 'to alveolar kinds say : said fled flee; heard hear; sold sell! time verb of can be ctat©d: after form proaont shows no variation relation /t/ and type; English simplo fora This /id/ as realized tho with which past simple Past in Simple and 1v©rbials c with (b) (2) ) such of an: rop©titl. of brought thought o uu ht muht (1) pant yoat orday, on such nn: are: 6 'strong' inj verbs is troatod Verh inflection of the co-called two major works : ' MFli sh Verb Inflection' Lunguago, 1. Bernard Bloch, , V. 23 (1947)9 pp"399-118 'Tho EißUch 2. Alphonse Juillsrd and James t,;uerio, Verb System' , (Janu a Lingua rum XXI V) ;' c-Gravenhago: 1962*, A.. (1) ('a) He played Columbus (h) (2) in. discovered faro, I have angry pnoriaz 40o yoara than more but I cannot remember ) faro... coon, this in. &on©ral, past, compatibility of with the with indicators present whoro ago. and money. of sinplo below) In the with prosont time; past matter and indefinite that clear ample of in, the forms past it giv©= adverbials definite both. use contrasts (see for exaaplec with perfect of asked the covor From the sentences. in: matters I whenever statements above simple of und ansociation time. past Cf. saw him recently I I have I saw him 8I him recently seen yesterday have seen. him yesterday. distributional For further form, Tuesday fly mother always vent to Switzerland for hor holidaya. Last year I walked to my office every day. simple the last golf I saw this whon. (cf. He got The ,r it is to necessary of tho statements g9 beyond simple cinp10 past to soantencea, complex sentences. past To the general clause subordinate form past added if forms Simple that only, if the with in _complex descriptive statement of a complex verb, in certain- supposing, sentences I'd the sentence main clause verbs (wish) rather, it' that tends is and with c (hi8h) in a verb, to it other time in appear past, the should forms ) the verb the be (as in if, hJ tho clause subordinate in the verb in must appoar to main- clause in the tho form. present that I was so tired I could not move. fie wrote clearly so that I might got his They asked him if he know. anything about I wish I had another. Supposing you lost, what would (high) time I went home. It's From the equate the the time. the past as well simple This form past is The fat that with , conpatibl4- the vorh, with appear with we cannot past time clauses all whore of advorbials present e. g. the letter your seats with clauses conditional can letter. the matter. that seems clear of the Examploo are: you do 7 shown. In conditional verb time, if you posted If you booked Show. fora also the of as future C it above examples ovon whoa tho past now, it would get there to-morrow, you wouldn't past adv©rbiccls (wish, forma certain- form of does past as ir, not timo associate, has by Tuosday. miss the ©to. ) and in or is not an intorocting co. C. rollary. A. If only I knew the result now. I wish I. had some cash on ne. it now, I would have to If I bought B. If only I had known I wish (wished) If I had bought in. cash. the result pay in each. then. I hbd had some cash on no then. it yesterday, I would have had to pay 4 '-I ". of A comparison the texts rary duration only the past time. but verbs the past, with form is of syntagmatic it would in of compatible to & 'would', related present in wherein present and past forms are mutually I wish I could go. Perfect Verbs bl) 1. Verbs to though in not the the is verbs can of past terday), xamples . simple in treat 'can' 'may' & 'sight' & structures cf. go he could in. Arabic in. English, mun saa9teen form perfect definite as come. Arabic form past between exclusive; could of correspond, and are in general, deemed comparable, in. distribution. in. the time, I He thought perfect identical, Thus verbs tore go certain I' d hoped and that adverbiale limited forms I contempo- obtaining and past I hope of with relations 'will' above con- time, past be justifiable & 'should', the adverbiale adverbiale with not kind 'shall' 'could', compatible perfective past From the in is form past B shows that set A and set are or indefinite, (two hours ago), with associated like: marra mbaareH (once), are: badii9a gala jum9a Hafle mun n9azamt (I was invited to a smashing party a week ago) etc. indica. (yes- "9fN ýJ mbaaro} bu ttalifoon: to him on tho phono Haakooto (I talked yor-t orday) 911d miilaad gurnroma Hada 9uraulli Haflot (Nobody has over gWcn mo a birthday party) is This of the of Arabic below be discussed 1. . While bj perfect sentences) to (unlike E)iglish that indicators with Say in of form perfect in past of Ehglich was touchod which, tho of aspects 'Contrastive cimplo divorgonoo will inplications'. implications Contrastivo forms simple some of Other comparability tho distribution.. the with tho with the divergence, forms. under verbs rosp©cts, distributional and b-inporfect present English of other in. connection on_ earlier in In verbs. a vast simple form past simple shows as ono can go in. showing as far in simple Arabic past forms) repetition. in correspond forces they in do not Thus while genoral. they lish, ii is differ associate nor=ally it (in possible to 01ß1i13h, In the past men. frequently When I was young, my father on Sunday. Arabic requires the auxiliary in. comparable the verb ted in. Arabic follows: as contexts. duels. fought gave me my pocket always 'kann' The + the above inporroat examples fora are money of troncla- q%4- Pl w')3 ktiir. utbaarazu yaVH-lnl xarjiyyti kaanu nnaas mun zamaan lamma kunt zGiir Haan Thus in i. e. in English, 'kaan' repetition he considers to use what tend would of past a context 'was' of Arabic a speaker be an equivalent of and say or write: ® She was take her dog for ®I was play football very which to yoom ul? aiiad he died. a walk every day before well when I was at school. Arabic reflect kaanet taaxod kalbha mulwaar kul yoom ?abulma mast. kunt ?ul9ab futbool mniiH lemma kunt bu lmadraoe. seems then It cult bials with to since fect. the associate of repetition, the it. is in in form the will in i. e. the comparable is 'used form, to', more readily with 'kaan' diffi- with readily perfect The form above context, English they which it find adverassociate is not which is learned, + the inper- Cf. buddo lay) (23 to play) yul9ab (he wants (2) the in Arabic, some respect (1) kaan yul9ab (he used to (1) forms past simple such adverbiale. with variant of Arabic speakers since past simple compatible freely that to the past continuous This form also corresponds form in though 'kaan San yul9ab' is far more common in this English, tu below See 27a pp. case. See pp. Z$7(infinitive vs. zero + imperfect) V. S Contrastive implications The distribution as regards and other verbs the the simple In, the perfect the time, in in verb the of main points of thou conflict verbs d©pondont clauses in complex oont©nc©s, tho with clause time in Mglinh. and, in (if) 1©aa oi'ton, b+ in vorbu 'tiza' partialo appearing Saar li butfii? to-night 9aa? el ba9Tiik you behaved ? iza botwocn past imperfect are: ? a9adut (if complex botwocn future ? iza num.it bakkiir ulleolo (If you went to bed early in the corning) ? iza offers of associating indicators Examples form. in obtaining in clauses Arabic with can. appear form Sentences conditional form in. porfoct obtainiZjing forms and other Conditional nentonooo clauses relationships past complex relationships dependent in corresponding with vorbs of aantencea in furSa buaro? jdiid. ? alas I youralof uSSubuH nazliT you would got. up fresh would give you a now Pon) 9aleekon. (Svhen. have the opportunity I sha11 call on you) _I 1aaaDye byunjcH ? iza daras Tuul uSSeoriyyo (If last he studied he will runner patio) all In comparable conditional clause in. the clause, with fora. main the zero This fora contexts is associated the of divergence in. II18liah modal the nodal botwo©n with the in a verb F2iglish -od in past in. the and ca infinitive a modal appearing or simple fora, the und Arabic and not simple present accounts for cý (% r the following mistakes: reflect which saafart la raaH With indicators conditional clause In 'kaan'.. appear of past mayor time, may not the '? iza', and the form perfect the perfect by the conditional in verb the in verb be preceded the such constructions, used and not in ?a6ya ktiire bu? der ?ut9allam ?ungliizi ?awaam byut9allam la Barra ?ungeltra ? iza ?iza is I can learn many things. he learns English very quickly. I travelled abroad he went to England " If ® If the auxiliary 'law' particle main clause and. must be preceded must by 'kaan'. are: Examples law kaan sume9 kalaami bi wa? tha ta9ab ktiir. (If he had listened to me at the himself a lot of trouble) kaan waffar time gala he would nafoo have spared law (kurt) smu9t lumnabbeh lamina da?? kunt maa t? axxcart (If I had heard the alarm-clock when it rang I wouldn't have been late) law (kunna) (If we had the match) This type of clause appears modal, the verb perfective ttalivizyoon lmubaaraa. kunna äufna have on. the television would we seen construction condition' 'rejected past fataHna switched in in. the in. the form, corresponds English, perfect in infinitive conditional e. g. which clause to the the verb preceded appearing so-called in the main by a past in the ýý "'s letter if you had posted the them by now. reached is It tional sentences 'koren' corresponds 'kamt since of to I'-f were told that in form preceded for kind of transfer worn ploaaod Now and use should of by speakers word) they condi- Englich. 'wore' or (word where in sentcacos this with form 'was' by form past wont above perfective havo would perfect literally Baglish the use the typo. above Arabic of arc: us you us earlier literal may be considered which the im conditional to you were ® If they lion. past reflecting compounding givon typo equated simple form mistakes verbal the translate to perfective Attested above it y©ct ©rdtty examples generally the + 'was'/'were' past the of is tend Arabic the from clear "ýJ ý {, tho wo were accepted translations of the invita- Arabic sentences: law kunt ruHut neu law ka,anu sa? aluuna ii) In main. clause inperfOct b4 or past the in. the in the sentences verb containing in. the fora, in clause.. a verb dependent contrast anin_ c1c oo tends dependent 19azlimo Clauses Noun cnd Adverb . coaplox kunt nbasaTut bakklir kann ? bulna to clause giglish to be followed Examples are: perfect form may upper in in where a vorb by a verb in in the perfect in the the past C0- W) ca? alto (I him iY. ho would asked ? iza oa? alto (I biHubb. yuirab ? iza if The divorgcnco botwoen. simple perfect forms lowing att®stocl past he Liked botwocn forms doomed to in Eag11sh Arabic. the ootfoo) of coffoo) difforont the forma and other in rolationahipa forma Arabic is in English roflect obtaining and botwocn ed in the fol- miatakos; discussed he comparable will a cup and other can litt in_ time, difficult I saw that and ... hoped. he finishes ßI that it is I felt Having liko ? uhwo Habtx ul? tLhwe hin asked runjaan I tho simple forma be discussed it to forris in. Arabic, with thoir by myself understand. in F glich the und what aro porfcctivo nearest foram oqUiValcnt'3 in ý' '' 1 r. ý 2. Porfectiyo a) Pros ont The distribution be described oon. bust are Is definite indefinite yet), I react but fora time Thus we can that book past fora. simple time, Both G. S. book boforo. book boforo. road that coapatible indicators with (yont orday, before), indicators; with compatible recently, once, already, mglioh of only never, have: befor© book last that read in (before, past the pant time and indefinite I read that I've pant simple perfective present in I road that the while form pact of I've of both not to I have necn. him rocently. But the indicators aaw lain rocontly. I perfective presort in. rolation with compatible the of wook before book not I've road that The prcaont (tor duration of these can when_thoy different occur do, book last is perfective a week, with difforc oxtenßibilities the week. since also Jcnuary, simple 'rith associated proseat for ton and pact cdv©rbiala days), forms* though But 0 it implications of tho obtain, following an shown. by tho oxcmploß: Cl. - $ 4. Jack to Jack was in Jack has been he is town in let I'll The in. and, that of other use have for ture of forms, to tended speakers how it no longer (the In stook Is to anaociatad I'll statements call tom) ovor cind indioatoro with arc hoard the of stands thou. a fairly from present it with granxi offers seems appropriate contra- serious prob- to a pie- givo Diropoan, British, rians, with its concerning und partly perfective Arabic, sub joct. overlaps perfective complementary present extcnsivo on the by granmariono be partly the fron literature controversial of on you. derived statments Now since lens in a week it had dinnor, distribution the (ho torainatod) not e. g. some measure, Because for you know when I'vo above dictory. torn clauses, tines Whoa I've a wool wook to torn) in In. adverbial of in (the a wook town. for still ruturo for and American. Sweet apeake of the present that began in the past action either by continuation. (1) opealung. (1) pp. cit., p. 98. aster, perfect and in or boing as related termination to at, used the the of present aoacnt on time of p. p. (1) Jesporsen has this to - "_ say of tho proaont porfoot: "The preterite to homo time in the pact without refers tolling the connection the procont about anything with . is a rotrocpoctivo moment, while the Perfect procont, time, which connects a past occurrenco with the procont up to the present either as continued monont (inclucivo time) bearing results or as having or conooquencoo on the " moment. present Twaddell calls discusses 'Modification 9 odification II II, tho prosent perfective (have + pact participle) Have f participle, undor what ho as follows, explicitly links th the ti It situation. current signals wl. oa; er event, cn a significant of results, roporsistenco a oontilu©d based behaviour liability on conclusions earlier of (My family town. since 1638). has lived in this Put nogathere has, not boon that have tivoly, asserts participle the to importantly intervening changes affect results any (or the inference fron the report) event or of an earlier 'Four have come out' condition. students und app still ) three have or since rocntor©dl one, out, or -two, it He contraato for which currcnt with relevance Modification is I (the simple pant) irrelevant, the Past jiodif'ication by no means denies euch ?iodificati on I neither affirms relevance; per no -current linked in denies that the state earlier ýrcnt or nor " the situation. current with tt Iote 1 that Otto Jespersen, Allen. and Unwin, (2) Op. cit. (3) ibid, ... .. Essentials of London, -Ltd., E i611sh Grau u ar' , Goorgo 1948, p. 243. n A. A. Hill (tho (1)contraots prosont the simplo pact Following perfoctivo). and the is phrase a cut ary have with of hin cnalycic: The simple past indicates complotenocc, Tho havo of have + -od indicates non-pant, and tho -ad indicator That those two forms complet©noaa. shuro a componont for Choir intorchaneonbility of completenese. accounts in certain frames: I Lell/havo fallen twico today. That have indicates time accounts for both its non-past inindicators (thus compatibility with past-timo wo cannot have ' ©1 have -fallen twico yesterday') and for its ooto future currenco with timo in advorb clauooa reference introduced by when (when I have finished this book to)II morrow... disagrees Hill the meaning 'action Cf. "I read have now" i-rhich, Hill's rule that certain. does continue while that with continuing that book showing the to the into twenty the timers arise non-past. in those in to present' but I non-continuation, form nears complexities und Josp©rson Twaddell am not also thoir giving have + --od. roadfng contradicts But he rooo6i1zos cases where the action present, have been hungry In. 'I days there is the sago all boon has component of coapletenoss, since shad, the an in still howovor, Completeness, in action. going on. here, though it fron the action is now translated still to the period That in, of time. whcnevoraliavo phraso with a -tine indicator occurs which indicates period, like tv nt it all day, two hours, arq, or the like, lý is the period is which. conploto. In. his (1)Op. (2)Ibid, cit. 'The Chronological pp. 211-214. p. 213. it System of the Dnglich Vorb', v: Willicn k1) diacuaaoe Diver perfect and emerges The exception. the verb took with fora plaoo the have difforont a rule T -od in" tho-punt .4 cnnlyooc which, indicates at of as he Gaya, that on indofinite the the in pronont without of action time. To length: at quot© "The that the signal 31, have f -od, proof of the hypothesis 'past, be the lack the meaning indefinite' will of _has the fact that counter every time the signal examples, lioro apecifio support also. appears the meaning appoars instances of a peculiar can be either positive, affinity 'paßt' the the to donning signal signals with of other instances of incompatibility or 'indefinite', or nogativo, having with other opposed noaninso: signals of the signal " 'present', 'future', 'definite. or "Positive support comes from words that are indefinite 'No has over askod such a quocti on Ex: meaning. one -in before. ' 'Wherever he has Sono, ho he has boon well ro' ' It is to '_Io has always boon a loyal ceivod. subject. (--©d) torn be noted that in those examples the unnarkod ,L (i. e. the simple fora) to which the dofinito-indo.. past , is irrelevant finite opposition. well: can appear equally To one over asked such a question 'Wherever before'. ho ' 'He was always went he was well received. subsoot; a-loyal dates, those times I.Inny words, especially or _indicating definitely With thoso may be used either or indefinitely. the indefinite forces is found that it sigial an, intorpro'He has played tation golf on Tuesday' of indefiniteness. 'I have Bono okatinc Tuesday; cannot moan on a specific on day ; day' is an equivalent to '_On a Christmas Christmas 'I have played tennis first' nouns on coneon Notienbor ÜQvenber first, the specific November not, for example, (-od) is hero torn this The A unmarked ambiyear. of guous, it to this opposition, since being irrelevant intorprotation: a definite or indofinite can have either horse on WWodnesday, 'He played rodo a on Tuesday' golf , be the Thursday' can either of an account on rested and (1) ltord, V. 19, Number 2, pp. 141-1& . npr days or an indofinito particular of three that was repeated activities programme a statement of a nutabor of times, " "When. the is made definite thoro is negative occasionfor the hypothesis, the indefinite since signal -support 'CI have playod then occur. Ono cannot cannot a ' '©I last huv Tuesday, layed tennis nor golf yesterday, being definite_occaai these Again the unmarked all na. tern Al play ed, can be used with those definite signals " just the indofinite with ones. as In. a roconnt book on the and si6nified Thus according "The cally is verbs the F2i6lish sake of the the ossential. phase perfect its of cake is to are Diglish perfect does 'Tho the vorbn thore (in not of cause and effect doaignato that tho phaao perfect theca) apocifi. quotation) of the event they dosigaato (3) "... to He say, meaning" . goes on effects not mentionod 4 perfect the of concepts cause phase'. perfect meaning the (and He then conooquencea. Joos, Martin 1964. Pross, _ (2) Ibid, p. 138 (3)Ibid, p. 140 (4). Ibid. 1 overate the form. between (2 r©lation, the (1) Jooa ucoo porfectivo present in Martin vorb, spacial Jooa by reference the that and that to perfoct-narkod for the by verbs between exist to tho refer fron effect exp1nin©d that the to nage derives "the is 'phaoo' torn the Maglinh ' for its mere that Eaglish on aaltiono phase do©c not the c ko but for come of tho "First, mean. specified V©rb' , The University the thingo the ovant of occuifod Wiaconain 4. provioun to "Socond, a Frcnoh apocifi©d oono othor of what tho pant It has born because statements it constitutes is This 12iglish being also partially pial forms' to dwell toaching in inglish the fact (see Arabic to and hence does corresponds the that in, Arabic, both tible indicators with two (1) Ibid, p. 144 (2)Ibid, p. 145 is the p. l%1 . causing not only to two In in forms of both in porfoot and because opoak©rs fora fora in the words and proocat boing corrospondonco fact forms end participial in 'partici- The ditfi. problems. the in, Arabic, may be callod othor Arabic, of porfect that in one form hut Arabic, distinction definite always present proocnt Arabic, different definite-indefinite perfect the teaching lie tho no corresponding perfect what forms on tho for of of to which problem characteristic of noun. that indecisive, there (1) phaoo. " ourront at boat are characteristic moreover, culty, use characteristic partial, i `golf, 2 necessary since contexts in doom not mouna. ' its of corresponds perfect only found tho with perfoct fhgliah understandable the in unintoraating a serious Arabic, spocifiod or a Gorman. portect is overt ovont . .. is forms and indefinite in irrolovont being past compatime, A? 2. i) al Since indicators in perfective of indefinite time (once, before, this respect with that compatible not the Arabic, In other words in basic seems the the form have one we in also simple in the (the in Arabic the ), etc. of the only of indi- with definite - present past this teaching past perfective is bound to since corresponding and the past which situation, form) perfect its perfect distinction, Naturally simple with compatible already, those with in Arabic. English: is English definite-indefinite difficulties serious forms but distinction: is_ irrelevant English, two time in being latter indefinite time. to in overlaps cators cause Arabic present of in in the distribution form forms Perfect r present perfec- Cf. tive. ? ana (I've ruft ha lfulum film seen this mun ? abul before) ha lfulum ? ana tuft mbaareH (I saw this film yesterday) the form This being so, the abundance type be readily cab. accounted where 'duft' corresponds to both of attested the present of similar perfective type being and 'saw'. soon' of mistakes the following for: ®I have seen him yesterday. has been established 0 The department 0 The term has ended last week. Mistakes 'have occur in in 1953. complex used instead of sentences the simple also, past, e. g. "Pr 0 Show me the book you have borrowed 9 Because 2. a`} ii) ',. in. EagLish, to of to latter being having text. Cf. freely 8am9aan. fii (I've heard it the in notional the variant of Arabic the I form porfoctive torms, verbal in fort perfect is roforonoo the action, fora participial with but was young. proacnt the base maa ba9rof him, in of performed to I while forma put corresponds perfective it functions where, state learnt Participial the In. one of tho have I yostordoy. present Arabic, in this the con- ? oeata don't know, Zien) bass maa ba9ref ? eemta smu9ut fii (I heard of him, but i don't know uhon) roaari ha lugraare mnom (Where have you bought ? this from tie fitareot ha lugraafo ? nneen. (Whero did you buy this tie from Free Vora variation. in. the indicators above of of the context definite ? fora participial that means also past time. ?) Thus it min sun© you a year ago) tho perfect is compatible wo can zgahr bi hdiyye ulaaaDi waa9udni (He proniDed ao a present last. month) san9asn fick (I heard of with have with Aº r1 N :. fact The to partially tiblo the with for speakers form, participial in perfective present indicators ficult with the that definite of Arabic of to in the present ®I ®I the have already tininh©d have oaten an hour c. o. perfoctivo in F2iglish, timo, past not corresponds which difmore makes it auch indicators accooiato Dnglich, oompa- also as the following mistakes show: The last Arabic Sarli) ? uli) (two , These 'eine' 'for' this c4verbiala and with 'Saar/? aspect of latter are of points of tho sort ul' to kind with the of suffix, statements i. e. what i. e. time', w xamoiin 13an9t©en ? aaaabi 19 (five t;dvorbiala anuociating Association Eaglioh. present a pronominal such notional xaas , in respectively of often with associated tine', of days) the very appear w tuaa9aiyyo ? alf a quantity yoom (twenty correspond und (? Uli) week) , aunt of 9uIriin of formal (last and indicators weeks). with- when the and 'indicators an to ulaaaDi hours) (Sarli) forna forms may be referred (1950); translation mun saa9teen. xaaleS uizußul ? aakel nun saa9a participial 1? usbuu9 ago. sontcacos: The bracketed with litoral can be consid©red scntencos following work two hpuro perfective in Arabic, that the in of Fhßliah is present the per.. t1 ! hr in foot used up to tinued of an action tho pronont 9aayo i bi It Arabic fora this can have and preceded be taken This will will be discussed following ha lbclad 'Saar' uniin howovor, that '? ul' or at the not in participial suffix. distribution participlos of to it Suffice in verbs all pronominal ta whcn the detail. more in yoara when appearing up below examples ton 9atr iaplicatioii by and con- past Cf. town. for be ncntionod, should the in started moncnt. in this I have lived Sandi that ") compare the moment: ? uli ? aakel tlut saa9aat (I ate three hours ago) saaken, hoon tnun Sarli (I 2. b) Past The past the to how the the Perfective in nuat perfective use is of term a still ( 1) OP, cit.. for be considered in for years) Bight Fh61i sh simplo regarded oarlior " here pant perfective present perfective. (his pluperfect the living) the and notionally present Bose time been perfective present perfective of (have lived have sniin. Thus 'past -event foraa. Aocording described, is as a kind according to relation of to perfective') had a current the 'shifting Twuüdoll, nignala that rolovsnoo, pent buck' "tho at (1) ý In Hill way acme the zý the relates pant to perfect the present as follows, perfect for the hove phrase "If the explanation as comnosed of is aonon-past and completeness the two basic components be like hnd then guessed Press can a phrase ceptable, the components rant notion and completeness. to contain A tythe is but is whole not picture. The guess correct, '1'nry like two in is parts, had one sentence phrase pical The home'. John before occurthe dinner came had cooked before the pant of n and in sentence of one part rence the the time to of the as antecedent completion verb places seems always preThis relationship antecedent verb. past in it in sequences also forms, these present in since sent John home'. 'Mary dinner the carne had when like cooked ' home, John 'Marv the dinner. whore came had cooked and in time the the relation is of there statement no explicit the therefore I components redefine indicators. should past and simple as not completeness of the had phrase to past but antecedent action past and completeness action (1) " action. It should is perfect past being past certain tureen out, past a clear meaning and the that choice, But possible. where simple however, a compulsory not equally cases the be pointed past in many cases no to as Hill contrast speak, mentions, is the there observable the simple are be- perfect. in there " Curiously, of sentences no good examples are is the had required, past or phrase a simple which either the is in employ can possible which one situations and all therefore We method of analysis, use our usual cannot other. the in which finding sentence that meaningful element a of these components and assigning constructions of one requires fall We however, can, in accord with requirements. such in which both constructions back on a type of sentence occur, If is in the but with meaning. contrast sentence a clear ' 't! ary cooked the dinner John in no home, there when came in is the That first completion verb. antecedent of notion John Mary may have begun the cooking at the instant when Op. cit... p-214. nra This sentence in expandnbla to marched in the door. ' ''nry 'Mary began to cook If the hnd is sentence ... ' John in an antehome, the dinner there when earm cooked for the when wo can substitute completiont14nd cedent " before. explicit Examples in This past In sentences. complex form the of appears mostly in occurs noun perfective forms dependent clauses and adverb commonly the In the train when the verb clauses are found pact perfective clause is past. of clauses time. Examples are: In Noun Clsuses I asked her how long the man had been unconscious. She told a new hat. me she had bought that he had seen the accused. testified The witness In Adverb Clauses that had picked The inspector when Trent up a strong noticed faintly a certain passage. melodious scent he whistled the burglar 'When the police had already gone. arrived, the discussion After began. we had had tea, In conditional with indicators past of and in ditions' action, clauses, this past time use there the past in what is knorm as is no antecedence associated 'rejected con- to another e. g. If I had known you were here, have done it before I should (1ý Ibid. is perfective 0.214. I if have come nt should I had had time. once. ( i4 N"S 1 kacn b 2@ in. Arabic, auxiliary jDislioh. Thus tho of Yore verb in of is pant fora and that 'kaan' of vorb botwoen Exaaploa cuteoodenoo. uro tho in in action 4 participial : bad son luaßa halla? had just started) lama wSulna kann ulfulua (YJhen we arrived the film beenma HoDDartullon onothor obtaining by tho form porrootivo used with rolationship perfect that being to tho for Arabic tho fora, perfect the corrospond in _Arabic (coo p. j ) procodod forma par£icipial 'kaue' the . forma Participial ulGada kaanu naaymiin (By the. time I prepared lunch for them thoy had clrotuiy asleep) -fallen d la? knun. t Etta j bu iije unno nnat maa a? aryuzin M ha, mun ? abu l (He was not surprioed by the result beouuoo he had known before) about it In varicnt the above with the the examples forzi. participial lanma wSulna kaaa_ u1rulua bee=a in place It fora rorent of the should of certain bu nnntii previous be mentioned verbs relationahipu Thus luaus the verb in freely havo buds nnuuu j© la? anno buun duri tiiha mun ? abul ©xr plos. in passing when preceded with of wo could haha? u1Gada ka=u HaDDartullon na- tfaaja? fora perfect tho that the participial by 'kann. ' can exhibit pr©coding vorb, and in dit. such oaoon c would not rather to the the to corrospond paßt the compare 9 pant fallowing Participial (coo below at in porfoctivo continuative. in. more detail discussed w" förna p. lzt) the autl the 'kaan. ' t participle and the perfective past to it ; cuffjca uaeulu"aon like otroot lamina $ufto kam kaatob, ulmaktuub. (When. I saw. hin ho hLd (alroady) written. to be will present: Lufto 1aia kann ma 3t bu cöaaro9 (tithan I saw hin he was walking in drunk person) With. some verbs, but Eaglioh past a lottor) tho both c,an correspond continuative fornc in Cr. mglish. tufto lea (I saw him kaure Taule9 mun ubluGu1 his work) when lip was leaving naa la? eeto bu 1aaktab, la? anno kann Taal©9 ? abul caa9a (I did not find him bocuuoo he had left hia work an hour before) 2. Vs Contrastive In past fora the is it clear distributional extends Arabic c©dent distributional above of the perfective form, the view implications Arabic that no direct beyond that and Baglißh relationship 'kam' und the rang© of 'loan' obtaining in IIzglißh of A participial conflict of the form facts occurs, p participial past perfective quo3tion botwom coinoido or perfect sinne or portoct form in in them and other although tho F1iglich, anto- vorbss in tho n*"cl perfect the and pant simple J forma in Arabia an'1 Diglioh r©opoctiv©ly. indirect A romoto on the basis &rabio , forts, corpus of cnulysod, substitutable the the howovor, conflict, frequency relative latter or and participial almost sentonc©s corresponding the nine perfect iliglich times forms und in the boing Of. invariably. kunt ga=ol Haaabi ? uxloS Hs anbi Sault Hsaabi ? ux1oS ? abul both of only appearing to dinoorniblo to ? ayluul ? abul ? ayluul baaa naa ZabaT bann maa ZabcT Hassabi Dlglish, before to finish I had planned did not work. calculation September but my r; 3. forgo Continuativo present does it that not with aaaociabl© rtctically simple the with with appour simple oharaoto- advorbißlo (usually, form raroly, wo can hßvo Thus georally). sonetineL, contracts continuative present in ingliuh Continuativo a) Prosont The in smokes a Ciöz r He usually but He is is it duration, at with compatible united or The present Indicators in tho way as tho sue He sometimes smoke cigars. He is smoking a cigarette now. with definito association Cf. contrasts with with past. the ample noity, 1itaitod includo: now, nowadays. contracts continuative of time, of otault¬ Such indicators still, moment, as regards present, inclicatorn repetition. at this present, now. a cigarette smoking the cinpl© or indofinito prosent porfoctiv© end I I tri©d this have triad Exýaplos cdv©rbials brand that brand last of the of licit preacnt ©d ropotition boforo. wock. continuativo arc; in ancociation frith tý^, 'ä fý :I to school is walking Wi11ian this torn. YWoArcn't auch moat nowadaya. Dating Jack io smoking too auch thouo doya. - Th© pr©ocnt bialy timo, i'utur© of is continuativo also aacociatod leaving They Io to cpend the weekend are coning to-morrow. buying shirt a now love, forget, know, whore precont other co that fora, month. next verbs (aaoll, present verbs. Thus and the present in the hoar, verbs coo, in appear a cane and the simple following are think, procont both niaplo continuative botwoon foray procont boltovo, the in variation examples continuative us. appear the free of with notice, ) can otc. contain, we have continuative näv©r- o. s. Ic Certain with the tho those of simple present possible: (believe) For the moment I an believing tura out to be ri6ht, him; hold better is that Roosevelt's The trouble we're disregarding advice; (fear) fear itself, fearing are We ýunderstand) undorctanding Answer to an exs ination :Iu question) sanpýo. gender in the limited 3. a) 9am .º inporfect 9am + imperfect to (1) the The present forms in in continuativo exump1o 3 appoar in. in rabic Arabic EaSlish. %lilliai in correspond, Divert The banjo a artiolo, 6anorol, of their op. cit. . Jva comparability 9= b. of to found prepeat to correspond gam inporfect und -+ 9aci + inperfoct =ore present simple forms (l%hat are wear ? abuuk --9an yuß? 1 lwardaat. (1hero Is doing 7last ? the present simple Bhglioh b, be will the will (nor) bf itporfoot foi'ic continuativo in rand the contexts two forms: of ainultanooua , e. g. ? now ? --- bu j jn oeno. 9am Ballen I urra.. dyo the am ropalving &uu 9am ya9mol In tho garden. the roe©s. ) radio) ? What Is -- with cuu bta9nol 9audatan (1 hat do you usually be inporfoct Tho following indicators ?your father He Is watering example with IIigliah. haha? you doing it forma contrast with asßociat© od with Arabic. 9aa+ impertoct Wu 9am ta9mel the in in botwoon obtaining; in such as h. la? duration. C f. those same way that of forma continuative contrast characteristic 1. They of Son©rol, botwocn. 9cm + imperfect of the in obtaining forms Distribution or lese dictribution when tho so that, relationships und the present forms, imperfect that-the found oloar forms has boon oxamtnod und contrast inporroot -t that bocomo will a ba9ct uDDuhur ? -- bnaz do in tho art ornoon ?-. I Sloop) ho nob.7 2. They appear events or states, (these days), kul evening), with e. g. adverbiale associated (in bu SSeet ba9d uDDuhur (in ?aHad (every Sunday), the the with (in 9a; iyye Examples etc. ha 1? ayyaam bi summer), afternoon), dawaliib gam yuituru yaabaaniyye (They are buying Japanese tyres recurrent tho are: bi ha 1? a yaam these days) gam nushar la wuss uSSubuH bu SSeef (We stay up till morning in the summer) bu lleel 9adnaan 9am ydaxxen ktiir (Adnan is smoking a lot at night) while both indicators of mentioned under not in tors in appear when in the active indicators with of (he sat), of this saafar the in following cators duration, of repetition they appear the duration when indica- Such verbs normally associated Members of (he met), can associate participle this Habb (he loved), (he saw), indicators active are- with ?cabal With of verbs ppott)when with ( as can appear (see iaaf examples only. in number duration. (he feared), (he travelled), the form. compatible and repetition naam (he slept), include: xaaf but form simultaneous are simultaneous form, habited), verbs a small participle of verbs sub-class ?a9ad indicators 9am. + imperfect form duration 1 and 2 above), repetition of gam + imperfect simultaneous with compatible appeasing in most verbs of sakan (he in- etc. Thus with indi- simultaneous form. ý" A. Repetition, waa? of 9c i yxaaf ynaan lawaHdo (Recently, Waol has boon afraid gam yruuHu nun to jdi id sloop blond) 9a 1? ohwo bad uDDuhur (They have boon going to the capo in the afternoon) Sawyer 9uza ynaan bakkiir (H© has boon sleeping early) bi ha 1? ayyaan 9a m yukrah ulýdo? a bukkiir (Ho has been.. hating to got up early those days) B. Sinultanoous duration loo; laabo i kul ha 1? awaa91 ? -ulbard. (Why have you got all these clothes of the cold) leek ? aa9od' 9a l? arD yaa ? ubni ? (Why are you sitting on the floor, xauyof on ? gala Hanli Ia --- afraid con ?) fhhmaan kul kalaaiak. (I understand all you say) bi ha llttHZa karhannak ktiir (I hate you so auch at this The above sets moaoat) A and g should be comparod with note below. b a und a. Ropotition. ljaras San ydu?? kul (The bell is ringing yooa usaaa9a taaano at eight o'clock every zuu 9ai ta9nel ba9d uDDuhur ? (j; hat do you do in tho. af'tornoon nun day) 9an ruuj ? uab ll ? --I go awiaainG) w" ý ýj N "J J b. duration Simultaneous jaaweb 9alee. - answer it) 9am ydu??. ttalifoon (The phone is ringing; ?auu gam ta9mel (What are you doing imperfect Since have we a case saa9aat kul tmun kul however, This, the ring in forms not of pair gam tGiib true, of dams butGiib (The sun sets In 1, sentence the what may be called jdiid' (recently, extension of a day) sleeping and 'gam naaa hours eight can tmun be seen a day). from imperfect and b+ sentences: early) bakkiir early) form 'gam tGiib' 'indicators lately), sentence 1 is: they 'nun (is becoming), have been). jdiid' with such as 'mun of recentness' 'Saayer' she, can be associated '? ulo', Thus a possible (lately), so that have, can siams gam tGiib bakkiir mun jdiid (The sun has been setting lately) early On the other hand, the compa- bakkiir (he, '? ulon' '? ulha', can 'bnaam say, as it garden) may seem that gam + imperfect (The sun has been setting 2. it hours been the 'gam'-forms and between, have always use 'b' repetition, eight (I following scams 1. sleep yoom' is in variation (I contrastive the of free of yoom' saa9aat both verbs indicators with associate gam ?uo? i jjneene. ?-I am watering form b+ imperfect in sentence 2 in we j # incompatible indicators with of roccntnoac, so that wo havo, cannot Q vicuna butaiili bakkiir mun jdiid lat ©ly) ©(Tho sun c of c early . 1M; oroovor, havo, wo cannot ýama San tGiib, 4 6"*; (The this since has been implies that im contexts tor forms, the sem (lit.: all distinctionfron the an indicator imperfect his b t Life). of forms a potential with indicators of forms As a further in two examples that, forms 'kul with indica9az & inper.. absoluio 'sun like can be both although can associate with (every year) indicators of repetition, =n Tuul suuriyya (Syria has alwaya 9unurha grows btuzra9 wheat Tuul of it question, suno' can. associate be used illustration. two forms like can associated the repetition. terns, In. general imperfect and San " imperfect oast, always potential with the forms repetition to in set imperfect is there following Treat) to sun used and gate between the a now courso. recent associated b. + imperfect gam boing as opposed repetition guard' the repetition, of relatively of feet west in netting b. -v imperfect both. while tun the in setting mun, u1C}arb. ? oau1; kul ©vory yoar) suno only , recent ý6 ý. i gam tSadder ?uTun kul eune suuriyya Syria has been exporting every cotton mun jdiid (Recently, implications 3. a2)DContrastive The last between tinction forms in English, in English though is is not paralleled and present present simple the some verbs with b+ imperfect by a similar dis- continuative forma continuative present indicators with associable between distinction distributional imperfect gam + and year) of recent repetition, in, as We are'nt eating much meat nowadays. Jack is smoking too much these days. But since Arabic), mistakes a transfer reflects of English) membership repetition and in of when verbs in gam + imperfect leads possibilities the forms to type: is marrying Arabic use of iamma lbunt gam tutGayyar the recent of Arabic following of the awhen a girl completely. which (in continuative present in a difference indicators with compatible (in is there 9am tutjawwaz tamaaman. these days her 9am + imperfect bi ha 1? ayyaam life is in Hayaatha changing ý^ý N"l. 3. gam t imperfect forma r can bo uood ' introducod olaus o3 aro und al as advorbi in complex by w, centcnooo o. g. da9u st os ayyaara w huwwo 9aa yu? T a9 uü gnaro9 (He was hit by a car as he was oroocing tho ntroot) naam w ? ana 9v (He fell asleep Hkauy© ? uHkiilo while I was telling hin a story) wwida9na w huwwo 9nn yubki (He was crying when he saw us off) is It past the the of 1)3 1h display in the clause we have between figl1oh fact in terms in a potential the as regards forms. distinction forms (except The forms continuative a twofold distinction in conflict and Arabic gam imperfect . , and present) älaus© appearing uhoreas of iaporfoot gam + imperfect versus that 9=4 on adverbial Heroin. forms are variable when preceded of do not in. Arabic poriphraotically by 'kann! ). Thus in. the past. to adverbial a contrast a corresponding tinuative the continuative (past tense in fora. consists contrast in verb we have use above ©xnnpl©a that by w corresponds continuative since from the clear when introduced English, innlicationa Contrastiv© 3. OS ii) form, Now since F2iglioh above excples, since 9c the verb imperfect t in the roquiroo main corresponds clause a past In to the in con. the proscnt nýý 3 ., rJ in continuative tinuative of in forms English gives context above is it 9a" ?aHmad 9aTab rujlo naasi caaf got with perfect a pronominal suffix gam + imperfect suffix), are agreeing in form. ha 9am yxaanu? smu9to (I heard him scolding (He got Hassab '? aan' gender Examples her) with la? eeton'yutaaana? u (I found them quarrelling) by a certain cold) suae9 (he thought), (which associated mun ulbard up shivering gao» preceded w huwwe luaaa These include: sufto gam yul9ab (I saw him playing) ? aam 9am yurjef mun ulbaaS can occur form. except of which, all la? unno nuzel la? a (he found), (he saw), pronominal in in of verbs up), the station. off the bus lumHaTTa yutrok forms + imperfect 4.9am number mistakes running. still w uttreen wuSel to Arabic reflect which rise leaving he got is the train ® He arrived while his leg because ® Ahmad injured while con- present type: following the the to distributional the of gam + imperfect of characteristic a transfer English, cannot with ? aam. (he be associated a noun or and number with are: (he. heard) the verb , ýý" ý 3. (iii) a2) The occurrence (see pp. 29T ) in has the nu? ha' heard of to the corresponds occurrence of two following her' be (and the or an infinitive 'smu9to scolding sentences in gam yxaa- her). English: by deletion is no such deletion (I 'smu9to' sentences: combined context But wherehoard 'I of verb in required Cf. Arabic. smu9to + gam yaaanu? ha I heard him Now a mechanical imperfect for, above form (he in are 'he'), pronoun the sentence 'source' 'source' 'He was scolding in an -ing Thus the English. two corresponding as to gam + imperfect ha' '9am yxaanu? and him) him', implications Contrastive the forms smu9to gam yxaanu? ha + he was scolding equating of in the following the above her present context reflect which continuative gives rise to, him scolding with and gam+ accounts mistakes: is reading found my father ®I ® They saw her is running. 0 She heard I heard her. him Arabic is his newspaper. singing. sentences la? eet ? abi gam yu? ra saaiuuha 9am turkod like jariitto amu9to 9am yGanni where clauses, no deletion in the occurs complex in sentences sentence. operating as subordinate ý^C :)J (J 5. The comparable following this In cations. in: order fact that verbs appear in wu? of (he by the auzi (he participles oY certain they in 9am +Imperfect ? a9ad up), walked), $aaf (he travelled), saafar Yaat stood (he went in), sloon TTalla9 (See how fast (he mara? of got ussayyaara the car is verbs (he (he (he can be seen roufto 9aa yu; turi (I saw hin buying Examples of ? aa9ed waa? of Taale9 faayest gam ' bus) van tuäti forms 9am yutfalsaf gam yuntuZor ulbaaS 9am yur? o$ nun ulfarcH 9= y9ayyeºl! in context 5. went), went up), The by comparing fawaaki fruit) imperfect , (ho ulopt). with TTa11a9 B1oon uddunye (See how it is raining heard) raaH Tulo9 naan other include: naeä e bisur9a running) sufto naazel mun ulbaaS (I saw. him getting the off . with where verbs sumo9 down), to characterized (he came), by), passed occur form Those ? uja (he these verbs down), sat saw), (ho forms participial form. nuzel behaviour distinctive (he io inpii. contrastivo 9am + imperfect appear foray has b©en round nocoooary It show further context active preceding to 9am + inporfoct of 4. context with them separate context are: t% -w 4 tJýJ translation A litersl impossible He He He He 0 Q 3 Q in sentences in giglish (a correspondence the appears gives us the of the with following continuative present with fact by the about to parallel the when both present pt rticiplon activo distributionally also associated the brought and the verbs are verbs to are participles above Fhglich, equated Ea&l sn : Arabic verbs forms) are corr©spondenco certain fect forma (ho is) philophizing sitting (he bus for the is)waiting standing (he joy danoing is) with going out (he ist in anouting coming is is is is The partial active both whoro oxamploo, imporfoct in forms continuative present above and San f participloc active the of form continuative indicators future of form in that these San + Imper- participloa active of of of lish FsaE; time. Examples are: jaayiin ul? uabuu9 9ondna yaaDDu 9uTlet to spend the woek and with (They are coning lleele 9a ssinema rauyeH (I ara. Going to the pictures aaasi au leaving It seems, then, to to the the to-night) da? aaye? xaras (I corresponds verbs) ba9d us) active in five that minutes) the present 9am 4 imperfect participle and (in forma, in. IIiglish continuativo in the case of contorts certain. ascociatod cý ^. ";1 f,, r ýIv indicators with when the of appropriate following the 'I as falling' indicators would of the expect 6. between.. the In 9an f when occuzring following and the ' lussa' in carricd in in (The lussaaton b©douins not still present time, the (asleep) verb, ' ) with ono involved e. g. 9a j jaaal travelling thin which in may b© nssociat which Of* naayem still sleeping Arabic, act failing In continuative ddunye 9aa tuäti luasauta (It is still ruining) lussäto ( He is in associable is no conflict with 9aa ysaafru are to ovor be. to (still) concord Arabic. future of and I lussani gam ? ut9allam (I an still learning) lbadu Arabia participl©a an afraid 'saa? Ta' context inperfect suffix a pronominal I ©xam. continuative present with active duration simultaneous in But roculto: participle active is '? ana saa? Ta' reflecting the context the mention course. time. participlos Ihglirn to only mistake- attested 0 Oh don't (sic) of in futuro or active, forms continuativo contexts other between correspondence and present duration simultaneous on caaels) Fhgliczi: od with n 5 w, 3. h) The Pant Tho use tho of Continuativo past fgiich In continuativo to According among gramnari cnn. in dobato to t3ubjoct 1 J eaporc cn, "The chief is to carve use of the expanded tonsec an a. frame round something which may or may not bo else, indicated In thereexpressly connected a narrative, ... the expanded tensed fore, in a doccription often occur situation, of the general to which serves as a Dotting by moans of simplo what happened, which is expressed tenses: 'One morning the thron sisters were together in the drawing Lucy room; Mary was sowing, the piano, was playing and Jane was doing then suddenly the door opened and nothing; tho room, oxolaining John burst into ' ý' ... But as Diver as I rained tense It the contrary as I 'frame', the the action Jespersen's According (the rained represents to past pointed in. my study. road my dinner. indicates has (3) to Hill, duration It rainod for prepared overlapping set against past fora the a corollary 'Stinen Mary cane home, John. was cooking as Diver also (1) (2) (3) 4) Op. cit. pp. cit., Op. cit., Op. cit., PP"263-264+ p. '4 p. 209 P-141 pointod rained while bod' action, that day. all I tho It was eating cinplo past and tho expanded background, directly phrase -ing rule. being But 'It in can be assigned continuative) pleteness, (2) out, out, in the of the with a coaponont of of incoaplotonesa dinner, sentence but 'I it incoa- in wasn't Uraa writing donor cý ý-''ý ýý ýJ aa. hour for their turougn the while is and the finished at tho past continuative ship between is tive to present of only past, notional definite' the and nor versus 'past, indefinite', to it is opposition perfective, past, lo playod, tho contenco, of the in that the fact and the ono in the opposed to of is the ro1clon. continuativo other tho words present uoo of tho the between relation. In past tho the ainplo According past between whose positive past pronont past continua. terns in past in to Diver, continuative the cannot si©plo continuative incompleteness. characteristic end the present the opposed phraoo, -ing d©scription continuativ©. completeness basic past from present not lies simple inferred be always and the the nalf-way not. in the form oimplo were tho , and of tho i8 other The difficulty finiohod' and tho comploto since, and they played, whon I programme was writing, incomplete, band of toms in the 'pact, continuative charactorictio is Thus, "Support 'definite' of the moaning of the uignal was -inS to be, and is, the reverse for m" be expected of that to the find, have Returning wo above with examples -od. '() No the expected th©. indefinite incompatibility: over, before' door such was asking a not occur. one ever question 'Wherever he was going he was being received' well would occur if the indefiniteness of aiiorovor not normally eon 'VM over be confined a definite within. occasion, as In, he was going in. 1960 he was boing but that's well rocoivod, the case'. Similarly in the example with always no longer is forced reinterpretation of the sentence by the intro'Ho was always boing duction mooning. of the definite Text cut off in original (N be interpreted loyal will subject' as 'He was always a ' If on the appearance of being putting a loyal subject. is left for the moment, the shift out of the sentence always 'He has been a loyal to 'Ho was being from subject' a loyal the emphasis from an indefinite shifts of subject' state to a definite Introduction action. affairs of alwn s in the the definite in latter sentence extends occasion me (the meaning 'duration' is not relevant to AS (past contithe definite therefore occasion can be long or nuative), indifferently), indefinite. yet it does not make it short, in past time' does not extend the into A 'definite occasion' by always, even when modified whereas present, an indefinites ö daries being difThis without specific occasion may. is clearly being ference seen in 'He was always a loyal been a loyal as opposed to 'He has always subject' subject'. (This unbounded quality of the indefinite may well account the tendency to speak of 'current for " relevance'. "In examples with dates that can be either specific the presence of was - in_g always forces or non-specific, interpretation. 'He was playing a specific golf on Tuesday' 'I tennis to dewas playing on November first' and refer finite occasions. "(1) If we were to accept as it Diver's seems justifiable presented, we could say indicators of tive, tors of English by (1) Op. cit., to do in the past time, verbs 'kann'. the light past of continuative and is compatible continua- the is evidence used with with indica- incompleteness). kaan + 9am + imperfect appearing to Arabic general, preceded past (or duration 3. bl) in definite that of the account in in the verbs appearing Examples are: pp. 157-158. Arabic past in continuative 9an + imperfect correspond, forma " ~ý iJ lemma wSult (When I got kaanet ? ummi gam t? iim uSSufra 9a lbeet the table) home mother was clearing lamina smu9na lxabar 9a ttalivizyoon television when we heard the news) kunna 9am nutfarraj (We were watching Tuul ulleel mbaarefl yesterday) all night kaanu gam yystuGlu (They were working In the case of the the between obtains +; past continuative in Arabic, forms kaan + participle mentioned verbs on p. Ul , oorroopondena: forms in English and e. g. lussaatha kaanet lama ussayyaara nuzel maasye (When he got off the car was still running) kaanet waa? fe (She was dent) verbs 'kaan', they ceded forma, nuative tors to of the since repetition simple on the standing When these by past lamina caafet 9a rrSiif pavement in do appear do not in and form kaanu gam yzuuruuna (They used to visit this when form they to English, saw the she acci- gam + imperfect to correspond correspond in the uliiaadse English associate 'used form past with to' pre- contiindica- + infinitive or e. g. bass baTTalu hal. la? us but they no longer do. so) bakkiir kaan 9am To ?abulma wuldet ? uxto (He used before his sister o go to bed early 1cäanet 9am truuH ma9 ?uxtha (1) laHaalha truul (She used to go school with by herself) going started (1) In all the above examples, with zero+inperfect. 9a lnadrase was born) ba9deen Saaret her later sister; 9am+imperfect is on she freely variant ýJ there past seems case of ponds to nical equating with the to be a straightforward in the the the past the to in continuative discussed in (or gam + imperfect the However, Arabic. to' 'kaan' English parti- since + gam + imperfect 'used the between correspondence forms Arabic just verbs 'kaah' examples or special and 'kaan' by past simple the English last of of case preceded cipial)forms the in continuative 4J implications 3. b2) Contrastive Except . corres- + infinitive, a mecha- + gam + imperfect explains the following mistakes: ® We were ® My mother young. reflect which playing all was helping afternoon me with every summer. my lessons when I was Arabic, kunna 9am nul9ab Tuul ba9d uDDuhur kul Seer ?unmi. kaanet gam teaa9udni bi druuai lamina kurt The last sentences are translatable into zGiir. English follows: We used to play all Mother used to help young. in afternoon every summer. me with my lessons when I was as n ow"1 & Continuative Perfective 4. We have seen that co-occur distribution. their examine a) Present 4. Forme continuative perfective the in appearing indefinite of are continuative perfective present indicators with compatible can contiinteresting perfective and it is continuative, perfective and past nuative to Thus we can have present (p. to9). forme and continuative perfective tine, pant and extended e. g. two to get in touch with I have been trying you for for years. this He has been teaching subject for him since last November. She has been waiting It should a difference two being the present example The present minal forms suffix. the Examples the subject for free verbs and the perfective between difference emphasizing in duration Thus the as freely the the case second variant with years. + 9am + imperfect continuative perfective in Arabic certain present be regarded this Saar + Pra. with continuative. perfective He has taught imperfect of above may perhaps 4. al) the continuative, perfective present that out between may obtain variation of be pointed days. preceded are: corresponds by 'Saar' or '? ul' to gam + + prono- ý,"' ýi ? u1o gam yd.a11o1 9alooha (Ho hao boon- trying to ? urbt9 anlin it soll for Sarlon min uSSubuH 9an y9azzlu (They have bei oprin6 cleaning four ßlnoo yours) the horning) Sar1i aunt ©En 9= ?Ut a9 n o). a oyy aart i (I have boon u: in6 my car for two years) As waa the verbs appear '? ul' +a case in. other in. active pronominal form. ti perfect Sarlna &ufT'ix, saakniin. Ste have boat ? ulha lnaTar (It has bean From the forwaard coded by 'Saar' in_ person, verb. volved in this ý+. b) Past Fornä are naazle raining nntecedent to vorba for Ihro© years) or it between seems that the present (or + pronominal =d number, or appoar in is a straf gam . nun uSSubuf the. morning) since und San + imperfect there perfective ugroeing Hence no problems gender. continuaforms participial) suffix ht- pro.. the with are in_- respect. Perfective appearing compatible cniin hero examples '2ul' by 'Saar' precodod othor oorto. in ar©-. living correspondence in. E)islish tive whero hoop tlut above form participle Examples (aeo pp. lc7 ), contoxto in the with indicators another point Continuative past p©rfoctivo of of past extended time, for continuativo past e. g. time which to ý r" F 1J'. J three weeks she had been receiving During the last in taken the of photographs through post a series the city streets. When I opened the window I found that it had been all night.. raining ten hours a day before he retired. He had been working bl) 4. kaan The past to + Saar/? perfective kaan + Saar/? ul Arabic, ul + 9am + imperfect in English continuative + pronominal suffix corresponds + gam + imperfect in e. g. kaan Sarlo gam yuHki (He had been talking came to an end) tlut for saa9aat lemma ntahet ultaunaagaäe three hours when the discussion lanma kuseb ulbuTuule maa kaan Sarlo gam yul9ab ©unteen (When he won the chiampion3hip he had not been playing for more than two years) lHarii? a kaan ?ulha saa9a 9am tultuGel (The fire had been raging for an hour it). Cf. active the above participle sentences is with used instead the of lamma ktalafuuha when they discovered following where gam + imperfect the forms maa kaan. Sarlo saa9a naayem lamina fayya? uu (He had not been sleeping for an hour when they woke him up) ba9dma kaan ? ulo naazel w Taale9 ?aktar wu? e9 2a ddaraj mun 9a2ur marraat. (He fell he had been up and down more on the stairs after than ten times) Cl »' 'º (v 'J As in the the case of the correspondence between present the past and kaan + Saar/? ul + gam + imperfect hence one and seems to any teaching there problems in this perfective perfective is be no conflict context. continuative, continuative a straightforward that may cause p.., 5. a) type The into in forma Passive English transposed of English of number a which corrospond©nce active-paooive in enter sentences illustrated by: The teacher Lightning They'll the 'her' of joint form their struck in the explains last the in 'she' the appears sentence active transposed the bylyicked by them. She'll seven seven. example Sentencon is explained The lesson by the teacher. house was struck Their by lightning. lesson. house. her up at pick that Notice Passive Sentences Active the order of form absolute nominative in up at nominative the con- passive ©en- tence. In tive general, can group can also verbs Since with (1) has that is verbal + particle, Jesperaen quotes literature English being the action form. This classified as verbs just perhaps English passive in 'stroll' reference to the prepositions, passing of in appear belonging the even since e. g. preposition, in appear true, completely verbs only also which it passive the form 'a garden is appropriate characterized are broadly is howeverI not, intransitive when accompanied made to been made to tr%oi- so-called be strolled distinctive to mention by complex divisible by a in'. use in forms into the figure 70% of passive in sentences (? ) appearing the performer without of preceded by 'by'. Cl M" non-propositional ('to tako' ) propositional. ('to tako to') non-propositional ('to put non-phrasal phrt a]. ('to prepositional Further examples Sore except verba of when acconpaniod 6ihioh transitive transforms, subject, 'becomes' of (so© IV i. e. havins vorb, in typ© the and in subject. the first of second do not (1) up 4th' ) occur by propositions isn't It to be laughed a thing The doctor was sent for The bed had not boon slept in Sentences put up') which one of panaivo crro: at p. Z9) 9 which two in objects, the which contain can have direct object the indirect a doubly two paosivo lbacomost object Cf. They offered me a job (to) A job was offered ae by them I was offered a job by then (1) The distinction typos of these or verbs is duo to 'Syntasaatic in his T. F. Iiitchell Relations in Lin6uistiu Transactions Analysis', Soci©ty, pp. 103of the Philological 106. be zzentionod It -should those here that verbal catoteaching having constituto Arabic a serious 6ories. problem, to match what is a characteristically no such categories type/. verbal Slish cý "" ýJ On the only r hand aentoneon other transform. one passiv© ý of typo V (coo p. U. ) can havo Cl'. They made him president (by them) He was made president 0 President was made hin by than. rare Under passives verhn which fr©qucntly in. 1glish either ao, e. g. occur In passive 'your with rinnt roplaco Examplon bo roinearnatod will Sox-ma are non-finite 'your shoes 'Get' The verb 'bo' they Thus forms. or most gros of a canoo and was drotmod in Kentucky think some cases, thoso of form passive crown. boar, reincarnate, Ono boy fell out Lincoln was born Some people in, the only bo asdo chould montlort in variant is with frooly va. bo cloicd'. constzuctiono, tondinS to EagliDh conversational. in. passiv© rrooly shoes nood cleaning' named to doath. after to o. s. last He got married month. difficulty. Jokus sot elected without The above Thus last 'He Got married married. him'. a copulative 'sick' ex=plus or One view verb 'rich' ', dot' night tranaforna not are month' is that (like be. is 'harried' 'be') Cf. not just of activo a transform is the aantoncos, of conplonont as an odjootivo 'H© was married 'Somoono last of liko month'. ný wJý the following examples, paDaivo auxiliary 'bo': In tho however, He got for spooling irrostod I got blamed for everything. ,5h© gets upset easily. In to none cases psßaives fron 'He was married (1) someone or ago, combinations (2) Gone througha year at (1) the 'be' with ble 'got' ago' harried a year authorized is of those 'be' ago' to is ceremony is state before a year are not It clonor tho of to that can dictinguioha_ only noun did a year time. can neon proforonoo Thus adjoativo. c ©ronony a wife in clearly It ambiguous. perform unambiguous. an .. on fora and a participial he was in_ possession the In yesterday. used with beccuso 'sot' so a year u.go, 'Ho got that atthor having harried he arrived ago. I have dratim. on Ralph B. Long' a 'The Sentence and Its Parts. A Grammar of Contemporary. 1&Liah', The University of Chica6o Press, 1961, pp. 113-119, in ay -troatment of passives. )d. kJ 5. b) Pzuaivo fixa). narlers -n, Arabic Arabic are distin6uishod torna in structuro Active of by their C and V rind by tho pro. o. g. -to Verbo 'apolvo Vorbo Darab uTTaabo (ho hit. the ball) nD arb of uTT nabo (tho ball. Wan hit) 2 ura lukt aab. (ho read the book) n? ura lukt aab (tho book wan road) z awwaý ? u,fkaaron. tgawwagof ? af1: aaron (thoir thoughts woro (ho their confused 9alla? (they u nnataa? published In. senteacos with Active the thoughts) ej the _confuood) verb t9alla? ot unnataa? oj (tho ronulto worn publishod) reaulta) passive containing active corresponding agrees in verbs phonological in Vorba paaaivo verbs, sentences 'becomes' in and gander), numbor the (i. subjoct Sent.. 9uffat nuHna 9azamna 9nio (we invited Aunt If fat) 9t=o (Aunt luwlaad kasaru TTaawl© (the boys broke. the table) TTaawlo 1? zaa9u axbaar (they baa9 winounc od the (tho the television it 9uffat iffat ceo n9ameaot wan invitod) nkanbot tablo wan brol: cn) 1? axba r nzau9ot (tho flown was nnnouncoci) news) uttalivizyoon. (he sold o. e. g. Ptwaivo Sentences in. object cot) nbaa9 uttalivizyoon (tho tolovinon cot sold) wall ý^ iJ T"ho potZion boforo tho aftor or tho of n? abal (tiaatrya nkaoret a paoxitvo post-vorbal aontonoo bo fro- loan boing pouition cull bu 1jaan9a na9aawya bu ljaaa9a at was accoptod tho univormity) uTTaawle in forma £orns passive Thore EaLish. the between tuto inplicationa Contragtiv© C) Arabic conflicts in tho lan6ua3oc, two teachinS creating to General diffcrancos howovor, aro, forms passive in correspond for problems passive of which native use constispoai orc Arabic. Arabic Since with load the in TT aawwrle nkasrot (The table waa brokon) 5" of cub joot vorb, na9aawya n? abal or .J Thus wo can havo quent. or ý1 ýJ B1ish to, passivo passiv© und ex-plains, followin& for=s, the fortis tiro not conflict copious3noss in poriphrastic aricin& of in attoutod this contrast aroa nictol; may oc of typo: is the most naiiric 0 Television among thooo ont apparatus found in the houao. furniture (sic) tthich . the playa liked 0 Everybody which porforaod on the Theatro. gilitary " by a aßn, 0 no killed. loft his si6ht for him. o Ho lout and nothinC 0 From what nontionod above... in Syria Q msny schools ostablichod recently. CN0- -1 .3 J $ý 1!oroovor, aunt follow or procodo tho the precede last the tw©cn in lities 1-then the verb, und the tho oubjoot JýiGllah con- occur: round Linda tho or agroenont plag o. botwoon conflict to the word-ordor; bo- or non-a, Grooiont subject. The aGroomoat pocaibi- as follows: is subject the of number are an indefinite may be sinGular latter the and cinco one relates of O= contonoo corroopondln6 two first The verb %rabic in rovoala possibilities passivo Arabic, the buildings all the rooults. Sentence the ' to second, a paatiivo oc commonly nistz and ]DaGlish. `,rabic in vorb paccivo 0 Were scattered U Vlao published The in subjoct vorb followinG the tences, tho cinco Thus subject. Tolsowtng noun or plural re6ardlees the of pausivo trio wo can havo nwajaü jamaa9a nutfaanaiin. 01* nwajaüu or jaaaa9a tThere happened to 00 aoao pooplo n9azat 9anna ktitr ilyuuf n9aza=a 9anna D iuur ktiir tx ny Guests In pairs mutfaahniin. are ind©finito the above more were invited context, noun in the dual sentences in o3pOCtally or togothor) our house) Sirrt und thin frequent, In the to wL,o Got uu voll in procoded of tr two Co whon tho by a nunora. L, o. G. iJ v 9aor niasar (tan plates r. I SHuun woro broken) n9azam tlaatiin (thirty guests Doof were invited) bi yoon waaHod in a oinGlo day) nbua9 xann sayyaaraat (five cars were cold nfa j ar na91 duulaaboon 9a TTarii? (two tyres burst on ray way) tho tlhen the verb cub j oct and the subject the or follows precedes is howovor, is the always v©rb, TTullaab nfaHaSu (the students were or dofinito, tjroouont caso, whothor botwoon tho e. g. oxrinod) nfaHaSu TTullaah lHaraaiyye (the thieves or nkanagu nkaraalu were possible 'DuHlu 1Harramiyye transforms gala ) it cau With prepositional ? ubni' verbs of the (they (see p. nc), active laughed sentence. at my con) wo can havo two Thus the scntenco can bo trancformod into nDcHak or sub j oct 9ala ? ubni ? ubni nDcH& gal©o (My oon. is lau&hcxl In tho last sent onto at) tho propositional, particlo 'Sala' n^f :)b sv is with associated and gender to rice the with involves Arabic a pronominal mistakes '? ubni'. noun a point of conflict is charaotoriotio of L%elich and Gives typo: thou. dopendod on it. Arabic reflect which number with D 2:any girls gras spo1"on about A WW1o woro ado fun of us. 0 Good handwriting, In aerocinG This followin& the of sufUx 9aloohon banaat I tilr nfaka nD cHal: 9 al o ona 1xcTT ulHulu 9aloo. yu9taaad irthor of passivo yu9tundu depended Pazi&ivo 1. 32. gala ? abuuhon fatho on their 1. 2. bi man? alt ulmunHa battu (they the question settled of the scholarship) ti-thile in the the tonco cato propositional Sent one 013 etivo laauu (they oxanple3 passive above is latter (see in verbs contoxts, can they an indefinite p. ui ), a nominal on object sentence. äcntoncoc fiiha nau? alt ulnun: ia nbatt fii ulnunlla nbatt a, s;?alt (the question of the scholarship was sottlod) or in their their or a'fii' a verbal Exanploc follow follow can only in aro: ? abuuhon k an yu9t anrd 9aloo ka. a yu9tz aid gala ? abuuhon (their father war; depended on) procodo noun varbs subject 'particle' sentence, arc: subjects or triton son- a prodi- p or ? ulha Soot byuncuno9 (sho has an accoptublo voico) fii ? aöya naa btunflka (there that are things cannot be said) tt ar©et ? alam naa byunk-ucor (I bought an unbreakable pan) ? ahwo btun: urob is drinkable coffee) haadi (this An 1e the in the the above examples nentencoi above ? ulha Soot Hulu (she has a nice the occupies the with forms, verbal case of other place the of pernuivo vorb an adjective. Cf. rollowinG: voice) fit ? a'Qya surriyyo (there are certain things) secret itareot jdiid ? alai (I bou&ht a now pen) haadi (this ? ahWot aaza is fresh coffee) Ma&1ich passive verbs in have connection aeon, as we they mistakes conaidorod (noo in p. 134) 9 the O Handwriting 0 This is with is by to relation follot. 'ins sonothinS n h=dtrritins; not. or occur dopcndod Thun claunoa rolntivo could cannot whether pronouns, ttho') contexts, pronouns relative by relative (preceded definite is cedent verbs be introduced suet in parallol can occur on with bo accoptcd. (soo the but p. t14), anto- part Uol with activo paonivo vorbz: to r" .1 (3 Comparable bal i'orns discussed a) or in Infinitives infinitive The in form dictionary nominal, to by the definite These forms and include the B'nglish, the of is for indefinite article, colligate an adverb, and that it has a continuative, forms. facts other hand, with its it can occupy occupied by nouns, and that the form. with In the infinitive On the that -ing following is clear examples since it the base the than verbal be preceded cannot an adjective, can freely -ing of more it example it pically called infinitives, perhaps that shown are consists which verb, that, extent. or by the deemed are English and passive what sha- and ver- nominal with form, -ing forma forms. and -en 1. both with a.. d contrasted in English forms as nominalo following, In the lorma; in Arabic. to be comparable forms, classifiable characteristics are non-finite forms considered. syntactical ring Forms in Arabic sections were and verbale En lish in Forms and Non-Finite In preceding ) or perfective, nominal can be followed and is character ty- positions some cases verbal an a noun-object, certain in or character it varies of the by a nominal (% ',' r) (a as iä the a finite with case I see him every with in nominative or a pronoun noun, form. just Of. day I want to see him every Colligation form) abeoluto with day an adverb is illustrated the following example: She likes WO to She dresses the Loreover, (to continuative (to passive been elegantly elegantly) infinitive tinuative, on the hand, other the following a) Sin is To err asked), and perfective (to (to asked), have been the positions examples be being have asked), and perfective, being occupied are characteristic con- asked). by the infinitive of nouns. human is human b) The difficulty The difficulty c) I I like like (to forms passive have ask), have and passive (to (to simple perfectivefto continuative continuative and passive in appears be asking), be asked), asking), perfective in dress swimming to swim is is (of the the fulfilment (the promise to fulfill promise) Cr. (is. ) J with The Infinitives with Distinction is and without 'to' infinitive liaries other may, (I but, help; let, shall, so will, etc. can't but, (adi) as; + object of verbs which see, the ;I after a verb make, it see 'toi do anything and after have, wish had rather, member of a sub-class hear, to without must, after cases: do anything make, commonly made between appears (can, 'to' & without the modal ) and in auxi. a fear do no more also when include: than, let, after the ). it can Examples watch. infinitive verb coo, in a feel, are: I must see him immediately. I had rather die than fail. I can't but thank you. Live and let live. his He felt hands tremble. Infinitives and -inf., forms Infinitives and -ing forms and are contrastive contexts of either in are others. form in some Thus we can have them in: (to He began questioning us (to leave) leaving I propose loves Nobody really working In interchangeable the following, involves a contrast: the use of us)question innediately. (to work). the infinitive or the -ing n ^, . stop thinking what you're doing Just stop to think what you're doing Only the Just is infinitive in possible (thinking bio) (thinking the in undenirais desirable) following examples: to go and look for himself. her to sing a song. He decided They asked Conversely, only forms -ing in are possible the following examples: to the point. going straight laughing when I see him. in I believe help I can't form - infinitive The -ing associate rentially termine, endeavour, preserve, pretend, seem, resolve, and risk, with avoid, 'like proceed, seek, with the or hesitate, promise, or plan, reckon, write, associate delay, enjoy, finish, an -ing form. Of. 'enjoy --- it with --- I should like deprepare, refuse, an infinitive; postpone, doing the frame (and) Thus: deserve, hope, propose, prefe- form. -ing decide, contrive, fail, strive, invariably to do something'. Grannatically, I like expect, lexically operates item3 infinitive attempt, complete, associate the with arrange, afford, ache, lexical Certain and grammatically. distinction I had time prevent, ootnething' C% /` I should can only 'to by either may be completed like A 1 road' 'reading'. or But --by 'to be completed read'. Infinitives as adjuncts Infinitives can be used in as adjuncts different construe. t ions : a) or (i) They follow an adjective that nouns which are usually to a verb are related followed by an infinitivo. ON to repair the ravages failed His attempt I have had the good fortune to know this With He attempted to I was fortunate Further examples man the ravages repair to know this man oC infinitives in this position arcs to reswne work :zas taken at that mcotinE. The decision A refusal to compromise kept him out of office. She has not the ability of public cork. From this she emerged the experience. repeat Infinitives or a3jectivec., may also to with follow take up any a doter: important Dina tion nouns not rolotthl not form to to vorb3 o. g. They swore an oath to carry out their duties diligently F. J % rI He made up hia mind to learn He had not the heart to play that Of. They swore (ii) the a noun, Examples type type and is come back would to come back The last following they the hync himcolt a record. of construction is different infinitive is an adjunct where the the position filling of it relative from to clauco. are: His greatest need is somebody to help him to overcome his weakness. the authorities. He was not the only rebel to trouble to be established. Glascow was the next university of. as the next Glascow (Notice that the above examples (iii) follows verb in nouns are-all modified type a noun which would finite by the was established. infinitives forms. of construction elsewhere the He has exaniplea plenty of the of the Of. are : money infinitive be the object He had many scathing remarks to make about discussed. He made scathing remarks about the matters Further in complements) In another its that university to spend. There were so many problems to settle. had nothing to any. The Chancellor the matters diocuoncd. n0.1 ti a b) feelings (i) follow Infinitivoc or states o4 joctivoo of mind like (afraid, with aooocintoci ambitious, anxious), o"g. its fato to one who The nation was ready to entrust both know and had foreseen. to say that I am sorry wo have not had any indication burden. I was glad to be relieved unwuntod of this (ii) in The they that ': It' with following examples can be related differ the to fron laut tho possibility of of onon tranopocition Thuß cf. . Cigarettes are easy to is hard The temptation They ought to make the buy to resist pool coupons easiar to fill in with It is easy It is hard They ought Cf. the also, with to to to buy cigarottes the temptation resist to fill easier make it followin6 oxanplo which 'it', He is eager to please and contrast, He is easy to please can be transposed which It is easy to with p1oaso him. 'it' , in cannot pool coupons. be transposed it. I Infinitiven c) by aävorbial Examples occur clauc©c j with vorba of purpooo, und oro cubctitutablo condition, or rosult. aro: ho may opoak epoak to me (that (If it to going to bo ©ffootivo) He ccno hero to To be effective gust be beautiful. They were strong won the battle) infinitive The 'absolut© free to enough occurs also adjuncts', to win the battlo in may be called what (that eta) a poou they ©. g. John Vornan ondowed his guild thoy with his tenoncnta, to provide the lan©. a beam light and a lamp to light A Military Training Bill was paccod calling up mon of training, age 20 - 21. for six month's conscientious to be assisnod to various objectors dutiac. non-combatant agree The subject and object The subject of in. finite of the 'to of the with fora. finite talk', form. the by a noun a finite verb, Cf. tho is object or pronoun pronoun to the also subject would whhcn that to talk thick of the appoarfl the you', can be concidorod to cub joot infinitive a tranufora you'. an infinitive, object objects a nominal tenoo-numbor wants sentence of in of 'he talks and 'he wants' loured 'hot verb toms In. 'He Thus since As to an infinitive in verb an infinitlyo of just appearing tho as it in latter can be is cauo tho nominativo fol. with abcoluto cý -ý 3 fa -) I I coo him want to In also every day. coo him ovory cases whore the the subject 'for', c cd©d by of day. of the subject the infinitivo, ftnito that. else to come. to * infinitive + oooao a nomi1ali often zinc; him to do so was diaScaceful doing so was disgraco21i1 to seems and be tied 'subjectival' to was disgracoful of This same device (for construction occupying the or the nominal part to him f 23/Pr. position of the Cf. position. do so. to t of t int. tfio predicate, ) cam fora cubjoct of boSan in hard how human lifo stop hero an outrage hero) you to it is The tendency religious. was for is an outrage. for you to stop the instruction a a finite o. g. how human lif© For a an to toll (cf. it is hard for a nun to toll For (of. pro- of. For His verb occurs not o. g. For + 2.t/Pr. It is latter the for you to think I should be sorry for He was gzite willing everyone it for me to road It. He loft d©vic©, verb to bocono boean) more ýý, ý1 ý,J ýl `S 'Omission' infinitivo of The sentencßs i I did not want to stay the night but asked than to play but they didn't ho bog Sod ao to. want to. I can't do as auch for them as I'd liko to. She went home because her mother made her. may be regarded 'I and and and not want 'I play' them asked 'They didn't ccn't to play. do auch for thoa' like to 'She went hone' 'Her mother as --' of the the want to 'I'd 'as -- of tho stay stay When these fora to 'Ho bogged a© to 'I and did as coapoundod do much for made her nicht' night' them' go homo' components are 'because' and , second component linked in tho togothor oxa iplon, in omitted. an by tho 'but'. infinitival ýý 1..: 1. b) of foature in a verb in of agreeing Arabic, not their discover tive in following participloc, or subjoct in imperfect in of oristio Vorbal finito, nunbor botwoon in Arabic. in IIi&1iah cud object function), Grounds the infini. Thus are u f, I want to Imow buddi ?a rof following a noun She has not tho soility naa 9andha ? ustiTaa9a His attenpt =ii aawalt o (in adjunct function). to snoulder tutMa al r to cheat was discoverod Gutem nh a tif of . the para. to sleep oarly bho likes tnaara bal: kiir butiiubb b) thoy condor. Arabic: a verb, (in forms i. o. distributional behaviour forms oharact nominal. torus infinitive the its aro on parallol imperfect of in infinitival tho natchifS oxanplo coaparablo occurrences Arabic. a procoding possible and 0+ Fhglish a) following " is for with verbs partially by 0. 11eled in forma sh, nominal it However, to Ehgli whother with agroe forma has no non-finito Arabic form inp©rf©ct 0t . C f. biS rooponsibilitios kbtutr ? uuliyyaat ný s1 w ti As pointed out it and is necessary, Arabic more fully. 0+ of Generally speaking, preceded, which 1. It forms fect Examples imperfect 0+ in nediately verbs, is infinitive its in Englich in distribution forms must nlwnyo by other or otherwise, be forms categoIies. preceded between agreement terms in operable by forms and the 0+ which of number, classifiable person, imper- and gender. are: byu? der yruuH (He can go if ?iza buddo he wants to) ?udros mun ? aural bdiit a started from to study Haavralt (I tried in perfect, b+ group of auxiliary of imperfect, by the fact can colligate ussune the beginning of the year) ?u? un9o lacken maa ?duct to convince him but I couldn't) A particular terized to examine is most frequently as auxiliary the hnn only verbo of imperfect to special belong imporfeot with therefore, Distribution whether 0+ distribution parallel a partially the above, with verbs that is 0- include auxiliary verbs, or in participial the only imperfect. : xaaf imperfect whether is form, forms 1embers of (he feared), appearing charac- of verbs this 9uref they group (he know)$ n0iv 19 the tried) naawal (ho xalla E=pl©a nuoi 9 lot), t? teal (ho forgot) (ho hopod), (ho ro tzahknr 0 o borod) , (ho darod). and otarja aro: Following verbs: uuluukon xallaana (Their behaviour nkawrwen fukra unilila made um form a good opinion) aas 9aad st ar jay. ýfuki na9ha (He no longer dared to upoak . ? iza Haawalti (If you tried beautiful) Following ? unti (You tuktbi to 9ala write her) bißiir nahl©k slowly your xcXTok handwriting Iiulu would bocoao participloc: au? ahhale tuHki to are qualified of ha laa uu9 talk on thin cubjoct) nutina mu&9uddiin (Wo are prepared n nnwunkon to help you) YuxloS auf? anfiel (He is noping to bukra finish 2. It to colligatca to-morrow) procodinG with form that nay bo a.laaaltiod as follows: (1) (i) (ti) (1) Notice which modal particles: connoctivea: tho parallolina colligato with ro. i, ? abulna, tauen, ku1=a, bijuu:, Hatta, with nodal uuxillario3 infinitivo a following laa,: om in, ? unno, law, in znGilch, 'to,. without bass ýV 4. .ý I-, c o: Etampleß raH ? ub ato bu lbariid (1 sill pond it by poet) (i) zuurkon nunkoz (I may viait bukra you to-morrow) bu ljaam9a luazom ? uttuSel (I must ring up tho uuivornity) (ii) roult (I "tabulma lesson the before arrived uddaro Z2xlos kulna t od yudros (nhonovorhe sat to finished) kann yn.aam study he would fall 9alooha wo may got jiib na9ak Hatta nut9arraf xaTiibtak (Bring with you so that your fiancb her) byusiiu?? 2unno neun to (He deserves biT awttlu (New CLuaents take ,vrith as jeo=ttva1 au -La it in number and Sender. buddi raadyo yjiib of, want a radio kull that natta tino to follows r" amploe help wo should to l=Iotr hin) ) ti; ayyafu adapt thonaolvon) a noun und aGrooa arc: luaHaTraat recoivoa. pU stationu) buddi rattyu jcllicl 41 want a now radio) Saar1o furSa yurban (Ha had the opportunity it doom) turned tho in C. O Toro distribution. a long pcuras30 it 3, (I (that be helped uj judad Ti ullaab o aulaop) C f- infinitivo luuf to ulloora, win in at baoc rafaDha tnouuands rn&LIGh of pounds uhouu a pttrallol but ho ý, He needs byuHtaaj It 4. someone to help waaHed vnnngao. occurs waa jubna, forms certain These forms suffixes. minal after him include: ?ulak tlnn? i kul (You can (I think you for you..... the in last ?unte in that case the last the above can ready) in affirmative is partiale '? unno' 0+ imperfect. no follows: tu? un9o. question parallelism exaiple used in negative imperative my thought before can be substituted English with with sentences, contexts in becomes by readily the following, ?unno truuf fakkart ?unte tu? un9o (Ithought you should go and persunde It (lit.: him connective examples appear ?unte the forms which Of. apparent. truuH everything go and persunde the example Moreover, 5. fukri, papers) tu? un9o should ) ) all ?unno fukri a verb, ?ulnk, prono- Hamper find may be observed potential Thus Eii to expect truuH fukri is 9aliyyi, with e. g. 9aliyyi 9e11eH miit war? a (I have to correct a hundred It compounded which hire) corresponding race the to imperfect in ý1 ^ cl v can vorb be in only : laa truko socond him ruuH ( go : lua t ruuH ! don't go Cortain : don't l©avo udjoctivos form. 1? aHsun. tuttuSlu (It is best for fiina you to 0+ call tho 1? atirfa? tudfa9 na? di (It is noro bon©ficicl to aü jectivez Other in. the form positive article 1nuhir. (Tho in DDaruuri (It last thing important is two artiolo fol. cro aro: pay in cash) ' auhiaa' 'Dazuuri') , profixod imperfect in fora truth) p. loo) by 0r and followed dofinito comporativo us) (notably (see tho Exciploo dduari to toll l? afDal tu I: i (It i3 better in tho with imporfoct by low©d o. G. hits) appoariz ) c.nä colligated p. m. (zoo pornon, tuturko (l©avo 6. The the J for. -a, hin for the with to appear definite O. S. cucccod) tazu^duu 9a lnuataBfa necessary oxc. pies that you should tako can bo trunstoraod hin to houpital) thing (to into lnuhiran j huwwo aaHo na (Hie success is tho important thins) ? axdo ga 1tusta6fa huwwo DDt ruuri ic. tho nocosssry (Tubing him to hospital do) ) 1: a nominal where (see Arabic the links is the to in said called subject, the and in 'huwwo' pronoun predicate. of 0+ characteristic distribution sentences introduced to be the deferred is best to call us the to tell is better It It 'it', the where or subject is infinitive the of by imperfect in infin- apposition To call us is best So far, it To tell butional the tional is truth in forms ,atched complete 7.0 contexts. potential those the the The auxiliary before 0+ 0+ find imperfect, verbs imperfect are very 'kann' forms in are English, and are 0+ imperfect. of co non in or'Sear' in auch Arabic distribu- however, picture forms forms The following in distri. a partial imperfect infinitive distributional + imperfect 0+ English. of of to possible between characteristics by better. has been correspondence infinitival truth into can be transformed which to the is 'tuaSdnr' Of. it'. and traditionally by a comparable English itive is distributional paralleled to jy) 4 p. subject This in (what .ý not given narrative are nlways contexts, e. g. C%1ý r w V t) ? aam jaab ? u.-.-to cabbutni. (Saar) harb of .w ? a=ot mbaareH Drubiiha. muu 9oob 9aloo ti yaa nal9uuno, ullha li 9a$aayo w ? alli rlkod waraaha w t oubbi t oot o? insulted (Yesterday his sister So he brouGht no. zoo So she ran away. And no to boat her. and told a stick her and tells her "You nau city 'irl he runs after aren't j such ninon ?') your 6randnothor you ashamed to call (kaauu) wa?t y5iir w yu9du yut farraju. (Whonover it and studios 8. It preceded above that by another instructions, or opinions, loavo would 0Tt thoir must bo iporfoot bolon&inG to othor initially in approval, o. c. may bo used it Howov©r, thoy fornn or other verb diraaouton yutruku Limo, gras tolovision it and watch) has boon said cat©Sorie3. s©ektng wa?t uttalivizyoon quontiona bu tttzlifoon fiihon maktuub luana ? uttuSol lottor thou up 7) than or ring a send ? ub atlon I Shrill ? ? uubox lak razz Sha11 I cook you Sono rico ? ?) 9wayyot Hatab ? 9til. a waSSiilkon. (Shall for you ?) I order sonn logs These in which latter the c of present tition. questions the orb can future and future Cf. in appears appear time, distinEuichod are with b' fron imperfect indicators the former time only can but of appear not with other form questions in ropetitiom with that an well indicators indicators whilo of of ropo- " ý. tJj ? (9aadatan) buddaxxen (do Do you smoke? you usually ? to smoke a cigarette ddnxxen sigaara (would you like + imperfect 9.0 wishing, prayer, In ?alla' mungaani (i) appear ?) used in contexts (ii) and swearing, (i) it and the in coaxing of the forms (i) with certain 'man' form 'balla', precedes 'munlaan and supplication, Yalla 9aleek yaa -vurDi (God bless you nkr son) blending, exhortation, collocatca (ii) In n9aalla. in exhortation, imperfect 0+ also cursing, such as : ?alla, forms is and supplication. coaxing, ) smoke? e. g. ?ubni nsacUa tun aHu (May you succeed) ? allay 19ano May God s curse be upon him) 6 (ii) lees ?aa9ed sacket, (Why are you maa tulki? why don't silent? (mun aan ?alla) us some old song, balla (sing ilnR for the ?uxtak munsaani tsnnyer (for my sake, be nice to your Subject It the has infinitive 0+ of been you talk? ) dii Qunniyye sake of God) ? adij o sister) imnerfect pointed and the 0+ out that imperfect the main in the difference fact that between the former ý1 ^ yý Ui is whereas non-finite, tive be linked cannot form; 0+ unlike (person), in number from any lamm which object girls ? aal (tell), Bootak imperfect, ? ajbar xalla (Your voice infiniin its subject there it or in relation may may be evident to other verbale 9a'luw1aad maa ysallmi they entered and its certain a nominal i. e., did not 4ablma tssrifer them before greet she verbs subject (xal1 (compel), bunti the boys) left) tka afu adjust) Aualek t_ w tk mmli you please go and finish your imperfect after with form gam ylaa? u Su9uube Hatta (They find it difficult to 0+ by agreement the e. g. SallaHuton ul? ustaaze (The teacher corrected daxiilek (would subject indicated, contrastive lbanaat yfuutu i. e., agrees 0+ with agrees ambiguity, (When the a nominal finite, and gender. its the context, clearing with is may be expressly which a nominal former imperfect The subject be the work) can fill (let), ?a4na9 the position naßaH (convince) (advise), ). Examples turtu9eb made my daughter ?ajbaret ? axi ZZuruuf (Circumstances forced frightened) 9a rriyaaD ysanfer to travel my brother Lvrazii' ? af na9 9adna n the m nis era persua ed 7brýl l'iyaZiif to accept to Riyad) the of an post) are: J6 a phrase of objects gala ?aSarru (They insisted them) with ni bakkiir 9andon to have with e. g. me up early) (lunching) lunch a personal in as also and a preposition, to wake (waking) that out colligating suffix pronoun this context, the preposition cannot only a being e. g. possible, 9alee 9tamadut (I a verb the noun subject for be substituted of on yutaadda rfii? friend on their be pointed should pronominal yfayyu? on my brother counted It ?axi may be used subject consisting gala 9tamadut (I and its imperfect 0+ counted bakkiir vfay m? ni on him waking me up early) 9andon yutGadda on him lunching 9alee ?aSarru (They insisted with them) 11 This to parallel the in infinitive cD Contrastive It has become clear to thejinfinitive the that native speakers distributionally Of. English. (intervening) implications 1. Arabic is to intervene on the minsiter on him intervening. They counted They counted relevant imperfedt of 0+ occurrence two forms of Arabic from the distributional in EngIsh are to and 0+ sufficiently identify them facts imperfect in comparable for in all cases' ) C%^Q t.; aj This, naturally, identifying complete In the first to the both without in two forms problems, since will rise give a to English. place, infinitive ttol, the of forms unacceptable teaching constitutes 0+ since tto' with corresponds and to the between confusion imperfect the two is infinitive to be expected. at. fakkek xaTTak bass maa ?duct to decipher your handwriting Haaralt X tried bu? der ?ufham xaTTak I can understand your handwriting. Two kinds are one is context: used (with the 'to' where it that however, among of mistakes speakers the use 'to' of the auxiliaries); should be used. mistakes of likely of Arabic. It the to but I couldn't in occur where it should other is the should first Attested type this not be dropping of be mentioned, are mistakes more coxmnon of the two types are: 1. 2.9 must to go back early. (sic). He will to read all it 9 But you must to wait many time ®I (sic). He hopes become all the people educated (sic) 9 When he had returned to London he began write his (sic) impressions it to books (sic) and poured He hesitated tell her the news. C' t) "J In Arabic the verbal (your in the which therefore is verb in clause the (Your comparable in from verb forms, sisters the as in came to in corresponds help of says us). the which to case which a difference exhibit one case them), agreement, structures intransitive, an infinitive that pattern both ?uju help we might grammatical ysaa9duunat however, English, (first) in ?uju usual t? uxwaatak in basic of in, a tyro-form subject example common to is the exhibit '? uxwaatak In difference subject of came so that sisters involve not a change as for conplex, nsaa9udon' does place, second main structure a subordinate Cf. other. Your sisters came to help ?uju ysaa9duuna ?uxwaatak us Your sisters came so that "aatak ?uju nsaa9udon we might No such distinction in applies help them the case of transitive verbs. or. Your Your in of view Arabic of "I sisters want to help sisters want us the difference to English They must train to us help between results in students them. Arabic the and English, following attested a transfer mistakes: so as to become (context ood soldiers. to stay in London my parents convinced requires to stay in London and not the parents) the writer to meet you at three Do you prefer (context ? o'clock requires: do you prefer that I should meet you .. ý1 In the in variable the third place,. terms, of a transfer the of infinitive being rise gives 0+ of the in Arabic invariable, is imperfect following is whereto and gender, non-finite, variability to imperfect number, person, infinitive, English 0+ since to attested the Engl ids mistakes: like him. 9 Nobody can writes (sic) it He will reads all the students. it to make it takes all We must extend to gives It must improve us higher certificates. (sic) the state. him controls @He had an iron hand made (sic) to university our see wishes my all and ... in the world. becomes among the best universities (sic) life the is. knows 9 She made him what it. to gives He tries that dream comes to us. to let 0... her boy. She must teaches A fourth in constructions function of object the to as adjuncts the infinitive in appears 9ando maSaari ktiir 9ando maýaakel It English, will 0+ ktiir be noticed imperfect the infinitive as a finite infinitive in in reflected which certain 0+ and the noun would transforms associated He had plenty of money to They have so many problems with is a preceding in infinitive Arabic the both which between conflict imperfect and 0+ English of point in imperfect be which Of. verb. spend to settle yuSrufha yHullha that, colligates finlike the with infinitive a pronominal theta in suffix tr to referable of this the preceding characteristic in noun gives rise this to Transfer context. mistakes the of following type : My brother has many friends to invite " We have many lessons to prepare them. to see them © There are good programmes The same kind is of conflict by a preposition, followed for the preposition. in in television where the infinitive such cases to the preceding referable suffix a pronominal with occurs them. (sic) in Arabic noun colligates Cf. ' He has no home to go to There were many children for Susan to play with with maa ?ulo kaan fii the ktlir mistakes She did Yet again infinitive is ma9hon this kind of to live in city to look at them. it. reflecting a lovely are just nothing the is 1? uGraa? ssiigaaraat to be ashamed of same conflict conflict is hard easy to arises it. in to a preceding an adjunct The temptation Cigarettes are with tul9ab following: 9 Damascus C@The fruits the ?ulo yruuf wlaad Attested include beet to resist obtain Sa9b ngaawmo saht nu6triihon contexts adjective. where Cf. t '' ""9 Cf. ' the following attested mistakes: is easy to learn it. @ English them. Q Dreams are not easy to explain is nice to see it. Q Damascus Fair A final point and 0+ English of same verb particle no equivalent of 'tot or In form in appears imperfect a0+ did not watet to stay do as much for can't I I from in the of the of cases Arabic, in absence charac- instances appropriate contexts the form infinitive where in comparable the results retention with 'to'. Arabic infinitive the of precedes, the in imperfect 'dropping' teristic between conflict of either a counterpart may be repeated. Cfe the night but he begged them as I'd like to me to with laakunno traj maa Habbeet maDDi lleel (saa9do ? bu? der buddi adma maa saa9do 2. --ingForms It is books ticiple, customary between two categories and the tical grounds, which made other 'present to find since participles' the two grammarians for -ing categories reject a neutral made in grammar forms: The distinction gerund. aani a distinction of the is are the term, (maDDii) present par- made on syntacidentical terms the 'gerunds' ' -ing in form, and form. L% The use the of in especially in it which is it Hc3ever, 'gerund' it in correspond forms and which general both present in to active forms constructions either the category., distinction point Arabic, in be found will in forms verbal of Therefore, participles'. 'Al-Masdar' participles in and passive participles as gerunds are formed English of as gerunds 'Al-Masdar' participles to in classified so-called relation convenient, a contrastive a sub-class 'active and past relation the modo to may be called will that to keep from as present grosso be considered in to them to convenient is appear assign be found classified correspond forms participle' will form -ing -ing to difficult 'present since view, where seems more - term uncommitted cases `J .i in to Arabic gerunds Arabic; and be considered will Arabic in respec- tively. 2. a) Gerunds Forms classified form of the verb as in they may be used occupied contexts attributed a suffixed which characteristics Thus by to overlap in They have -ing. with contexts by verbs; those of occupied hence the the from simple syntactical other word-classes. by nouns term as well 'verbal nouns' them. The nominal syntactical properties of gerunds are exhibited A0 in or contexts used as subject, and in contexts Examples as noun-adjuncts. serving object to appropriate adjuncts associate-with selves are and complement; a preposition, can of nouns; are: Gerunds of they and, in can the of case adjuncts with appear gerunds characteristic to corresponding be followed by noun objects form. Examples are: absolute properties syntactical exhibit they and them- on. also a verb where is hardly the way to get Stamping work your in a clear He began reading voice. like treated to being They object children. is lying. Complimenting is masterly. His handling of the situation luxury. hankering Single-minded after Retiring age. Thus can they where lý verbs. of verbs, transitive or by pronouns in verbs, nominative He began reading and distinctly. slowly flowers. is busy collecting His wife Seeing her is a pleasure. in Moreover, (seeing), simple the 2. t) Verbal distributionally classified of infinitives, (having perfective and perfective seen), manner passive seen), (having can be gerunds been passive (being seen). Al-Masdar nouns in Arabic parallel in Arabic are termed to gerunds have various 'Al-Masdar' in English. patterns and are Fers exemplitie'd no by n04 Darb, 9amals, Surb, the pattern of derived forms duxuul; of the grounds both nouns the tion as follows: (perfect) Verbal Noun mu9aakase 9taraf ?u9tiraaf tkabbar takabbor tfaaham tafaahom that are they and verbs. adjuncts Thus similar to deemed comparable exhibit syntactical Their nominal verbal to nouns, is of verbal gerunds is character character characteristic English of characteristics behaviour and syntactical with maa 9ayyant (I haven't are verbs commonest Patterns verbs. 9aakas nouns suffixes, triliteral the ta91iim And their nominal of illustrates 9allam morphological sified. first quadriliteral Verb Verbal form simple the of shown by of by revealed forms so clas- their colliga- verbs. nouns colligate with pro- e. g. yoom safar-i fixed the date of my departure) ta9liim-o mulawweq (His teaching is interesting) Moreover, article, e. g. verbal on nouns can colligate with the definite tý ? lbaaxira bu aHla mun ussafar ssafar (Sea travel is nicer than air travel) bu lmawa9iid tta? xiir TI am very annoyed Furthermore, can by parallel the delay to gerunds objects, as subjects, operate bidaayu? ni bu TTayyaara ktiir in appointments) in English, predicates, verbal nouns and objects of e. g. prepositions, byaaxdu wa? t ktiir lubso w Hlaa?to long take His dressing a shaving and time) a bad uDDuhur the afternoon) ?ana bHubb ulairaa? (I like in reading kifaaH lHayaat (life is struggle) 9a ttagaa9od ?aHaaluuhon (They pensioned them off) It differ should in can from general so classified rare be pointed do not nouns or in that that the verbal majority nouns plural exhibit but very nouns of number variation, seldom forms and even in show number distinction; cases when verbal be singular however, out, dual. Singular Dual Plural tafaahom (mutual understanding) ta9liim (teaching) takabbor (haughtiness) ?ustuGlaal (exploiting) ?u9tiraaf (confessing) ---- ------ ---- ------ ---- ------ --^- ?u9tiraafaat CP. the they i1ý V ný .ý Singular Dual Plural ?unfijaar (explosion) ?unfijaa- ?unfijaaraat reen The verbal character their colligation with cally colligate with to corresponding fact ý t they that with ciate of verbal transitive the verbs, it ktiir is case is by noun also objects revealed by characteristiof verbal nouns shown by or can the asso- Of. suffixes. pronominal is which and in can be followed Maki biTalaapa (Speaking fluently forms adverbial verbs, nouns fa99aal very effective) byuHki biTalaapa yaaser (Yasser speaks fluently) ta9liim ul? ungliizi (Teaching English Sa9b is difficult) ?un liizi ?ana b9allem (I teach English 6oofutha ktiir butsurr (Seeing her, pleases much) ktiir ?ana bguufha (I see her often) 3. a)Participles If participles the distinction is accepted made between for English, gerunds it and present would be convenient '.q '1 ýJ to discuss forms -ing together with so classified -en are comparable The present We are facing our history; method. The pressure menacing. The past and passive since forms classifiable Arabic is participle form the verbal of verbs, passive forms, the verbal The participles f'unotion a) are not and passive as will a sentence which sentences, e. g. in -ing ending e. g. be uncomfortable, form found in if the not perfective only forms; one of his poems. developed and it was not that its were rules used in the perfective, they are also used in be shown below. The Present The present form e. g. in his life He has depicted This doctrine was gradually the nineteenth century until defined. strictly continuative, as active than any revolution in to abandon the experimental to was beginning forms respectively. a change greater we are beginning is participles participles), with in the continuative in as present (past forms participles and passive found classified Participle participle can be used after can be considered a transform a verb of two in adjunct n*4 They (Cf. were busy They were he gulped Too often (Cf. He gulped horses They were valeting busy. his his tea. tea valeting standing horses) up He was standing up) his name. The child came shouting (Cf. The child The child came. was shouting The present participle by an adverbial substitutable adjunct' can be also in seclusion Living on an island, became introspective. (Cf. Because he lived in seclusion used ) name. his 'free as a clause, e. g. the Englishman the girl him Knowing this, admired (Cf. When she knew this, the girl... on an island, all ) the the... ) more. Looking back on it, one can see that what really interested him was the idea of combat. (Cf. If one looks back on it, ) one can see... When the it is participial functionally phrase equivalent appears in to a co-ordinate final position, clause, e. g. Sometimes he slipped into the grotto, advice seeking that had cropped on problems up. (Cf. Sometimes he slipped into the grotto) and sought... ) heavy drinker, He is a fairly never having less than five a day. pints (Cf. He is a fairly (and) he never has... ) heavy drinker, b) Past Participles Past participles Puzzled them. by his occur behaviour, in parallel the young Thnctions, men glanced e. g. behind `1s :i v by a situation He could not go on, overwhelmed his head. have entered never would He was almost The examples the be main adjuncts in subject of sentences strain. so far given as their verb kernel the considered free of the of subject worn out by the asleep, Which which they the strain. would have what may are transforms. strain. CP. with He was almost asleep, He was almost asleep. In be the where cases of of subject (cf. own their out with the the main verb could the latter He was worn of the participles, subject a subject the by out worn occur not with e. g. above), turning. dorm, its The red car was upside still wheels (Cf. The red car was upside down, and its wheels were still ) turning. There he sat down, dozing only his on the Birched ground, the beyond the heat. feet of protruding oasis great sandalled the point the same having been raised, He said that, would not occur again. mistake A sub-class catch, keep, Present of verbs leave, occur including with feel, an object hear, see, and a participle, Participles He could feel the heart throbbing (cf,, he could feel that the heart was throbbing) to watch the heavy They undertook many journeys being mounted. These set, two things always set the world laughing. guns start, e. g. R'rr Past Participles her Nothing would have surprised her. of said than to hear this to make itself felt. The new estate was beginning duly to see the boy's Janet watched expression (of. that face. to husband's her duplictaed see on ... face) boy's on her husband's was duplicated expression Participles comparable noun in that with of function, adjunct in nouns after occur also a relative a function or precede clause, the a e. g. by the numbers is not to be estimated The importance (cf. the by numbers who are participating) participating ... impending. There were clear of clear changes signs This was a reward due for services rendered. He sprang at the officiating cardinal (cf. He sprang dt the cardinal who was officiating) The laughing crowd. based on his observed Conclusions conduct. When an -ing serve form to distinguish precedes between a noun, a gerund features of and a present stressing participle. Cf. A dancing A 'dancing ( articiple) (doll 'doll that dances) (lesson (gerund) lesson in dancing) A running A 'running (participle) 'man (a man who runs) (competition in running) competition Stress can be the only feature between and a gerund, a participle A dancing A 'dancing 'girl girl a girl a girl serving as in.. to (gerund) distinguish (participle) dances) who is dancing)(gerund whose profession j'"d. 3. b" Forms and past to the participle passive Arabic are in participles corresponding and the English, in as participles present participle Arabic in classified with comparable active Participles present broadly English, the participle in to corresponding the past participle. It in is Arabic: to possible active two, sub-classes and passive participles among verbals are classified pies distinguish of participlePartici- participles. on the basis of certain chracteristics. shared they Syntactically, participles passive with verbs, active are substitutable verbs, with and passive verbs: participles active with e. g. (6tara) kaari beet jdiid (He has bought a new house) ? eemta waa9ed (wa9adut) ?ummak ? (When did you promise to meet your (nHasadna 9ala beetna maHsuudiin (We are envied our house) buddna tasjiil ma7buul (We want an acceptable Cl) mother 9ala ?) beetna) (yun? ubel) recording) The active of a triliteral participle verb is of the pattern CaaCec; the passive participle, of the pattern maCCuuC, e. g. (writing) (drinking5, katab he wrote )p kaateb (written); maktuub laareb dureb he drank), (drunk). magruub Participles follow of other verbs different patterns according to their CV structure. See T. F. Mitchell, op. cit. p. 87 fl f v, i Moreover, (Cf. ?ana saam9ak (I hear you) with the participles appear '1' particle +a pronominal hand, On the other in differ from verbs shared with nominal the ?ana smu9tak) (Of. jdiide new goods) ?ujaalon both and passive baDaaye9 expecting aayiilon They are -a active e. g.. suffix, take verbs, or suffixes pronominal with to similar Thus feminine jdiide) participlea appear forms. and the -iin they affixes and adjectival affix plural the that active baDaaye9 with are participles singillar affixes e. g. and -e, Nouns Adjectives Act. xayyaaTiin ýaaTriin mxayyTiin mxayyaTiin xayyaaTa gaaTra mxayyTa mxayyaTa m9allmiin mhazzabiin daaxliin mdaxxaliin m9allme mhazzabe daaxle mdaxxale While passive their participles they -a, -e, not colligate verbs suffixes. participles share with colligability with the differ from with verbal and active participles, active nominals suffixes in participles affixes, do not and, Pas. Part. i: colligate and active -iin, that contrast with Part* thcy and do to both pronominal v has been It and nouns to participles between Arabic the of Distribution of (in time past verbs, notably ligate and (c) the (b) with of the (a) indicators (See how the they of kiff feet forms context (see in fact and perfect than the of state of certain they duration (definite time. or Examples or col- repeti. indefinite), are: ?uHuSne raakbiin are riding horses) ?) Tam yalli mun ulGeem coming out of the clouds) the majority e. g. indicators differently: past future soldiers ), p. 26-i to contemporary of TTalla9 9a TTayyaara (Look at the airplane this the character with participles lees maati gala mahlak ? (Why are you walking slowly In however, and number; verbal refer behave motion, of ljunuud the of cor- by verbs colligate terms: action), indicators guuf more they is gender occupied general notional verbs with (a) in indicators with have of verbs distinction, participles terms with Participles participles performed and they respect A main environments counterparts. having tion, in forms, While in share this and English English their in English. variable are occur imperfect or in participles fozmer they because participles characteristics; certain respond that that above said i (J of verbs appear in gam + imper-. ýi S' y1 6uuf kiff lwalad 9am Vul9ab (See how the boy is playing (Why are you Soot 9aali bi gam tuHki leeo in speaking a loud laHaalo eating gam yaakol hay ? axuuki (There is your brother (b) ? by himself) la baadaad marraat more than ten times) ?aktar mun 9agr msaafer (He has been to Baghdad Hatta maabi xams kilomutraat (He has walked five kilometres bakkiir Taale9 (He has left The participles in this mmi his of sam9aan fii (I've heard Saari majority to-day) of ? (Where have you bought this yugtriili tie similarly Abahr hdiyye uljaaye to buy me a present (c) lmudeel yalli (Next year's Taale9 ussune model is better) ?aaa msaafer (I am leaving bukra to-morrow) ?aaxed ma9ak (Who are you taking The majority of verbs gala appear next month) ?aHsan ljanye bluudaan with ?) from (He has promised main behave verbs ? eemta bass maa ba9ref but I don't know when) of him ha lugraafe waa9udni boon here e. g. context, mneen wuSel la to get lyoom ualo work early the ?) voice ? you to Bloudan in the imperfect ?) form i'3 L) J by preceded 1b' 'raH' or in this context, e. g. jdiid raH y9amrnru musta6fa ussune ljaaye (They will build a new hospital next year) ba9d sunteen raH yutxarraj (He will in two years) graduate bu ibariid send it bukra bub9ato (tomorrow I'll When associated can negative with indicators with colligate by post) particles future of Hatta mutHarrek maali (I am not moving until time, turDi 9aliyyi I have your law yjunn Haakiilo maali (I am not telling him even if all participles e. g. blessings) he goes mad) daaf u9l6 wales frang maali (I am not paying him a franc) In (I found he had sub-class (which (he Hassab is followed suffix.. the In present case the and rather to -the the 'I of sentences type all the eaten contrastive. him kull apples), where a verb (he form of with the verbs of motion, form of the Thus in agreeing verb are 'la? eeto ? akal kull suffix the English. pronominal for participle variant bu silaareg' in and uttuffaaHaat'. active freely not a small (he heard), with the a:aaii street' of may be substituted however, verb the sume9 uttuffaaHaat' a pronominal 'la? eeto Cf. walking saw), participle participle. of ? aakel ) colligates by a present perfect 'la? eeto saaf includes: thought) perfect found the but corresponds Whereas #7 t7 t. ß (1 'la? ©eto mug;i in walked 6 bu ssaare9' the Of, street'. the use corresponds motive verb There the of motion he had house) preceded to is yet by the in of the verb forii when their the of the of (This tions) 4. bukra k"rhis non- participle of forms Of. sentencaa 'kaan'/'ykuun' . are 1 with 4 below, kaan kaateb saw him mutul time he had ulmaktuub (already) halla? butlkuun to-morrow she the have letter) street) baa9t e lull will the written ul9azaayen sent all the butkuun mutul halla? 1'aal9a nun utluGul time to-norr°ow be going out of she will sentence,. perfect behaviour participle lamina sufto kaan maasi bu UUaare9 (When I saw him he was walking in 3. bukra active verbs auxiliary (When I the case gam * imperfect of difference another 1. lanma sufto In that the 'katab'. and 5 witn 2. in participle und non-motive mokive to found la? eeto 9am yuktob ulnuktuuh (I found hire writing the letter) where 2, 'I also tufto i+aale9 mun ulbeet (I saw. him leaving the with to corresponds 3 the fora of active participle a motive verb; '. raal9a- corresponds 'baa9te' and in to the invita- work) corresponds sentence 4 the 9am"inporfect 6) ell eý tý il fora of a non-motive Cf. verb. 3 and 4 with sentences b below, 5 and 5. bukra kThis butkuun Tu19et mutul halla? mun uuGul time to-morrow have loft one will work) 6. bukra mutul halla? . arallel Arabic butkuun to-morrow %xhis time with to the participles which they distribution agree in ? axi 9aaye3 ktiy brother gam tnaD])©f after wars byu9du behind sit mka, yef is living of gender ulboot be cleaning she will can occur byu9du yalli (Those sitting house) participiea rnglish (or verbs tho and number. other participles) Ex=plea are: iin nurta comfortably) a happy life) Tullaabna 9am yudxulu 9a l jaan9a mkam-main 9anha 'okra xayaaliyye w San yui la9u mama naoduuniin. (Our students the university having forned enter ideas about it and they leave it disillusioned) In the sent oncea the participle following examples, and a preceding la? eet Daww ulbeot (I found the light agreement noun 6aa e1 or the nouse saafiiuhon lama harabu as iin k ,hen they saw tnen uon1n6 they rajja9on ine sent xaaybiin tnen pauk disappointed) or obtains a pronominal Burning) ran away) romantic between. sui rix: !. i IJ Participles in occur is posiL, ion nouns aer1uiteueaa and genaer, nunoer after of tnoy wniun agree indefinit©noso. or noj. "e enas"avtio. 1LLls Active with passivo rnis participlos, o. 6. participles DDaww uL, 6aa9el maa bixalliini (A burning light prevents maa fii (There naam me fron sleeping) ? aHla mun uTTuful unnaayom is nothing than more beautiful saa? ye 1aar e wala nahur ma?Tuu9 (A running than stream is better Passive participles tjaawazet (She is ussun ulna? buul accepted the past a dry a sleeping child) river) age) lmUzaat lmawduude 9ando naadra (The advantages existing with him aro rare) can only 1mikroioon taGal ulnalksuur naa (The broken didn't work) -microphone In noun as above the of adjuncts examples they which with include with the they attaching and the only preceding nouns nnahur DDaww sunnha which agree to are In agree. participles which participles the only noun. subjects, this noun. may follow in number In this they position or precede and gender, case, e. g. they the function Lhe following (the river is dry) 'light is burning) the aa9el (her age is acceptable) na? buul na? Tuu9 follow examples the noun definiteness are predicates '4 a.-ý, is it While distribution of from and Arabic points constitute for of speakers The forms discern to possible classified partial of these differences that conflict of a partially parallel in as participlos description the distributional other remain implications ba Contrastive 3. EaSl. ish forms above, there between them which teaching cause problems Arabic. distributional can be sunnuriz©d. similarities as follows: 1. or perfect Ei the fish present and past 'have' forms. forms and makes them in fast. papers bisur9a War?a lahalla? 2. in Participles ouf'ton comparable with the perfective appear with and conti- C f* raaked mSa11eH tlaatiin saw they verbs when these .luHSaan I with 'be' for substitutable participles The horse is running I have examined thirty with being Arabic gam * imperfect auxiliaries nuative in Participles running raakdiin_ both so far. languages can follow vorbei. C f. in ýýý ýý 3. both In running stolen mayy jaarye b aD aaye9 masruu? a The behaviour occur to relates between the II1glish characteristics in, perfect fact (since as predictaes verbs or of participles in participles the that Eaglish in particip1o in participlos they occur imperfect function cannot of as follows: summarized main difference languages with the in can be and Arabic in to wat er goods Divergence can can be adjuncto participles Cf. nouns. with languages forms); free whereas Transfer as prediates. gives in rise to the tou will the two Arabic variation participles of Arabic following mistakes: e You imagining things. in your head that Sihy you putting broken. 'his microhone 14 her when, you invited. Q Tell "ihich reflect Arabic ? unte nutwahhen lees HaaTet bi raa. ak ?lunnalc fo on naksuur haada lnikro ? ulla ? eemta na9zuun raj-; tua"j of fail t 4 ýtJ A characteristic they where in dence of by adverb a teaching and constitutes this difficulty is available: at all structions were not used analysed. Instead, students phrase an adverb where at priate, following least are with ever they always say or in IIlglish, is clauses, the the fact unnatchod that examination use would Thus sentences such ovicon- scripts adverb a participle by oyrian contexts Ifogativo problem. invariably used Being poor, the could not She is quite a different and beauty. wealth Instead, in stylistically. hardly in participles substitutable are Arabic, of .iN clauses, be more approlike tho students: to buy books. afford woman now, deprived of her write, she could not afford Because she is poor, She is quite woman now, after a different and beauty. of her wealth to buy books. she was deprived ýI ý1 ýiý1cý (4 A. Forms to the are In sification. forms these it intersecting fact, in in which adverbs, be divided the each following us his over, blank any to give a clear to basis and elusive satisfactory clas- picture them classify on the in of various morphological of characteristic eagerly, chief by any of adverbs of which is is their illus- sentence story ---- can be filled basis of the positions, representing on the hopefully, (1) defy order exclusively So varied phrase. be necessary certain The man told in belong seem to identifying fill the do not criteria. primary to trated they noun classifications The ability the that will syntactical and English (1) as adverbs or phrase forms these in Adverbs classifiable verb ) a sub-group of their aloud, into the following which adverbs may form. actor-wise, backwards, somehow, and here. In. the discussion of adverbs if. E. Palmer, op. cit., works, ; and Strang, op. pp. 281 ff. I have drawn pp. 171 ff.; cit., pp. 161 on three Prancis, if. major op. cit. 'v ;ý.. '1 filled The position following for a noun the all in for only Morphological 1. The first derivational are (with which are formed '-ly' to many adverbs derived group comprises few of aro adverbs. may be divided adverbs in suffix group into Members '-lyi from slowly, strangely, deadly, lively, 3. This adding of the group are consists forms. these include just the adveros about large class are: healthily, formed adverbs are: Cf., etc. suf- as uselessly, Examples usually adjectives forming hopefully, blackly, of in are adjectives. dorivationc]. and bound of certain ) of so that adjective etc. as there group falsely, wnien the clearly addition adjectives, to visibly, this base derived of and most by the formed manly, Examples remarkably, largest related addition (homely, adjectives. 2. to exceptions this the adverbs 1-ly` by the nouns t. raditionally, tives, environments sub-groups Lori, suffix there by common denominator of as other their includes It group. marked fix final sentence sub-groups. eight the a kind question, certain is adverbs Classification to According is It object. adverbs but possible by these of etc... by the eagerly, however, goodly, adjectives, those prefix Examples adverbs ' a-' to are.. ahead, that nouns, are verbs, away, formod ad j oc- abroad; ýi ö' `' ý % tý '. 4. English, '-wise' akimbo, anon. increasing A rapidly American fix anew; astir, adrift, those are added group to of adverbs, consisting nouns, lengthwis©, e. g. d©rivational the of in ©specially suf- publicity-wino, campaign-wise. 5. üembers by adding of nouns: the combining class of group forms, of to consists some, any, a limited group thoco formed and no with of every, somewhere, e. g. formod adverbs homeward(s). adverbs determiners those of '-wards)' suffix forward(s), backward(s), small consist group derivational the 6. closed this of anywher©, by a nowhere, everywhere. 7. Members indide, 8e in. This have that clearly there, members group They in positions identified. of of up, out, group includes adverbs are mariers forms with down, sentences over, perhaps, can this still, operate adverbs distinguish may as -adverbs where of a number of which considered Members seldom, this In, e. g. no common formal often, homophonous are group around. isolation. adverb this as prepositions, classifiable under, of other group word when filling classes include: oven, as nominais, then alww, uys. ©. S, are now, then, Other yesto: uay, j t)) downstairs, home, etc. Grammatical . unction Part difficulty the of and classification to as acrjunuts as a. is the fact worst-classes, to according into the ciosuription that as to as well the form-class the following they thoy not operate sentences modify mutually groups: ©xclusivo Adverbs These once, verbs modifying modify verbs Members position. fast, various in -encountered /may be classified adverbs fýdv©rna adverbs of :Thus a whole. or daily, of and occur this tvery) too Am I walking i. once saw them. group much. in pre- and post-verbal include: quickly, Examples well, are: 2 quickly He ran fast. b. Adverbs Advero3 precede usually 'It's of very extremely, modifying -adjectives group moa.ify adjectiv©s tnis the and adverDß moditiect nice indeed. '. too, nearly, element 1idverbs r ai a.iy, It's very good too fast iou are walling It isn't good enough. of (their this enough. for me. and adverbs. head) group Examples (cf. include: are: Thoy however, vary, "J =s. c. Adverbs or mods 1 yixx Adverbs follow roally, this of their C1, L;x'oup modify he4d. merely, quite, nouns -- Members nonina. la und can thia of Exarlples etc. group procedo includo: only, Eiro: It's a picture. quite Th© house upstairs. It's only a man. d. Adverbs used as subject-conpleinentc These adverbs and other verbs are used as complements incomplete of group include adverbs of verbs: there, abroQ4, here, out, and the up, verb Members predication. place after 'to this of proposition-liko etc. Examples be' adare: He's abroad. here. It's He-must be out. Position According Adverbs of to may be classified a. Adverbs b. Adverbs c. Adverbs d. Adverbs e. Adverbs (1)It in in in in in the position into five they generally occupy, adverbs classes: pro-subject position pre-verbal position post-verbal position pro-adjunct position miscellaneous positiono. be emphasized that this should is classification, since aenbers of this C f. 'He only laughed', word-classes. not a mutually exclusive group can modify other 'He really came'. ý ýý 1 3 f ý ;. in Adverbs a. Adverbs pre-subject this of class and some of position, belong Here sition. them placed are invariably of time, post-verbal I went there Yesterday, I yesterday. went there. Some adverbs like in sentence-initial in used po- Cf. can bo used sentence-final this can bo used, both which positions. tsonetines' and even in pre-verbal, are adv©rba and in in-pro-subject position in pre-subject, Cf. position. I go there. Sometimes, I sometimes. go there. I go there sometimes. We cannot 91 b. q however, go sometimes liaries elude: there. Adverbs--in-pre-verbal Adverbs auxiliaries have, of this class when these may follow alway$, the never, are position precede stressed. are: I always go there. I am always going there. I've always gone there. 1 -can. always go there. finites over, the except W; en stressed, Members adverbs. stills all nearly, of this hardly. ouxi- class in- Examples ýrý e.ý ýy _. C f., however, I I in Adverbs c. These the include: post-verbal are placed if there immediately, after am there. did say so. always always direct position the after is badly, well, but no object, and indirect (finite verb almost non-finito) Examples etc. , invabiably this Adenbors of objects. yesterday, or class are: He speaks well. He speaks English well. his ti ork very badly. He does all I gave hin some of then yesterday. co-occur, the of place, o. g. I I d. went or too, other of time adverbs there Adverbs of last of generally follow and place the adverbs Sunday. in pro-adjunct this class which adverbs they etc. exceedingly, That's very Good. busy. I am-rather It looks too dirty. You speak time when adverbs yesterday. saw him here Adverbs that be noted to is It too quickly position gonerally stand before modify. These include: Examples ar©: adjectives very, rather, cý r ýý He's It's doing very exc eedingly Cf., however, or the adjective well. well the done. position it adverb of 'enough', modifies, follows which tho -in It isn't good enough. large Thot' s hardly enough. He doesn't speak fluently onough. any e. Adverbs of Adverbs this of word-class 22enbers Examples of this nisc ellaneouc__2ositione class can and are found class include: modify in many and diverse perhaps, `Only' Cf. been Is an interestinG positions features nation the inG to positions. oxactly, only. are-. Not I. but my brother perhaps Perhaps I saw three people. I perhaps saw three people. I saw three people perhaps. three 1 saw perhaps people. diverse bolon words even serving following saw it. member of the when modifying to examples distinSuish in Which this ss the the tonic it class; e eleuojt, element occu nies into- modified. syllable has underlined; I only I only I only I only I only saw saw saw saw saw my M my my my friend friend friend friend friend yesterday yesterday yesteraay yesterday yesterday (I (I didn't talk to hin) didn't soo yours) idn! t s©o my brother) d. %i (not before) L,, obody eise saw him, nr v r. :.;. is i`here yet to AccordinC they the particular are correlated, classified into adverbs a. Adverbs which adverbs as 'how verbs of of did group of manner you do it and post-verbal classification of have manner, tiro, may serve Adverbs These YI . and are used They well, Adv©rbs ' whien ?'. therein. of They Their Members of this Examples of adverbs. words with traditionally boon place, otc. to such as answers adverbs in used pro-subject, Examples etc. are include: but steadily. He works slowly He quietly went away. He doesn't speak 1glisn very b. of question adverbs positione. suddenly, of nannor and sentences, quietly, kind another questions to modify pre-verbal, slowly, stoadily, gare. well. time time can the modify as answers whole. i: position. group serve sentence pre-subject include: or yesterday, to the or an element question post-verbal. thong to-norrotiwr. are: I went yesterday. I saw what he meant then. I'll see you to-morrow. c. Adverbs Members of of this place group may serve to answer the questions ý ''ý `where' , sentence whole is 'whereabouts' back, anywwrnere. Adverbs These r =plee is sentence generally by modified quently are: group always, and their position include: adverbs the there, are: anywhere. group pre-verbal, adverbs seldom, as answors to may serve 'how many tine: 'how often', like modify frequency of of this Adverbs Generally therein, an element or I'm going there. Put them back. I haven't seen them Is it here' d. They , etc. post-verbal. generally hero, ýT ýÄ '. t J '. Their and often, in the position thou of many degree. of quostions Some members hardly, fro- are of Exai plec' never. over, are: I always see him there. there. seldom very tie's I can't see you very often. I! ve hardly over spoken to hin. large hey enough. never are "1 Other degree, These 'how possible adverbs may serve large' l etc. of groups of quantity, as answers Examples adverbs adverbs to questions are: It' s very large. They are rather good. He doesn't work enou6h. I particularly wanted to seo you. include of adverbs prccision, liko 'how this of etc. fluently', ss rý c): c3 B. Under the of elements riation in other up va. ous Examples general characteristics class identified may oe altfett with to is to possiolo characteristics, will it nako include a thougri Vato nocossary of adverbs by the various include adverb-fornin6 word classes forms that '-an' suffic and to can be bound which forms. are: Noun st ens Bound ra? r.an (directly) daa? insn (alprays ? aHyaanan (sometimes) ? abadan (never ? asaasan (basically jucklau t oxceedingly) Haaliyyan Tab9an (currently) t a? riiban t naturally) (nearly) 9amaliyyan 9aas at an . t amaaman stems Adjective i arfiim-an (formerly) rasmiyyan (officially) taxSiyyan ýpersuuaI. %prautlual. Adverbs adveros, it sub-classes. The first formally `Adverb` heading variety set in_ Arabic Adverbs of as well Lyj Ly) this (exactly) thabitually) class as whol© modify sentences. stems verbs, nouns, adjectives, t1 `; ý. verb-modifying Adverbs by positional they adverbs of tnis group and its verbs inr©lation nobility can be pre-voi"oal, a verb rnoaify object post-veroa. (s) to the verb L, and can Examples , and are characterized Arhus nodifiod. oven occur between are: gala rfii? i z9ult ana fu9lan (I really felt for my friend) sorry daayman bifay? ini SSubuH (He always wakes me up in the ? aHyaanan (Soaetinea The last btutHammal it takes three morning) ? uabuu9 a week) examples different can have word order. adverb can Cf. a. ? ana z9ult bifayyi? ni btutHanmal i fu9lan 9ala rfii? daayi n USSubuH ? aHyacnan ? usbuu9 b. ? ana z9ult bifayyi? ni btutHammal i fu9lan 9ala rfii? SSubuH daaynan ? usbuu9 ? aHyasnan Cf. occur also before, a. before the or the followring after the examples object of where the object: bidallilu 9aadatan (They usually spoil uSSabi the boy) byuxtuSru ? aHyaanan ui? afia= (They abridge the films sometimes) tho verb, Ar- ? axaslu rat ßan ma9aalo, mniiH (They b. immediately the after got a good salary) object: bidallilu SSabi 9aadatan buxtuSru 1? aflaam ? aHyaanan ? axadu ma9aas nmiiH ra? san. In all pre-verbal. the above position the examples as well, adverbs can in occur of. 9aadatan_ bidallilu 83abi ? aHyaanan byu. %-tuSru 1? aflaan ra? ian ? axadu ma9aai nn11H Noun-modifying Nouns adverbs and noun-like fixes) can be modified before or ninal. suffix. yalli (what ttajribe (The after the elements by noun Exanples adverbs, or (numerals, tho nunergl latter not occurinS Dither after and only la? eeto hutrare 19aks tamaanan I saw is the exact opposite) hiyye experiment nuHaawale is ?uula practically 9aialiyyan a. firet attempt) personally) or. but suf- are: lbank ?ulo Biqa fii1L ,'axSiyyar (The bank has confidence in you ya11i ttajrib© pronominal la? onto hiyye huwwe to, naaman 19aks 9analiyyan i uHaawal. o ? uula tho prono- p lbank ? ulo Biqa 6ax; iyyan filk Adjective-modifyinggudyerbs Adverbs the yalli (The the modified, adjective Examples adjectives modifying can precede latter case follow or being more fr©quont. are: ? addamet ulbarnaame j Habbaabo juddan the proGramne was very one who introduced biSiir saa9utha (It would look manZaro completely swoot) Hulu tanaaman nice then) la? eenaaha. ? arxaS fu9lan biz asuu? (We found it really in the cheaper market C f* ? addanet ulbarnaanej juddan Habbaabe yalli biSiir saa9utha manZaro taaaaman Hulu la? eenaaha fu9lan ? arxaS Adverb-nodifying Adverbs can modify ending other the xaodified, modifying the in forms the classified adverb latter below). can be beforo case beim; on syntactic as adverbs (see more ?u ja gadnaan ba9di nubaaa.Iiaratcn (Adnan came immediately after ne) '-an' suffix adverb-forming criteria morphological and/or of adverbs or The position after frequent. the adverb Exanplos are: ýý ýý tý .EV saalmiin na9na 9amaliyyan. (They are living with us practically) ta? riiban mbaareH shurna TUU1 ullool (Yesterday we stayed up nearly all night) Cf. ?uja9 adnaan mub aal arat an b a9di 9amaliyyan saalmhin magna Tuul ullool mbaaroH shurna ta? riiban in;no, adverbs Sentence-modify Adverbs from those nal verbs are those '-an'. suffix or The sentences. are not final sentence frequent most from formed Examples positions members usually mostly this of by the numerlas diatinguichod easily They sentence-elements. modifying initial sentence sentences modifying with group addition Tab9an The positional. of ad- the vi taaniyan are biSgor waHde ? ulha mii zaatha every one has its advantages) lwa? t (Naturally of nomi- are: kbaar jjmaal ? aHsan la? unno ? awwalan zujleeha ? ulha Sabur 9a 19oTa: (Camels are better. feet because firstly their because they can stand thirst) and secondly Haman kul (Certainly in occur ? ulo time following criteria, bi ? aha=iyyto is an important forms since are includod they occupy ha leas? ale element in this question) amons cdvorbiulc positions typically on ý-. " cl occupied It by is classification On the basis following 1. 2. Those Those that ending colligation on form. imm©diat (We're into (association dual the suffix with ' -©en' Dyuuf ulleele expecting guests bakkUr bfii? uSSubuH in the (I get up early with 1yo om5 aaHi (to-day fine) i baarde lleele (the night is cold) to-night) morning) ©. G. 9aadatan, always). oly, form in similar are '-an', lyoom 9adnaan 9ars yustuGel (Adnan is working to-day) jaayiina may be divided adverbs suffix (habitually, which with the with characteristics nounal form, tho classifications, based their amonc the groups. daa? imcn iawran, of included intersectinG being Formal forms classify various interesting most to possible into adverbial$ the adverbs: to nouns the ). and definite Cf. exhibit article, l, tý 4 .c la wgguGul best time for SSubuH ? aHsan. wa? t (The nornins is the 3" that Members they can occur s Saar t alit liiadii (The taut lbusikleet (The bicycle is This be cannot include: the following a dononstrativo pro- down taits) stairs) us) ? uddaara hadool before these) tlufnaahon yalli triose we sate) had. ool foo? (ihesigrRbove 4. place uddaraj below the doorkon ba9dna (Your turn is after wa?? fu (Stand any of fact e. g. took conversation by suffix, a pronominal pi oc o, a relative followed or by the ur© charactorizod group alone a noun, elements: noun, this of work) includes group by any of follotred hoon (previously), khere j, hniik bakkiir (early), a number the ttherej, of above Datiere (late). IIbaareH (Yesterday A ? t+ Dahwo I got up late) place hure) which These elements. ba9deon nuHna heek buddna nul9ab k i; e want to play thus) daar hoon lnadiis took (The conversation advorba (later), Examples ? able are: cý ý' +I r? cy 5, ? abadan but sentences, with in verb first the the third Dontoncos (at to one can with person, neSativo bnoob members: and can colligate the in occur (st ill). lussa sentences a reeing group three only (never), negative tive tnis of and include only, in Adverbs all), c:an occur in occur a pronominal number, only affirna- suffix Examples and gender. are: lussa maa Tul9et (The results are yufto naa (I haven't unnataa? not yet ? abadan seen hin :maa ba? a yunfa9 It is absolutely 6. sified members or as adjectives number and Sender). Yaliil 1a little), now) -useless tnis group and are Members ktiir are homophonous distinguished show concord of (much) nniiti waa? el byuktob (Wael writ es well) ktiir ? atimad byaokol (AYuaad eats much) bizuuruuna (Thoy visit all) bnoob t i. e. , do not invariable at ej published) ? 1i11 us sparingly) this . fron with group Examples forms with then in in terns nouns include: are: clasbein6 raniili of twoi. Q tý _ý Cf. 9ando Soot mnii i (no has a good voice) fii byukrahu ktaar ttadxiin rjaal (There are many nen who hate smoking) HuS$uton ? aliile (Their snare is . by 7" Members of prefixing 'bi' characteristic small) this to of group them. They occur from o1 atwmuuha scenes in abstract nouns post-verbally Exatiplos speech. educated lmaeaahed u1riaasirle (They picture crucial formed are and are are: bibuTu? slow motion) bi. ýalaaga yaas er byinki speaks fluently) I xasser nays aa? btur? oS birat aaga (iiaisa dances 6racefu11yj Adverbial Under groups adverbial a number of groups word-classes a. cle of and a following cludo: (within bu ibeet the law), (at is which consist and occupy Members it groups this group consist or. adverb. home), forces belonging typically positions noun etc. of 9a lnasr9ed Exaaples are; distinguish to possible of occupied difforont by adverbs, a prepositional f©nborß ton to of time) this partigroup in. Dunn ulqaanuun , ý w" n Ci'ýýJ9 kaanet mariHa Lunn (She gras gay within iiuduud ul? adab the limits of politonoss) ka l9 aad e -r awwalt baali (As usual I was patient haada ('t'his gala koofo naa byuZftuGol 7ulla one doesn't work except as he likes) b. is It ad j eutive, limited to possible of the consist which and include ' Tarii? a' (way), t xall ao munrhon bi T arii? (He Got rid of then in wazzu9on (Distribute bi 'ak1 them naysaa? btunki (Maisa speaks It should category occur position While flexibility of in noun ono of a ' ýak1 ` (shape), are. - a ]zbi qa a tactful way) manner in are tnathäctveröial in the in Arabic 26lish are adverbs position Arabic common being . forma bi Soot 9a^ i in a loud voice) post-verbally adverbs most nutanaaseb_ in a proportionate bo nentionecx of 'bit particle group being Examples those group in this the nouns, of this in propositional nouns occurring number c4verbs 9 al ee with hin) in almost relation croup of majority characterized to aoso. Lutely the dement mobil©. of this cases. by a certain rlodifiod, Thio has iJ J)J been already lii. will '-an`. In the be given 1. uf.? in illustrated, following with the unt et =aanan tamaaman tunte rtara 5" Cf, vadle balle jdiide well tuGli lussa naa xallabt (I haven't finished my work DuG11 lussa aaa xallaSt tuunli lussa naa. xallabt of. Cf. (possible, jdüde ra: nnaat o dars o mniia (I explained his lesson fohaanto ianIIH darso darso mniiH fahhanto trier could voice Sootha biSu9uuoe nsanay uibu9uuOe 8. in their sub-clasco3 positions. yesterday) jailde jdiide wa rt e1 yu t 9od ? uddaarl xalli (Let in the front) rt tiael sit xalii waaa el ? uddaan yu? 9od ? uddaara xalli swat el yut 9oct Sootha Cf. $ the naaareii nbaarori 6. 7. of Gait aan GalT aan uf. c f. advot us onaing ? unto Ua1.t aan t arnaanau (You are completely wrong (He bought a now suit wtara npaare,. L tadle ytara balle raoaareH 4. each variationa possible Wtara r, f, witn examples, 2. 3. connection yet) ns ana9 biiu9uube _nardly nsauay ooot. ia oo neatü) buddon, yuTla9u 9a 1"ruaeuun tiney wait tu su up Lu. uLLOroof) 9a 1? usTuu11 buddou yurla9u bucddon 9a l; ußTuU I yuT la9u bturiki Di Soot 9aali naysaas (IIaisa a loud voice) speaks with btuHki 9aaali Boot bi naysaas otuHki naysaac bi ,soot 9aali though rare, order) 6.% r.. to Parallel of adverbs to the as into group of of it etc., a parallel question is into advorbt3 to possible classification words with clas- according which thoy are ed. Adverbs of manner Adverbs of manner 'kiif' They classification place, Arabic particulat corrolat ble in Eaglish time, manner, Adverbs sify the r and can in mobility (well)k H nnu. have the the and are (quietly), bihuduu? such questions 'hook' substitute (thus, by characterized Z"Iembers of sentence. to as answers generic and sentences verbs modify may occur this Group do), floxi- include: fa j? at an (suddenly). Examples are: bi ? uxlaaS 9allamon (He taught them sincerely) bisur9a mZiina like (%ie walked rapidly) Adverbs of time Adverbs of this lyoom (when) '? eenta' sentence. Members (to-day), (When did you may occur and can this of modify group (to-morrow). bukra ? ©ezata ba9atta ba9atta (I sent Group ? send it nbaareü it yesterday) 2) as answers the include: verb or nbaaroH Examples are: to questions the wholo (yost orday) , ... A n. _ej9 3 cl A,dyorbs Those placo of adverbs ' ween_' (where). (out), barra (in), juwwa hoop is meeting of frequency Adverbs of this do=), this soup (thoro), hniik arc: roap la ? aliil (I seldom da,a? inan (how (always) (often). k-tiir to as answers 'l: an narra' include: (rarely), na. adiran may occur (how often), '1 u1 ? addeeý' of Examples like questions here) Adverbs Members (here), hoon etc. to waa? re barra id waitinG outside) ssayyaara (The car like as answorc include: They 1?u jtinaa9 (The may occur questions ruany times). (13o1- ? aliil , Examples are: ruuH 9a ssineaa go to the pictures) 9adnaan daa? imun (Adnan i: always byuDHak 1auýfldnS) 4 other of possible answers to enouGh). Examples ate. (how), 'klif' include: They -dverbs precision, like questions how many' , etc. nearly, of adverbs quantity, include Groups ktiir, are: i ? addeeW ? addo (How lar6e is ? it laa tba99ed ktiir (Don't far) too 6o ?) of These do6re©, may serve '? a dec%' to? riibun, adverbs (hotr kifany© as ziuch, (auch, ý "' ý ýgý:lý C, Contrastive implications description From the it is that clear that and Arabic to adverbs The culty only adverbs. limited, This to other of these attested hardly the is problem in other free adverbs bf in of the when they adverbs includes ace hin. both is the lan5uaSos to b© botwoon to is Mnglish Arabic of diffi- cause the absolut©, Arabic above attostod position elements it likely most demonstrated the in characteristics has been a number advorbs equate of mistakes could should mobility of to so that a teaching by adducing in_ relation relation which constitute a transfer in Arabic En6lish and Arabic as adverbs General, and transfer respectively. reflect of characteristic the reinforced in adverbs and to versus speakers English classified behaviour show parallel expected forms of and EaGliah and is mistakes further which Arabic adverbs sentence, but co-occur. not also A soloeben followin6: to my hone (Etc) I could reach hardly fluently He doesn't speak Ea lish. invention. this will we enjoy naturally and ... (sic) this for hour time I have daily one of Q He gras a tall man with always. a head erected He drank yesterday much. the scene. 4 She hardly can describe Al7 Appendix T:ext 9a llat A- ruritu z- la?. A- ruHt iii tuft w maa 9anna ulwa? t. 4aaae w fii la barra. Saar 9widide fii bi bi nafs nunsu jne Z- ya9ni ulwa' ulwa? t nag ba9Dha Halkyek kul buddi ? ila aat byiTla9u banaat gam yur? uSu baaloe faun. tarkiiz. ya9ni "laalvaat *, gala nuxtulfe nafs biTaalu9on uttaago. lxalfiyyo. jaaneb bi lumraaye, mutul ? alb rurga nuta- ra? S 9a inasraH. bass faun ya9ni ? o0 bu ttar- mahaara. lizaalek iii, t ? asyaa haada Zlwayy e yaa ? anal. lariatta bi ma9 uWýaale smaHii li lwavu9 zGiiro uSSuwar nafs ? ana naa bu9tu? ed ? unno kiiz. *at, tlut ... ya9ni la? unn. ? awwalan y&uufha ? iDaafiyyo byunsujmu ? unnon bisakl muumumlkcn 9iidha. mutla. Sraaciecd biHakkem byunsukha t.' utt ariki iz. 1waaHod biruuH ya9ni ruHt. xalaS ? ? ana f--inn bu lj uhud fii tiraaHed laazem w kul ? ajnabiyye 9aleeha ? ana, Juana yiklti nu; S byiHkl ? akt arma huwwe fann. ruHt masalan 9edrnaan nuu Tann. ya9ni yi 9amal ya9ni fa buddak nuSS w 9adnaan ? ana birg? ? wßi f fiha. ? ana w 9adnaan. Z- bt&Hkin. Ä- erna maaj ika ? tiulwe A kann ktiir ? anti i naa narrast mýatr raA.. tt oß.rii naa ? durti nu? dar nutxayyal ulnawDuu9. ? ufnan 4puu hiyyo llaatorna fa u. tuirSfiilna 9adnaan, aaajiha. ? abul ba9doon 3 t; ) but9allqu ? iza kaan fanniyy© nuu ? aw fanniyyo. wSufulna yyaaha. 9- 9ara tuT't'awwar ssinena bitakl. txalliik ? unno 9umluuha w ullaotern. la T'r aril? a ? aktarm Z- T ayyeb $,uu hiyye ? aw bu 1? aHra llaat ; aate yaa. 'ýaat naa `t iyye w na j nuu9a g_ ? aHyaanan Jabal ? ilaa fulun la raa? Set la 9 19amal sßinema bu 1? a3aas. ulfanni hiyyo 9arU ulfanni. buddon ya9ni ? w majmuu9a mun ulnumasaliin. bikabbruuha w bizat#c1ruuha, ? iDaafiyye. ya9ni ? ila taalaat eina- mun ulmumas slim. .W aaCaat baalee gam tur? baalee Z_ 1r14r j 91baara ktiiire ? aaxirihi, raa? £et ta9Ti 9amaliyyan ern naa j ika ayu9ruDu ýaaý©&; narsna gala Hatta buds na nss~, iri. sinamaa? iyye wuu hayye Z_ Tayyeb 9ary nun taawe sinamaa? iyye 9- mu?allafe jaaneb hiyye nuHna heek ? unno y? uulu yalli maajika i bu lnasraH. mutmarukzo bu lnasraij rufnaaha osinona 9unlu ussinamaa? hac,da huwwe lhadaf mun ussaa91riyye. nasalan ma9 rattan? eH ... ulfann hayy ulwaacgo9 ba9deon sinoraana, gam tufged solnema yTa99mu tun? ol bu 1 jatinr. cinema ha 66"aa91riyye gam yriaawlu tnaa', ol ? unnak ba9deen 96ad. iide zaa91riyyto. la ba9deen ddaa? iriyyo. lwaagi9iyye see`t tutl9or sinamaskoob. ssinema fa t xrawwor 9aleeha nunguuf btuT lag gam tur? kani ra iyy© Tabii9i ? nutul t aany© bt a9T ii 1z Suurot oß foo? o$ NaHCI1a. load e eJnaaa? nanZar ililun lunruuj. gam tuji w ulnar Sßuura 9aarof foo? j ? uddaarno kiff ulmar j. 7 ? e) uJ 9- la? la? 1? aalt een... bi yu4tuGlu wa?t lkanurt raa? Set baalee sr ul? aale foo? ha. jdiid. tlasalan ba9Tilk baalee, Hawaall xamsiin raa? Sa. tlaat arba9 laHun 9ar1 tDiif ? unte waaHed. Hadiis ? aw Hiwaar waaHeä 9an yZudd Habul. yun. add 9a lnasraH kiff 9rufut taanyo. ? ZaaCo kbliro 9a laasraHH ka? unnaL- autul ? aHyaanatL w u19=al 9am yHaawlu i. ussinanaa? ? au Harako w uTTaraf raa? Saut San yuru? Su ra? Sa ? ; uu biSiir nunlaa? bta9Ti byuTla9u 9an yur'u? Su. ulnasra-Hi it mar j a jdiido bu ßsinena ulwa? t P= San tu9roD Suura 4uu biSiir yalli been- ul9anal bl$iir nafs raa? Saat. S"TaHdew 9ala yurubTu bi sinemaskoobo jbaal ttaanyo Tarii? ya9ni ? iiHaa? mutul o en 9arD waHde btu9roD waaHed. Tabii9iyyo w manaaZer e on ? aalt Haralcot nasalan. i Taraf gam ulHabui San yuneedd uttaahhi ya9ni nun ? Z- ?e etiw at 9- bas: ? ahann tii bu lfu9ul bass ? unno nnuw9or yaa tara ha Lýii ?unno lgaDiyye janaa9a ween. byiSalu naa Saar lo zanaan. gaDiyy©t tawglit 9a,amliin juhud 6uu w nnatii haada jo, w nahaara. 9ajiib. naa nna9rof. ? awwalma ¢(1dden bi bruks el. gam t? addem ulbarnaame A- lacken 9- 1Ha? ii? a mac bta9ref yalli laatiiniyye ya9ni ktilr w hiyye Zariif©. 9arabi. j mut 9allmo 9arabi. kaatbiin HaafuZtha baSun. 1jumal bi maa na9ha Hruuf %rtu'?a. ma9raD n X013 A- ? aHyaanan 9a lmasraH. 9aazfiin i butlaa? 9aazef gam tu9zef Z- kul A- ? ee. byuTla9 uSSoot yoom kul 9- fii A- 1? uula 9- bass A- la? ? unte ttneen barra wawa. w ul? orkestra mumtaaze ? afDal ? unno 9asra ? ulla llaaterna maajika w 9aara ma9naata ? ulbileet tmaane ? arbag bi ? leeraat uddaraje 1? uula. leeraat. sutt la? unno ? aHsan. bu9tibaar ? tmaane b? addees ussaa9a wara 9am yu9zef yoom Hafulteen. ussuHri Haflet byujtum9u haada 9am yu, tuGe1 lfaanuus A- w ? aHyaanan byuTla9 juwwa. bta9ref ? ee ba9ref. w ? aHyaanan ulkamanja w nuSS. Z- tasjiil btaaxod ? aaxer 9a lmasraH... ulmanZar Saff ?aHsan bu9tibaar kaamel. Gii. fii masraH w sinema. ýý .ý cý .ýý Text Z- Haki gala ? uSSet raaHet waja9 w maa kaan bta9ref mu9utti. 9andak eii. baalak w ba9deen ? aklak lwaaHed ? iza Z- w bu SSudfe ? ult la Sumt. bkammel uSSyaam w ? iza bu lgaks biSiir lwaaHed 1? a9Saab raaHa la xalaS ramaDaan 9utt bi xaaf ba9dma Haali juns maa fii laazem ? unno trayyeH taakol mubaa`saratan. 9ada ulwaja9. w Surt munno. w Surt rtaaH baalak. *9ruft ha lhuduu? ba9deen bu lwaja9 la yoom ? alwaan 4urb HuTT raasi lamma maa 9utt ? aUkaal w baTTalt diini ? ana gam tkuun bu lbaaxira ? aakol lumxallalaat lmu9de fa Dalleet rujii 1Haal. muss 1HaaSel lmu9de. wuj9utni. maa t? aalamt bu SSyaam. nafsi. yakuun. maa raddeet walla 9an ? unno huduu? la ? iza swayye tHasaant w raaHa mun ? aHsanma bufTar. t? aalamt 9ando raddet mun ? akl Tule9 bi4akl bjarreb. mun yoomma HaTTeet saafart. -sa9art ba9dha lalaali. ba9deen faaDye iii. fa bikuun yamulha ramaDaan 9alee. Hallalta vi Hakeetullo maa fick ktiir ktiir uTTabiib waZiifi. tnaZZmo saafer wuj9utni 9änd ? unte 9ala mun ? abulma hniik ? uTTiraab byi? der kaan maa nza9ajut. ? alli Hakeetullak bu nnhaar. xams wajbaat hayy ? unno ruHt faHaSni mas? altak A- i?iza xaaSSatan ulwaja9. yurken ba9dma ? uSSti. s11 maa ba9ref ulbaal, 9am tuja9ni. w mu9utti B w maa ulHaliib ruuH'ra? san naayem. A- haada huwwe. ?unno ha lfatra fatrat e Z- raaHa .. o- ? jilt la ul? aHyaan Surt hoon kamaarn maa wuj9utni. la ? aliil tuja9ni. bdiit Haawel jdiid ha 's"sahr rtuHt ?uHsob naam laaken bi ? ahammiyye ya9ni IaGle taanye... fa raaHt lmas? ale v mun 9asr ha ssabu9 sniin tiyyaam mun jdiid nwaGalt ? ulha maa Saar yalli taani. mudde bDallni mas? ale ktiir mu9Zam ? ujutni laaken w ba9deen ulbaal yii ya9ni Saayer ya9ni maa bu? der. kbiire. mutul naam, fii tamaaman. ussafar. ? ana mun ? aktar ? usturxaa? lbaaxira. Hsaab fiiha halla? ya9ni w ba9deen HuTT raasi naam uDDuhur. fatret äý mun ? ulha ? ahammiyye. ma91 fatret ? aDDeethon 9a 0^ v A3 Text 9an ruruuT B- sa? altulli S- nsiit. B- ? ee. S- ? ana haada ? ultilli bZunn ma9o bakaloorya byusmaHuulo kul fii bi bi ? ulfuruu9. ktiiriin kulliyyet ? ul9ulmi 9ulmi yudxol ba9urfo. yalli maa n? abalu mun yalli bu lfar9 ulqubuul gam yutsajjalu 9ulmi C ma9hon hadool ul? aadaab. kulliyyet bakaloorya bikuunu ? aw kulliyyet uTTubb ul9uluum. B- ma9hon. bakaloorya ? iza maa byusmaHuulon ya9mulu ? Tubb S- lees 9ulmi duru byu? maa lkul yaaxdu byuTTarru lizaalek la? unno yaaxdu ? aw byuTlubu ul9alamaat 9andon 9ala masalan nusbe mu9ayyane ? amkine Hasab bi muHaddade. tadarroj 9alamaat ulba- kaloorya. suu ra? yak ndaxxlo B- Tayyeb bi S- maa. btufre? ?anu. 1? afDal S- ? iza fii miin gala B- fukro yudros S- yruuH bi la 9alee 1? aHsan yruuH la ? orooppa. ? suu buddo ?uqtiSaad ? ungeltraw ha nnoo9 1? ungliizi. ? yuSref B- ,weep butfaDDel S- ra? san ha lmarHale B- bass Hasab... hoon lunma nub9ato ? ? orooppa la ljaam9a yudros ? siyaasi. fii mun uddiraasaat. bi jaa. m19et bass london laazem madrase ykuun mnshuura mniiH. bu I; "ý "1 ýý Text H- ? usaama, ?- suu. buddek H- buddna ?- bdawwer H- ? iza buddak Tayyeb bu tta? siiT. truddi H- buddna 9i1d tjiibha miilaado. jiibha buqturHo ra? yak mist tuätruuha. bu tta? bu ssahr ?ubni ? ulo bilubb 9am ydallel ? siiT leers. xamsiin w ulbaa? i xamsiin haada nustriiha. ? unno yyaaha maane9. leera 9aleev ssabut. 9aleekon tbii9na maa iii ? awwal daf9a laa. bi 9aleeha. suu B- ? ? T.arafa ? ana yalli bass D hoon bu lkamira nSawwer H- ya9ni ?- kamira ma9ak a bu S; ahur. leera yumzal. 9aleeha tlut aniin. v lmuhumm ?addees Ha?? ha ? leera. ?- xamsmiit H- ?- ? ee hayy jdiide Ha?? ha xamsmiit kamaan. maa buddna. ?arb911n mnusturi leers. raH bii9ek ul? anmad. btub? i Tawiil H- jjdiide ? ee ruuH. kamira Hatta sunteen bi tsaddidi waHde mun luma9raD to? siiT Ha?? ha. urruusi Ha?? ha leera. ?- maa byfa9u ikamiraat urruusiyyaat. Ha?? hon ?arb911n xSuuSan yalli ?awaam byuntuz9u. leera. kaan Sandi waiide munhon w untaz9et. A- laa walla Tule9 haha? buddna yyaaha lemma la?. ma91 fiiha nust911r Suwar ktiir maa buddna nuýturi. ktiir waaDHa. but9i1rna ..i t Text Z- mbaareH I-w Z- 4ufnaa nuHna bi ha lfulum Z- lee lussa zGiire kaan yuksabu w ya9Tuuhon ? asliHa lxaarijiyye taba9 wasinton ha lbalad. la ssafaara ma9hon buddon yub9atuu tabagha w bi? ullon ssafaara 1? ameerkiyye. ma9hon. buddon ya9Tu dawulto furqet baalee hutirre waziir wa inton bya9ref ?unno biruuH byuttuSel jaaye muxaabara ? addees ? byu? 9od byut*aaraT ya9ni btuttuSel ussantralii$t lamma w ul? ameer- w urruus wa/i inton rruusiyye la sammugkon yaaha rruus ySawwet ySawwet dawle byumtune9 9anno ul? ameerkaan w bikuun dooro w yxalluu buddon ulmas? ale manduub byuji w Sawariix. tuttuSel_bu fii byustaxburu suu w urruus taba9ha bu ssafaara lamma yxalluu biSiir bussafaara bu 1? unam ulmuttaHido. w butkuun qaDiyye Sooto yuksabu Sooto. ? amuH w mudri uzzGiire. waaHed w bikuun 1HaaSel buddon 1? ameerkaan fii w ul? ameerkaan udduwal maa Sawwat. mungaan buddha gala Soot 9an uttaSwiit. w xamse. lfulum. ?avowal ma*had bikuun 9ala 9asra ? gam ySawwtu mwa?? afe zzahra. Hawaali badyaan musaa9adet nsuufo byunýaafo bikuunu sinema wSulna halla? gala xarj ya9ni bi mniiH gam y? arr? u 9a rruus tazaaumhon a- E mbaareH. lussa kaan ya9ni fulum v'ufna rý mun btudfa9u ma9hon. ba9deen ;. V .11 ý btuji bfr ssafaara byuttuSel 1a, ýzem nsuufo Z- ba9deen buddo ussafiir tGayyaret xaaTubha w byiji la Gar? aane bi ? ubn butHubb riiki byub9at biruuH bunt siyye la? unno ? aHwaalo w hadiik yalli 1HaaS. "el ya9ni ussafiir Kubb 9andha ba9atu 1? ameerkaani w byutjawwazu jaabuuha yalli ba9Don. bikuun ? ubnak nnatiije urruusi yjawwzuuha xaaTeb bunt ? ameerkaani bilaa? yutjawwazha ussafiir Hatta yumken waaHed urruusi. ? ubn mniil. waHde mun ruusya. bikuun munlaan ussafiir btutjawwaz but? ullo ? unno mlaaHeZ maa gam yaakol bijiblo ul? amriiki ?ubn ussafiir bikuun urruusi ussafiir yutjawwaze ul? ameerkaani ? addeeG"... lmuxaabara. biHubbha ul? amriiki mag ?ummo bu lmawDuu9 byutbhaias w bifaawuDon heek. w hadaak urruusi. ? ubno ? iza bunt samma9on biruuH rruusiyye. tamaaman. blDaHHek G- ssafaara 1? ameerkiyye ? iza byudfa9uulo ? addee3 fulum mun mo©sko la muxaabara la iiha bunt ussa¬iir iv ulbunt urruu- ? ubunhon ussafiir ul? am- 71" ,L) . Text Z- amafuulna Haanaat. w uljaww I- bta9ref ?unte Hkuuli uljaami9aat... nwajad gala ? kawwanna. -a 9anha. Sadaf 9andon nafs kaan uljaww ?iza fii San ?ii j aado w maa ktiir w to? riiban maa. ba9ref jaamu9hna. ul jaami91 9am tuHku lizaalek jdii. de la? unn1 maali gala ?ayyaamna mun halla? Saayer ulmafaa- ? adyaa? Sila... suu ra? yak. bu TTullaab. sane ?uula w San. ul? umti- bta9ref 9aayes nuHna ljaww jamaa9a mutfaahmiin ?aHsanma yumken. Z- Zraaf kurt yalli ha 1? a6yaa? yalli w ul? afkaar. H- Tayyeb ?unte ya9ni w nufma lkurna lmas? uuliin karma nsuuf hiim ?ulna..... bu nnusbe binafsna -- 9an. uddiraase ktiir uljaami9i. suu ra? yak kaan. bu ljaww Z- walla bihummni mawDuu9 uljaam9a. ha lmawDuu9.. bi nuHki la nuntu? el E w uTTaalbaat. 9allamton yalli ? tamaaman. ya9ni maa kaaii ?uli ?ay ?u9tiraaD ?aw ?ay- ?untigaad.. g- ?amnia ha saune ?ana maa ruft gruup Tullaab Tuul Zariif. bi ?urne ussune w Taalbaat Sadiiga kunna bi ?uli nudxol ?udret tkawwen 9a SSaff nu? 9od ?urne. Z- 'sii 9ajiih. g_ Hatta ya9ni lamma yfuutu TTul3aab hunne w TTalbaat äii. u4 naf s - maa ysallmu. 9a TTullaab "^1 e:) ýa -J Z- Tayyeb N- yagni H- Tuul wa? tna Hatta ?uDraabaat. kaanet ? unti bass mudri ba9deen hayfaa? ?ustusnaa? iyye la? unnek kaanet. kiif mdaawma kaanet uddiraase Tatra 9an ussune 9an. fatret. sawwaluton. ba9deen ?aSiire diraase cu9ur ya9Tiina diini. 'su9ur ba? a kaanet la esune ktiir lfaHuS. w maa nuxbe. la ul? adab ul9aalami kaanet. ýSu9ur Dallet 9am ta9Tiina tustuGel mag ?unno muu raun barnaamujna. mun Dumn. us&u9ur haada maa kaan. fii ul? aHwaal ussiyaasiyye... äu. nnusbe mudde Tawiile biiwuli la w ulbarnaamej lmaaDye. kaan. 9anne ?ustaazet su9ur. w ?adab 9aalami tunteen ul? awwal. bu nnuSS ul? awwal mum ussune tuHfe. ulluGa ? amma hayfaa? 1? ameerkaan. maa kaanu suu. ?anno 9an bahr dawra ya9mlu sune taanye. kaanet ya9ni 91baara kifft. w ba9deen la maa ?all. kulla ul? asaatze bi 91baara Havel ha lmawDuu9 mawaad bu tturm w tunteen. ya9ni nafso.. sii tuHki ba? a yaa Hkiilna dawaam Tawiil_.. mudri fiiha. ? ? sane uula ba9ref raH muiiaaDaraat... kaan. 9anna ?arba9 ussune fatHet btuHki taanye. mu? ahhale tuHDari ulwa? ut. ssune furSa wa? tak maasye... maalek maa kunti Tuul lizaalek TTullaab ya9Tu Tuul ljaam9a sahreen.. w uddruus g- Suit butHubbha. ddiraase w nuSS yaa Z- zwayye 9a ddiraase. Hkuulna 9aTutna bu tturm 9awaaDha. ? evrimaan uttaani gala Saar ? asaas ? uataaz ,g-ý n L% Y ýý T ext. a- ieen gala Z_ kulma Tana bursa ssaa9a bkuun nafsi ?uHtiyaaT. sab9a gala ?asaas G- ya9n- xayyabet_ gala 9a lwa? t. ba? a ha ZabTet Imaw9ed bikuun. ? Zarmak ulyoom. wa? t buddna nruua bluudaaa.. gala nruuH ta9i bi? ulli ? ? e-e. w aal. nuSSw Banda. ktiir Saar da? aaye? Z- mujarrad da? aaye? 9tabret. ibeet byu? der yaalluSni ?aw Hatta lbusut rubu9 muu ktiir ?aw 9agr da? aaye? ma9naato Haalha mit? axxra ya9ni mut.?axzra ?arb9iin haadi 9asr gala ? ana ?ulla w xamse mama da? aaye? ?aw ? matama kaanet ?unno ktiir Butte. xamse esutte w satte saa9a su? aalha tut.? axxxar. la tut? aaaar suit ssaa9a wamse w nuSS. ?aam maa. Taala9n- gala G- ? aw nuSS saa9a. ssutt. sa? alto ruHt. ba9deen`9a 9altra.. uljamaa9a waa9ed hoon ussaa9a ?aabliini 9and lukwaffoor. kunt hiyye hoop. ussaa9a bluudaan. A_ buddna kurt la ?unna ?iza uu. Saat- magna hadaak Z_ Hki iTo tu. ji 9a lwa? t. w ?ujat ? ba9Ti maw9ed. ma9 sayyidaat. ?unnha maa btuji Zannak. xayyabet bi ?ultulla Zanni aayyabet sab9a w tult. sab9a w rubu9 murtubeT t wa? lmarra - ? ulmadaam. s_. jaaye G' mutt 9and ulHallaa?. tut? auar ?unno lmafruuD lgaa91de. ba9deen da? aaye? bass tams but hiyye u1Ha? ii? a da? ii? a la? anno lrva9d xamaa 4' y '+ H. T ext. Z- bu TTayyaara ?unte 9ala SaaHeb ulbeet ? iza beeto Sawa. faaDi. lussa ?aroma ? iza Tayyaara faaDi maalo, 9ala ? iza kul turja9 btuSal Haal DaGT. ? uktob rail 9ando muniaan.? us? alo kaan ulbeet mutulma w laa? i beet butlaa? ?urja9 waHde. mnaaseb biduun ykuun saaken fa ?unnak faaD1 gam t? uul i mahma kaanet. munruuH 1manreq w ba9deen. byulla? butruuH w ma9ak 9aa?ultaic la? unno ?iza ?awwal. beet beet kurt yalli ?anno ruuH laHaaU G- Sawa bi ha lfukra. baali bi maa xaTret la maa butfakker ?aHsanma truuHu w butfattes Haawel ulwa? t.. bu TTayyaara rlu9ut lataalak Z- munäaan ? bass buddi bu lbaaxira ? ana bffubb. ussafar G- w ?iza lumina bu lbaaxira bu. TTayyaara G_ raH tsaafer uuni. majbuur taaxod kaanet mahma w ?ujurto muwaaSafaato,. Z- ?awwal marra yalli raf9et kunt ruHt a- Tul9et w gala u1? ujra. laazem t- ma9 Saaliubt, ulbeet u19aa? ile ha 1? asaaa ba9att ?usbuu9een. Daajet SaaHubt maa byutHammalu luwlaad. mun yalli Z- ?aalutli w uttafa? 9aAha ?anno jiib naazel ba9dma ?uju. bi laHaali t. fattek 9ala äwayy Saaret t? lamma axxart w ?usta? jer beet äi nutlammal m9aajaztha. eu9ur Gaali beet taani. t9aajuzna. w Tab9an jubuthon. ulbeet ballast lizaalek mum luwlaad. fatteis njabart la? anno maa 9udna nu? der ý"r ýA .Iw hiyye w nuSS w g- suu kurt w ? unte Z- ? ujet buddak waa9ed fiyyi ta9mel unnaas ? any,, 9aamel Hsaabi w 9a6ra. sutte w nuSS la soutte mag u19aalam w nuji waa9diinhon ?uju. Hayawiyye. lizaalek mun. ulaamse Butte. Hatta maa nuatujel mut? axxriin. A- ?u3u 9a lwa? t tamaaman. Z- la? G_ auufu ttwaaleet mahma Sarfet Sand. ussayyide ? iza mas? ale wa? tr muu ktiir. A_ w huwwe bya9ref Z- yalli Lwayye . bakkiir fa ?unno ljamaa9a w Sadaf basiiTa. t.? aaaart ?unni bTawwel bkuun multhiyye ?ana maa bufham. yämel Hsaabo.. ya9ni ktiir btuz9ujni. ?ana ba9ref äaGlet bi kul bi bii ?ulla bu ttwaaleet. luwlaad. ?anno lmaw9ed laazem utta? xiir bu lmawa911d lwaalied ktiir ý ~. ý, u ýý ý Translation A Text A- Have you seen the Z- Na. A- I have Nice ? laterna Magica Describe it. with Adnan. seen it ? Do you want Adnan to describe it or me ? halt Z- You talk A- In. my opinion in the In other it effort is a form not see in it again. the Somebody tries This is things of are an additional small screen like on the however artistic other Z- Allow words (to me it the same time the with things stage. is rear Therefore Well, I don't. You haven't been able dancers of Amal. to group shown simula mirror. He screen. are In other harmony, think as synchronization your the everybody dancing. words it's Thus we have simultaneously (a display experience. a foreign inside screen. collective interrupt),. is ballet in as far it pictures synchronization. dancing and art. that's and saw something scenes At the on several I saw it, I * Three synchronized a question instance than more effort lies side thing. to project them out. takes is artistic place have no comparable we and There's The art. It For half. other first bedause taneously. of it... see never it and Adnan the synchronization. you words see time and I will that. must the is addition is art. to is It In concerned. )skill. You have not description describe this in the had any teaching was very situation confusing. so that we {1 can visualize know what artistic Motion pictures are convey reality the Hence cinema, realism has robbed aspect.. This They are trying order to say Z- But what 9- It bigger the laterna of a screen (it consists cinema is. it screens Sometimes on the mountain, etc. dancer a ballet converges Z_ Is the with Magica Then another over the the theatre. the theatre is method the are. trying to do. and dancers. of actors that screen as a group a film can become is In ? projected camera projects You see ? scene like the picture Thus the meadow. meadow a screen and the dancer before other and dancers. of actors we see a natural meadows. we than more they in the which to. '-,-cinema screens. addition same screen poetic ? a big on which circular its Magica all to and a group as well a screen words we intend situation. This the of other of) in or smaller, words 9- is a display what an to to Extreme round Laterna try the of art to us. the flavour. And the comment scents... cinema a poetic In in centered the engraft is this consists Or rather Z- well itself. is can as to cinorama, cinematographic basically. work involved the I want for a way acmompanying cinema virtually that feel aspect to is seen artistic the the aim artistic with it in. auch all of on you Describe pictures, poetic give Later not. developing cinemascope pictures is or first Adnan, is. and make you the have Now, Magica the. Laterna is whether g- thing. the it !ß r" it ? picture. a of iD 9- The two N®,. no. .1. the machines, two mountain and a meadow and natural projects (the In ture. For impression. dancers, Ballet a big you yourself try to there: the combine being from pulled person a of inside the cinema three screen.. they is In or, You see ? that it is as if other say, they other words a movement. We find and the all Sometimes theatre. stage four or dancing. is screen It a rope. a new pictute. same tune. pulling one pic- creates that a dialogue a first is or on the pulled the and the cinema other another The who are a conversation occurs rope those added and the happens What to of) which same time, stage. picture on the you them. the same dance had The movement the on the dancer me give of At one. one and the dance let fifty about appear (the a new method example cinemascope dancers it's words projectors are scenery a ballet of) picture other cameras One projects simultaneously. working J one end of end being Yes.. Z_ 9- But the most timing going A- But and what on for the been written they It of we feel one wonders results long. is fact, However, mistress 9- She doesn't thing In and skill. of trouble. get important can ac4ieve. was first ceremony know Arabic in in Roman letters have taken they where a matter they are This has not presented at of a lot going Brussels to been Fair. knows Arabic. fact. The sentences must have and she must have learnt them t. )4 by heart. p- She carries the music on the stage. Sometimes appear the you find A- Yes, the magic A9- There A- First 9- But musicians we have both. and the outside Thus orchestra eight are Do you know At ten day. that How much does the o'clock performance tickets for is class stage every the to eight laterna Magica and at means lamp. I know. it's ? performances ten. better A- No, because the nice.. and sometimes playing two performances past The recorded And sometimes violinist daily there half Z- Yes, is very inside. playing Z- Are She is no paper. the back. you must consider and the pictures. four cost Li#as ? the first class. the whole screen. Zi, %ras. because better in six ticket you can The last the see row stage... is the because best. there is ILI A Translation. B Teat Speaking Z- gastritis gastritis troubles. said,. arrange A- If you Z- It so happened the ignored I got I would up fasting. this the That's it and easy it. I pain. would over= Then. I to You I was go to stopped , sick of it. pain. I was In. addition and set foot And aboard all sorts. pickles and eating eating stomach. again. started started any one experiences nerves I try. made me a little on. pain I'd and well be empty, afraid of I had fasting ' The minute left. stopped. after the thought went later So I after. I both relieves. I was no longer up milk gave peace on. until myself stomach is and you must and if contrary to Ramadan. was all. things the This after ship found that peace. went this Yours be wonderful.. would So everything On the be examined you. worry fasting continue explained fact the Anyway A- no pain. I inner I I'd I had After and fasted. advice left was greatly came immediately Ramadan my " day. a meals it about I it with wrong do this doctor's give better. of that inconvenienced. not to light to can manage before You must not to have five you a doctor. nothing trouble. a functional If is tell there, to, consult "There I that Especially I wnet aggravated. did You know ? troubles me he living, care-free: of Subsequently I sleep.. worrying. You realized that that 4ý period Z_ and it bothers it rarely It became possible asleep of relaxation. was a period here came I right did for I have been recently I vital. must had a period the ship. of say time but involved that, relaxation. for I would of been thinking I've I can't more like without. than the ten seven fall re- travel. Moreover, sleep.. So this is is any worries I hadn't years, days else. complete about in, a new case... Being speaking, There: was something month was a period importance. great Generally me either. moment. however, a long trying of the So this away. keep bother me to have my siesta. for I a matter not me at Recently,. laxation. V I spent aboard tJÄý Translation C Text B- Have you asked S- I've forgotten. he is the or Faculty why don't they S- They cannot according B- Well, It to to what doesn't Arta. accepted in the Baccalaureate, their grades at matter planning the Faculty because or they section, of Medicine of the limited they accept reg4ire a certain ? Shall we enroll him here directly ? students percentage this or shall ? stage. to. spend on him it's better-if you recommend ? What does he want to study be of Medi- ? better .. would Faculty Europe.. depends science grades. do you think you are prepared B- He's science These science Consequently available. Baccalaureate B- Where would S` It section2 Baccalaureate, with. of students all accept B- But which is S- If science Baccalaureate, Faculty them in him to Europe send we s- the Sciences. their accept of places number of have got they B- Well- ii in. the who were not students of the for sections. Many students enrolling are section tine his Torall eligible is ems: :aAI know. the he got You said I think S- This requirements ? section B- Yes. the about Political to read Economy. ? Yee went Mý ýý S- Let him go to England London that be proficient is well in then. known for English. There, is these a famous studies. school Only in he must car. ýý CüJ Translation Text have H- Ousama, ?- What do you want H- We want H- If ?- I B- that it liras and the ?- Five H- Get term for those is want liras liras he says. what is per My son it offering thing as a first the for month. likes to A new one costs It to. five I am selling a new one. cameras that price. will take We can buy you hundred liras. you a camera on long two one from years to Russian the pay it off. Pavilion cost are forty not good. liras. They break easily, I had one like that especially and it was damaged. A- Oh, no :I joke. for sale liras. forty Russian to He has been instalments. H- We don't be fifty terms. liras. you. this A hundred would The important hundred on with birthday. us on instalment month. balance it. to buy to per any attention years. ?- Well, ?- selling payment, three on his do so on Saturday. it. Fifty pay Tarafa of you buy Agreed. H- We want for? it, how about Don't it it. for suggest a camera? snaps you do bring H- Well ?- take to look ?- I'll you got D tried it and got very clear pictures. Now we ýýý ý,., want to to borrow, us or won't we don't you ? want to buy. Will you lend it Translation Text Z- Yesterday we saw a good N- We saw it too Z- In film this G- Is it they are be voting A delegate and the vote vote on their try Americans to want Then Washington is the foreign Washington up the would pay negotiating the in speak Embassy Embassy if to he lets with hadn't to and tells to wheat, Embassy American them there and asks the him etc. and arms and the Embassy, aid them. the rockets operator that he-rings was a call for the them how much they conversation. Then Moscow calls to for vote When he knows state. the Russians make him want to and provide American that him his cast So the order want state ballet them hear them. in They was needed The Americans his Washington from Nations. that state Russians give their send minister Russian American to calls wanted a small vote. the and side United comes he abstains. his them and win Russians and the states. and all make investigations Americans for So the ten. past Russians small the issue of turn When his yet. in is scene on a certain was one vote. vote five about the at to help competing The first is. would there fun poking cinema. seeing? worth it Z- Yes started. their Al-Zahra at We got just in Americans film yesterday. had The film E So he starts the Russian Embassy 3 tj Sa he rings. up the them how much... hear the G- In that In Russian the American of had son. because, the matter he hadn't his with it is with he let a very So he sends daughter of the them film. amusing who comes to love the with of son the with ambassador's the to the American. daughter, son Russian of the who was and they his that from had wrong been Russian the get the son married. the an in end the of been ambassador of to is the In needs The she who had fiance. son engaged that marries girl with, Russia. ambassador. ambassador and the the girl and finds Russian American ambassador be married of her with So he discusses him tells ambassadar marry love The Russian well.. eating she in was something a Russian American American, there and for falls ambassador. been wife a wife-. love if pay ambassador that realized his to would short, son of the ambassador Russian and negotiates case. we must see it.. daughter daughter Embassy how much they conversation. Z- Then the the American the sent falls American for in, ^r ý1 Translation Text Z- Let's the consider university. I me something about with much your life. You know our universities... think am very the of life university of time? your We ourselves case... our for responsible were are the Tell What do you university. In topic. is H- You know how it Z- of exams and university your studies, topic this in interested F talking Therefore know if It about. who got people this so happened was ideal new is something happening the see that and who had life life university and we didn't on together university created there the and we things you was a group of same mentality. during days. our because I am not I don't in touch.... H- Well, the Z- what first this to form of the very Z- and girls year, a group I had no objection nice. I couldn't who could find get to we used come to classes year and boys boys you taught in year? They were H- As to think do you on the other. would not greet toicriticism a friend of who had been on together. where girls Throughout sat them. able the on one side Strange. H- Girls boys. the boys and the same applied to the n`" cý ýýý:.ý Z- Well, tell N- Oh dear, talk us something Z- But didn't not four H- We had in subjects It attendance. year's. So the whole the are chance. I know why. don't political was quite professor lecture a long time religious took literature on Beowulf she lectured poetry. over less staff the In the poetry than don't was little that know. The World In first on poetry. although it on Everyman second half, last of the were md lectures. year and the not they the year. of preparation were Perhaps a character. on world Then syllabus. I events. time of was a period American this work And there period you attended Two first subjects. session always your term. was not because subject she about a short It same. And the exam. had. the fessor why they a second on the first year was such syllabus of That's Haifa, Haifa, the second was the spent for was open students talk As to then, us, and two subjects to give to qualified Tell lectures. by The university to lectures. attend we've You always studies. were.... you are for about two months. or session a special N- Lectures time. the all strikes having studies. studies. one and a half about your so much concerned you are about H- We had about best disturbed literature half, In was not she used poetry in she the as a representative the language pro- n,ý Translation G Text is G- Where S- She is wife? your to supposed past a quarter come at twenty or past seven. Z- I to her told a date I have Whenever here come myself seven, knowing at however, time, This on time. I give ladies with time. extra she does not come me by being she surprised on time. For G- She surprised you? Z- Tell happened him what to be on time her time last surprises you? to when we wanted go to Bloudan. A- friends his at half if But have of a quarter an hour It's an hour. Or half to be five a lady to and he said Then six. at five minutes, and asked him five past ten until and I arrived dressed much for even finish meet me to come and meet him here done by half my hair to arranged the hairdresser's I was at he didn't home to get too So he told five. past He had Bloudan. go to at six. I could yes. a- to We had planned Is six. past or I went ten minutes, it or late? she was at much considering not the hairdresser's. Z- Merely is asking whether it minutes late means or ten of a lady to be late. It too that is much for she the thinks rule. to a lady that What it is be five is more, expected ehe n º, :7 1w C' that considered she was forty half A- What would late minutes five past ten she was only you have done you had six1considering because turned and she we were ten up at me from with late, minutes supposed past half fact to most six. five pant to meet arranged when in to friends your at six. Z- A- I had given myself embarrassed and arrive Forget It it. to supposed Z- No, they meet were turned women. Therefore we might not be that also up a little the friends-we were early. on time. exactly make-up so that late. so happened G- Now listen, of time extra is thing n vital it doesn't from the point of how much time matter view they spend. A- Z- And lie knows is a matter of the that of in If make-up. everything ever except I am late it's when it on account children. I can't understand an appointment the I am late safe side. this. I understand you must Being give late yourself is something that extra that when you have time to be on bothers me. at i? s c) Translation Text G- Are Z- G- Z- I by travel to ship? I'll but ship try to go back by plane time. to save If you go by plane, you went back together in it If is if his all if appropriate and then they could join your family you go with house that the first turns to write is going leisure. at to if lot whole house we will more if G- Because the am going is it as you say, a house, available I be better would a house find Anyway and ask him it than rather You can it. of think you own, one plane? landlord previous don't on your thought I never able. or by by plane you going like H still avail- go together. I went my If not, found on my own, me. you'll up regardless have of to its accept and its rent specifications. Z- the to bring landlady So I sent the rent. arrival I went time The first the for to be one of She said I must I didn't find look for one quickly us. we could Consequently not stand and, them. out Z- because my family couldn't So she turned to I was on my own and I landlady a- things there A fortnight the stand those she started I had to their after children So I doing rent unpleasantness. with she raised who don't house. another her naturally, agreed all longer. any like children. tried, sorts an expensive but when of nasty house 0,0.9 Joos, .1 'The Martin, University Juillard ,, English (Janus and Macris James, 'The 'Linguistics Robert, The University Long, ,, Ralph 'The ,t Contemporary Mitchell, ,, of T. of the Philological J. R. Firth phonetic English Roberts, Paul, New York, ---- basis' Randolph, Quirky 'English New York, Memorial 'A Grarimar H. E... Palmer, Phrasal Studies, Vol. 'Patterns Ann Arbor, A Grammar Parts. of Press Linguistic 1962. of Press, Chicago 1961. 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