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to
Problems
Grammatical
Involved
in Teaching English
Speakers of Syrian Arabic
by-
:'M.
Z.
nTnu
Presented
for the
in the Department
University
October,
oury
Degree of Ph. D.
of English,
of Leeds,
1965
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1
'rata
Pc,,Go 19i
lino
Pai o 49,. line
27 cubßtituto
'Ga11wI4t=on'
3.6 sub ctitut
o'
'Ba1laHt&ton=on'
for
' proo oclo'
proo odoct' for
P&&o 122, lino
11 substituto
'6anitivo'
for
'Qonotivo'
153, lino
18 cubctituto
'binayyoz'
for
'binuyyox'
Pogo 178, lino
13 substituto
'cardinal'
for
'ordinal'
Pa3o 183, lino
10 substituto
for
'? aw 1'
'traaiiod'
Paso 183, =lino
11 substituto
'cardinal'
Pa3o 183, line
IS oubatitut
Pw3o 225, line
7 substituto
pa so 265, line
26 aubstitut
Pago 267, lino
10 substitute
Paso 257, lino
3,9 doloto
Poo
o! doflnit
'Lot
drat)
(; oath)
to ! 9aaio l
(ono) to ' 9asra'
ton
'by'
'it'
for
'in'
' faayost t
for
'of'
for
aftor,
' aot orninod'
o' for
o' Sonyot'
'or'
'ordinal'
for
'travollinß'
Patio 288,
lino
6 incort
P¬zo 300,
lino
35 substituto
'byuctIIu??
PcGo 316,
lino
10 oubctituto
! bt d'
Paco 346, lino
10 Substitut
'illustratod'
botuoon
for
o' ayntcatioal'
' for
and 'tho'
'byucIlu?? '
'bL41
for
' ayntaotio'
Acknowledgment
the
Throughout
Professor
guide.
have
encouragement
most research
timable
It
remaining,
Not least
debt
in
the
students
I am, of
their
throughout
and sincere
for
must be added that
course,
ii
am I grateful
of depression
periods
my most grateful
and patient
all
wholly
errors
criticism
inaccuracies,
a number of inclarities,
absurdities.
my aupervi©or,
and constructive
suggestions
saved me from
downright
his
valuable
thesis
has been an untiring
T. F. Mitchell,
His
of the
preparation
work.
thanks
to
him for
that
befall
For
such ines-
are
due.
and imperfections
responsible.
and
Introduction
it
While
linguist
is
of
seem to
be twofold:
factory
attitudes
material
can
be based.
of
the
of
the
linguistics
of
linguistics.
teaching
firstly,
satis-
upon
choice
personal
descrip-
himself
In 1957 lado
textbooks
which
the
intra-lingual
concern
con-
language
and, eecondly,
concerned
the
where
unmistakable
provide,
of what has come to
comparisons
contrastive
to
normal
to
the
field
study,
language/a
go beyond
the
able
As a matter
descriptive
lingual
he is
common ground
teacher,
to
to'language
of
to
may choose
linguist
the
tributions
find
language
the
can meet
tive
to
possible
linguist
comparisons
with
the
inter-
be known as descriptive.
(1)
wrote,
"It will
soon be considered
quite
out of date to begin
having previously
without
a textbook
compared
writing
the two systems (L, and 12) involved.
"
the
While
teaching
tends
attitude
into
lags
present
to
agree
concrete
behind.
Textbooks
for
are
awaited
(1)
Robert Zado,
The University
attitude
with
of those
lado,
the
concerned
translating
descriptive-contrastive
based
many languages,
with
of this
work
inevitably
on descriptive-contrastive
Arabic
in
particular.
'Linguistics
Across Cultures',
Ann Arbor,
Press,
1957, p. 3.
of Michigan
111
work
iv
The present
a partial
the
for
basis
in
of Arabic
speakers
and Syrian
general,
Damascene Arabic.
This
language
Syrian
students
On the
other
foreign
English.
spoken
as may arise
the
native
language
are
so deeply
which
is
It
tion.
here
referable
hood,
and not
features
many
at
school
in
versity
transferred
English
the
to
the written
spoken
the
very
language.
At
(especially
to
referable
the
those
foreign
to
the
it
is
learning
letned
is
is
though
those
secondary
of
sharing
acquired
that
and attested
of
the
and unienough in
certain
languages)
features
child-
attending
school
be expected
language,
in
nevertheless
unlike
to
situafeatures
built-in
which,
that
childhood
since
common to both
transfer
features
become proficient
students
and
structural
which
language,
conflict
English)
such deeply
not
that
of
language
language,
spoken
however,
language
foreign
language,
circumstances
levels,
the written
features
to
learner
that
and not
written,
those
the
that
such points
to
particular.
and spoken
fact
case written
the
the
maintained
of a foreign
teaching
in
rooted
with
in
this
referable
are
become a hindrance
they
are
L2 (in
between
is
learn
hand,
in
Arabic
by the
justified
is
for
of English
English
written
provide
could
textbooks
of
preparation
hoped,
is
it
which,
made between
is
Comparison
descriptive-contrastive
a syntactic
and Arabic
of English
study
is
thesis
will
mistakes
the written
be
in
V
frequent.
language
are
cription
demands restriction
quite
of Damascus,
Arabic
conversation
spontaneous
of
samples
were
students
on the
of Arabic
seems
spoken
by
norm provided
were
those
in
from
derives
the
attempted
confrontation
have
that
carries
the
with
especially
(including
been
not
attempted.
would
statements
phonological
fact
indicates,
thesis
lexical
comparisons
of
particular
(more
grammatical
considered;
univeraity
the
to
this
of
hundred
two
transfer
reflecting
title
analysis
complete
by Syrian
according
recording
selected
Moreover,
English
reflecting
are
Arabic,
Appendix.
in
and phonological
be necessary
Damascene
classified
features
a more
in
As the
mistakes
idiomatic)
based on an eight-hour
and mistakes
transferred.
syntactical)
the
it
variety,
is
the
written
analysed
features
features
That
in
appear
which
scripts
examination
only
one language
and especially
of Arabic
The analysis
Arabic
since
on the
des-
rigorous
Damascene usage.
educated
of
to
description
to base the
justifiable
Moreover,
written
it
English
of
implication
the
of utterance.
It
will
as to
and Arabic,
large
extent
found
to
comparison
be seen,
both
by the
reflect
itself
then,
topics
nature
Arabic
(which
that
of
the
treatment
and range,
the
features.
otherwise
is
mistakes
determined
which
Moreover,
would
of both
the
offend
English
to a
have been
basis
of the
against
strict
vi
theoretical
exigencies
In the
Certain
were
mistakes
transfer
reflect
of Arabic
areas
in
which,
seems reasonably
the
comparisons
are
based are
language
with
on which
the
of,
subject
say,
problems
him when he is
language.
lingual
textual
than
in
so to
the
in his
translation
that
of
his
comparisons
to
linguistic
appears
hold
to
learn
own society,
is
between
similarly
the
that
statements
they
to
to
comparison
whether
would
attention
The difference
between
English,
man concerned
those
of
organization
seems plausible
conveyancing.
between
examination
in
English.
with
a bridge
say,
the
texte.
assumed
were
conflict
performance
It
to
and these
recur,
to value-judgments,
addressing
foreign
and Arabic
alldescriptive
or inter-lingually;
intra-
of English
]Linguistic
to be made.
the
prior
features
of Syrian
light
the
was
recourse
initially,
and has prompted
and English
derives
categories)
mistakes,
has provided,
and Arabic,
English
to
of Arabic
English
Thus, Syrian
found
maintained
universal
classifying
and contrast
comparison
by linguists
auch mistakes.
introspection"
"bilingual
specific
to
of
process
in
from
justification
partial
had to
beliefe
aprioriatic
who reject
its
auch as those
are made
the
faced
confront
learning
intra-
relation
to
similar
analytical
be one of degree,
each language
separately
statements
justify
the
a
and inter-
of kind.
Substantially
of
made in
use of
rather
vii
object,
subject,
type
is
thesis
consists
In
Part
II
in
the
two
are
nominal
languages.
conflict
the
between
difficulties
for
and
illustrated
(and
the
examination
scripts
items
leads
in
cross-idento
complex
mistakes
of
compared
and
two
phrases
in
confirmed)
written
in
are
which
learning
by Syrian
Arabic.
considered
and points
are
English
by attested
and
description,
contrasted,
languages
Syrians
the
with
English,
sentences
and verbal
stage
deals
in
sentences
each
I
Fart
parts.
be comparable
At
are
of
English
such categories
a generalized
two
of
to
both
to
relation
of
adjectives(
verbs,
with.
phrases
and Arabic
English
partial,
and
deemed
in
etc.
or class
concerned
nouns,
is
it
of both;
facto
comparability
only
we are
what
cause
the
the
sentences,
complement,
sentence-types
simple
with
say,
of an item
The
of
of,
two languages
tification
to
application
Because
and Arabic.
the
talk
to
reasonable
the
in
of terms
one set
likely
are
mistakes
students.
to
discussed
from
Transcription
The symbols
and brief
used in
reading
the
transcription
conventions
attaching
Consonant
b:
a voiced
f:
a voice1saa
labio-dental
m:
a bilabial
nasal;
n:
a denti-alveolar
nasal;
1:
a dents-alveolar
lateral;
bilabial
an alveolar
plosive;
g:
a voiced
velar
x:
a voice]i
e uvular
G:
a voiced
uvular
q:
a voicelss
uvular
H:
a voicelras
pharyngal
9:
a voiced
pharyngal
?:
a glottal
plosive;
h:
a glottal
fricative;
plosive;
velar
S, Z, T, D, are
t,
fricative;
fricative;
palato-alveolar
a voicelrss
z,
fricative;
palato-alveolar
k:
a,
as follows:
roll;
a voicelrss
a voiced
them are
to
letters
A-
"r:
forms
of Arabic
plosive;
fricative;
fricative;
plosive;
fricative;
fricative;
"emphatic"conaonanto
d "non-emphatic".
viii
corresponding
to
ix
For the
Note:
ly
expanded)
of
back,
in
the
tics
z,
S, Z are,
of
of the
and lowering
of the
of the
lip-position
course,
by
characterized
a feature
is
neutral
with
and contrasts
s,
is
contracted);
by flattening
Lip-spreading
mouth.
tics.
narrow
articulation
non-emphatic
corresponding
(laterally
tongue
of the
front
the
for
length;
articulation
emphatic
the
tongue
is
tongue
the
addition,
raising
its
throughout
non-emphatics,
in
the
emphatico,
(lateral-
must be broad
sulcal,
for
and t,
tongue
non-emphathe
empha-
d, T, D,
plosive.
w:
a voiced
bilabial
y:
a voiced
palatal
B-
semi-vowel.
letters
Close
Vowel
e:
half-close
and somespread
vowel,
a shortjfront
in
blew;
syll
closed
centralized
what
final
back
to
close
when
ounded
centrarl
a short
or long;
half-close
to
front
spread vowel;
a mid
o:
a mid to half-close
a:
a short
ment of
front.
i:
u:
C- Doubled
Long vowels
back
rounded
vowel;
in the
back notably
open vowel,
'emphatic'
otherwise
consonants,
environmostly
letters
and geminated
consonants
are
shown by
letters.
double
D- The symbol
indicate
forms
semi-vowel;
the
in
® is
impossibility
either
English
used instead
of
a given
or Arabic.
of an asterisk
form
to
or sequence
of
Contents
page iii
Introduction
viii
Transcription
Part
I:
Sentence-Structure
Introductory
Chapter
One.:
: Sentences
(1)
(2)
Simple
in English
Affirmative
and Arabic
1
Sentences
4
Verbal,
Nominal,
A. Arabic
Sentences.
& Particle
types
B. English
and Arabic
affirmation
Sentences in
A. a Negative
in
Sentences
b) Negative
F.
II
Chapter
46
Periphrasis
Tags
Two : Complex Sentences
(1)
(2)
Part
of
English
Arabic
Sentences in English
Sentences in Arabic
B a) Interrogative
b) Interrogative
C. a Questions. in English
in Arabic
b Questions
D. a) The 'Emphatic'
Verbal
in English.
b) Emphasis in Arabic.
E. Verb Substitutes
Chapter
fii,
Complex Sentences
Complex Sentences
in
English
in Arabic
75
88
: Phrase-Structure
One : Nominal Phrases
(1) Heads
A. Nouns (English
B. Pronouns
X
& Arabic)
(English
& Arabic)
99
xi
Contents
(2)
14°
Adjuncts
A. Determiners
B. Adjectives
Chapter
Two : Verbal Phrases
(1) A. Verb Phrases
B. Verb Phrases
(2)
Distribution
(English
(English
& Arabic)
& Arabic)
207
in English
in. Arabic
Finite
of Comparable
Forme
in
English
Present
Simple
a)
in
Arabic
b+
imperfect
a1)
Implications
Contrastive
a2)
I.
Past in English
Forms in Arabic
Implications
Contrastive
b) Simple
b1) Perfect
b2)
Present
a)
(i
Perfect
a
(ii)Participial
2.
in English
Perfective
Forms in Arabic
Forms in Arabic
b) Past Perfective
b1) kaan+Participial
b2)
Contrastive
in English
Porns in Arabic
Implications
in
Continuative
a) Present
9am+imperfect
in Arabic
a)
(i
Contrastive
Implications
a2)
(ii
Contrastive
Implications
(iii
Contrastive
implications
3.
b) Past Continuative
b') kaan+9am+imperfect
b2)
4.
Contrastive
in
English
English
Forms in Arabic
Implications
Continuative
Perfective
a) Present
in English
Forms
al) Saar+Prs. +gam+imperfect
in Arabic
b) Past Perfective
Continuative
in English
bi) kaan+S ar/? uX+9am+imperfect
forma in Arabic
215
x11
Forms in
5. a) Passive
English
b) Paaeiv©
Forma in Arabic
implications
c) Contrastive
(3)
Non-Finite
Forms in English
& Comparable
Forms in Arabic
in English
1. a) Infinitives
b) 0+ imperfect
Norms in Arabic
Implications
c) Contrastive
2. -ing Forma in
a) Gerunds
b) Al-Masdar
3. a) Participles
b) Participles
c) Contrastive
(4)
A. Adverbs
B. Adverbs
0.
Appendix
Bibliography
in
287
English
in
English
in Arabic
Implications
English
333
in Arabic
Contrastive
implications
Al B, C, D, E, P, G, H
357
Translation
of
Texts Al Bp Go Do E, F, Go H
372
Texts
389
1
Introductory
in
Sentence-Types
the
Behind
ber
of
it
patterns
patterns
is
to
basis
a limited
discern
of morphological
patterns
num-
Each of
elements,
a number of
in
of utterances
repeated.
endlessly
These recurring
characteristics.
variety
possible
are
made up of
on the
classified
is
which
and Arabic
endless
seemingly
and Arabic
English
English
classes
these
of words
and/or
syntactical
will
be called
sentencM
Sentences
simple,
The first
(1)
English
commands,
questions,
into
in
and
compound,
classification
can
be classified
exclamations,
and complex
is
best
into
on the
sentencea,
characterized
statements,
one hand;
on the
in
and
other.
terms
of
terms
'Word',
'Sentence',
'Syllable',
The terms
all
linguistic
that
common
coin,
seem to defy any
are
definition
left
best
undefined.
and
are
satisfactory
'Sentence'
the term
though
Yet,
undefinable,
remains
The object
one in grammatical
analysis.
a convenient
being
discussion
this
a
one, namely,
a practical
of
been
it
has
English
Arabic,
study
of
and
contrastive
to consider
found
only those
convenient
as sentences
in
be
handled
terms
which
of a subjectcan
sequences
later
dichotomy,
being
this
on
established
predicate
in the discussion
criteria.
and not on notional
on formal
in
background
its
discusses
the problem
Pries
some
and
'The Structure
2 of his
in chapter
detail
of English'.
2
difforcnt
the
rosponson
features
as by contrastive,
tho
sition
of
below)
boing
is
tho
tho
to
within,
iglish,
tho
ordor,
The
typo,
an woll
rolativo
(formally
prodioato
nunbor
is
it
po-
ostablishod
classification
second
and intorrolationc
on the
classify
contonoos
and simple,
und
compound,
and
other.
atcimple
distinguish
to
aontenc©c:
the
in.
basic
following
categories:
Affirmativo
: No6ativ©
Declarative
: Interrogative
Any Dontenco
will
'I
thins:
so'
'I
don't
think
'Do
require
the
term
two
use of
for
Cf.
desiiation.
you think
'Don't
tho
of
conranda,
questions,
classified
possible
to
possible
one hand;
sentences
is
oath
contain.
on- the
oentcnces,
it
word
an statements,
exclanationn,
complex
tho
also,
correspondingly
with
important.
most
sentences
In. Arabic
of
und tho
oubjoct
made according
cluuoos
associated
1
irnativo-doclarativo
-c!
Co'
- negative-doclarativo
co ?'-
you think
co 2'
aftirnativo
- negativo
-intorrogativo
-intorrogativo.
its
t)
Description
important
rol©
behaviour
of
ac vorb
of thooo
playod.
in
which
Substitut©c,
In. the
typen
negative,
interrogative,
an tags
and verb
between
IIlglich
in
sentences
of
for
call
ctatemonts,
But,
in
first,
are
conaidored
be nado
Will
with
sentences,
will
outlino
appropriate.
of
corresponding
deemed to
a general
and
coaiicnt.
and contrast
and what
tho
tho
tags,
study
and emphatic
typos
Arabic
in. Digliah,
Cn outline
Simple
rovoal
sontcnco3,
aloo
substitutes,
Arabic.
in
emphatic
following,
will
ouxiltari©u
will
different
types
by
catogorion
as well
be drawn
be comparable
of
simple
4
Chapter
One
(1)
Affirmative
Simple
Nominal,
A. Arabic
Within
Nominal
to
the
according
noun,
the
(1)
lbeet
(2)
beet
(3)a)
(2)
(3)
relative
Sentences,
lbeet
by the absence of
characterized
(1)
by
their
conand also
pieces)
of
the
house
(the
(a big
is
big
of
constructions
with
associated
or neither.
house
(the
is
article
or both,
kbiiý3(the
kbiir
definite
the
to whether
lukbiir
exhibiting
(2)
in
Thus
article.
'N - Adj. ' different
structure:
lukbiir
structures
comparable
with
adjective,
b) beet
(1)
Nominal
is
Sentences.
& Particle
are
distributions
relation
the
in
relations
different
obtain
sentences
(except
trastive
it
statements
main, types:
three
Sentences
Sentences
Nominal
verbals
& Particle
as simple
classified
and fii
Sentences,
fii
Verbal,
to distinguish
possible
Verbal
sentences
Sentences
Cf.
big)
the
big
(one)
)
house)
house)
A Nominal Sentence can have for its
piece
subject
a relative
(the
'
?
verbal
a
one who
e. g.
rubeH
containing
alli
axuuk'
brother),
is
your
piece
where the underlined
relative
won
the verbal
'rubeH'.
contains
See ppJ4l ff.
Z9 p. 1411
For the shape of the definite
article
see footnote
J
In
(1)
noun. is
the
only
resulting
construction
predicate
type
of
the
(2)
the
is
the
second
as 'The
docentric
In
and the
phrase. that
opposed
since
(1)
(2)
(3)
neither
words
(3)
a) both
the
with
(a nominal
phrase
known
is
or what
to
and 'beet'
the
a) and b)
in
with
is a definite
(3)
noun, i. e. it
by definite
en-
same form-
members are prefixed
of
In
constituents.
prefixed
belong
as a definite
a) in, terms
any
a) and b) we have
construction
occupied
its
(3)
of no im-
occupy
cannot
head-word),
'lbeet'
resulting
of
it
is
they
subject-
class
construction
since
(3)
form
of the
In
and the
article
one of-the
the
that
as the
can operate
to
other
Construct'.
typically
positions
to
constituents
respectively.
article
belongs
component
constructions
as the
an exocentric
by either
'beet'
the
with
an endocentric
nominal
Arabic
class
In
filled
form
to
article
in
it
since
positions
it
with
is
constituent.
mediate
prefixed
(3)
nouns.
the
nominal
can fill
b) is
definiteness-indefiniteness
constituents
2
'Language',
Bloomf*id,
Leonard
1956,
New York,
p. 194.
is
associated
Henry
Holt
with
the
article.
and Company,
term in describing
'Head' is a useful
which
structures
two
forms,
is
functionally
or
more
of
one
of
which
consist
to
the
This is the head; the other
whole form.
equivalent
being called
'Modifiers'.
form/s
to distinguish
It is necessary
two categories
of nominals
definite
A definite
in Arabic:
and indefinite
nominale.
(see
that
is
below)
which
can occupy subject
nominal
position
(1) proper nouns (yuusef
(Joseph),
includes:
The category
); (2) personal
london (London)
or demonstrative
pronouns
/...
(? ans (I),
); (3) nouns preceded by the
haada (this)
...
6
Cr.
(1)
lbeet
(the
kbiir
lbeet
a)
b)
In the
beet
(he bought
btara
beet
kbiir
indefinite),
d
is
IT
where
separates
'lbeet',
Cont.
definite
(4)
and
definite
book).
which
This
a definite
-
elements
Ill
is
absent
part
in
dis-
(1)
there
is
a po-.
in
a particle
structure;
three.
or a relative
(definite
or
compounded
may be summarised
/Adv. /Part.
P. ,a
the other
nominal
nominal
or
It
sentence.
their
In
sentence-type
Rel.
of
relative
+ Prs.
piece;
-,
N1, an indefinite
);
(the
lvralad
boy)
house),
or another
suffix
with
a pronominal
(my brother),
ktaab waa? el (Wael's
(lbeet
article
nouns colligatin
(?
nominal
ax-i
a nominal
a definite
N/N/Adj.
nominal;
)
house)
may play
an adverb,
suffix.
P.
is
a following
with
an adjective,
Ud
N/Rel.
(1)
a big
structures.
comprise
colligates
syntactic
only
(one)
house was sold)
a house)
(he bought
the other
from
big
features
junctural
that
a pronominal
as follows:
nbaa9
the old
wan sold)
(the
etara
Sentences
which
piece,
house
lukbiir
pause after
Nominal
with
nbaa9
lbeet
(1)
tinguishing
tential
(the
above examples
may be added
is big)
(he cold a house)
(he cold the house of
lukbiir
(2) baa9 beet
baa9 beet
(3)
house
(the
7
Adj.,
noun;
particle
Adv.,
an adjective;
combined
Examples
with
(WWaelis
?ubni
(2) waa? el rujjaal
(3) Uraa?el
zaki
(5) Uraa?el magi
for
piece
the
(Wael is
one)
Another
with
the
by
with
colligates
number
with
d
(N
me)
we can
initial
in
d
(N
outside)
examples
who slept
sub-type
exemplified
pounded
in
above
a man)
)
Adv.
Part.
-
+ Pro-)
a relative
substitute
Thus we can have
position.
naum ?ubni/rujjaal/zaki/barra/ma9i
( (the
minal
(Waal is
d
d
(N
N)
d
(N
N)
d
(N
)
Adj.
-
clever)
(Wael is
the nominal
yalli
is
suffix.
my son)
(Waal is
(4) waa? el Barra
all
a
are:
(1) waa? el
In
on adverb;
a pronominal
+ Pro.
Part.
?uxti
sentence
examples,
a nominal
sentence
suffix
agreeing
(lit.:
Adnan,
(lit.:
which
in
which
with
be noted
should
wherein
an initial
a noun
the
first
nois
com-
nominal
e. g.
t'raZZaf
i
his
luktarib
su9ro_ Gaali
(lit.:
biy ©ister,
servant)
The book,
ll; utub
Gaali
(lit.:
The books,
au9ron
me
rtman/olever/outside/with
following
9adnnnn ?ubno rfii?
joozh,
my son/
of nominal
a pronominal
and gender,
is
son is
my friend)
her husband
its
price
their
is
price
is
a civ
expensive)
is
expen-.
stvo)
8
Thin
cub-type
dd
N-N+
of nominal
Having
constituent
to introduce
venient
the
reference
is
made to
dichotomy
is
established
tion
the negative
of
cedes
the
'aubjeat'
(1)
components.
these
inter
of nominal
in con-
tpredicatel
and
when
(see below),
the latter
whether
,
The subject-predicate
on the basis
alia
sentence
it
are concerned,
terms
Thus in nominal
subject.
types
components
particle
the predicate,
+ Pro.
the different
considered
as its
as far
/Adv. /Part.
j.
N/I/Ad
-
Pro.
thus:
can be formulated
oentenoo3
of
which
always
of
precedes
of
sentences
the pooipre-
follows
the following
struo-
ture
dd
N /Re 1.
the
nominal
the
and the
predicate
a relative
piece
verbal
the
and
and numbers,
If
in
number
containing
predicate
NAT/Adj.
-
in
piece
relative
'predicates'.
be called
(1)
the
'subjects';
called
with
or
P.
the
subject
is
and gender;
a verbal,
is
also
second
operative
position
will..
it
agrees
a nominal,
and when the
agreement
in
between
terms
be
will
position
in
elements
the
initial
of
subject
is
this
gender
e. g.
we must hasten to say that these terms are established
on
(see
belovr) and do not necessarily
formal grounds
imply a
in apriori
belief
universal
They are simply
categories.
labels
in
the
description
useful
of the structure
of sontone ea.
9
Subj oet a nominal
lwalad
? ubni /tilnii
(the boy is my son/a
(mace.
z/ahazzab,
pupil/polite)
sing.
)
sing.
(fem.
lbunt
bunts/ti1x
iizo/nhazzabo
(the girl
is ay dauGhtor/a
puplil/polito)
luwlaad
w ulbanaat
(the boys and &trlo
Subject
a r©lativo
pieco
)
(nass.
Ging.
is my son)
yalli
(the
yalli
(the
)
(fen.
bunts
sing.
raaHet
daughter)
is
my
one who went
(plural)
raaHu wlaa&i
who went are-my children)
yalli
(those
An has b©en_ implied
in
In
object.
of the
a sentence
relative
position,
sent ©nc es if;
of nominal
exLplec
all
the
above,
in nominal
and predicate
predicate
(plural)
wlaadi/talaaiiz/nhazzabiin.
are ay, children/pupilc/polito)
ra H ? ubni
one who went
subject
)
not
aontencon
of
the
The
fictcd.
the
can precede
structure
Ift - Iý
the
where
subject
ßcntenc©S
of tho
are definite
und prediato
following
ctructuro
1ý - Adv. /Part.
whoro
the
fix,
the
no form
adverbial
the
of
c. reoment
or
the
position
predicate,
fi od as nominal
of
in. the
f Pro.
between
operates
particle
the
nominale,
in
and
combined
negative
negative
(see
cent enc os
with
particle,
counterparts
below)
in
9
the
nominal
a pronominal
which
of
taken.
always
amtencos
and
sufprocodes
classi-
as tin. important,
10
for
crit©rion.
tho
o itabliohing
dichotomy.
cubjoct-prodioato
Affirmativ©
N ogatiyo
9adnaan ? uff.
9adnaan
(Adnon
is
9adnam
my brother)
(Athen
not
my brothor)
9adna= nuu foo?
(Adnan is not upstairs)
in upstairs)
9adnan 9nudi
(Adnan is with
nuu ? axi
(Adnan is
foo?
Cf.
9adnaun muu Sandi
(Aänan to not with
me)
no)
and
9 adna u.
.
9adna
? axi
foo?
nuu ? act 9adnaan
nuu foo? 9adnam
9andi 9odnann
ii)
Verbal
Verbal
nominal
betwoaa
priato1y
will
what
with
which
employed
are
Vorbals
considered
are
lined:
Soo p. ! l2
special
.
aro
These
sentences
be described
are
categories
of
various
in
and contrasted
be comparable
a few oxaaplos,
for
in
centonces
which the
in
verbal
of a
of
elomente
on. tho
affixos,
and sender
proaenc©
predicate
©stablished
sgst©InB of
number,
to
by the
occupied
place
person,
(1)
subsequently
following
(1)
the
by the
are characterized
c©ntenc©a
sentenool.
association.
9adnazn.
Sentoncea
form in
verbal
muu Sandi
basis
of thoir
distinguisning
are apProtypen
tend
some detail
En8Ußh.
Yo=i3
with
The
are under..
11
butn
? u=i
(IIy ciotlior.
balcklir
goon to bod
t9allz?
nnat aa? oj
(tho
roaultc.
or
fit
contencos
an indofinit
(thorn
a pronominal
with
sin©na
lgax'doon
at
Al-Fazdoo
film
Particle
are nude up of one of
sentences
na9,
you)
tcHt,
foo?,
jamb,
warn,
and followed
suffix
a pronominal
procoding
cin©ma)
for
(9and,
nominal,
rauffix
fli
? ulak aaktuub
(there
lott or
ina
particles
with
a nice
+ an indofinite
o. g.
Hulu bi
is
fit
made up of
conbinoä
o nominal,
fUlun
fit
Sentoneoo
are
particlo
+a
ypatorday)
abu yaaaor ra? iio
ys
oloutod
aer
procidont)
.
&; Pa ticlo
I"li
fii
nbaaroH
worn -poatod
TTullaab_ ntr
(the studontc
111)
of
early)
by
a closed
list
? uddaan)
combined
an indefinite
of
noun, e. g.
Sandi Dyuui (lyoom)
(I havo 6uosts today)
ria9i t azl: art oen sinoia
(I have two ciacna
tickot
Cf.
'9and
tional
uDDyuuf'
phrase
the
propositional
the
fact
can
be followed
(near
with
only.
that
a cafe)
(with
und not
guests)
a particle
phrase
the
the
s)
in. the
by a definite
),
a pronominal
whereas
suffix
particle
the
or
former
cud is
sentence
occurs
indofinito
particle
followed
in
a kind
by
lattor
proposi.
between,
rosid'ing
by itself
nominal
the
of
difference
the
sentence,
and the
particle
is
which
in
and
('jamb
? ahwo'
is
combined
an indefinite
noun
12
Particlo
fron
of this
Dcntancon
nominal
3entonoon
A. (1)
similar
na9i
ta: kartoen
magi
tt a kart
(I
(2)
of
two
havo
typo
bo dlstinguiohod
should
Of.
atruoturo.
tickota)
eon
(the two tickets
or ttazkarteen
ne9i
(the two tickets
are with
mo)
cr© with
ne)
std
(1)
B.
naa magi
(I
(2)
or
haven't
(the two tickets
are
tt mzkart o en auu magi
(the two tickets
are
(2),
and
(1)
follow
must
the
con=on:
the
negative
particle.
2.
particle
and the
the
rust
of the
In
rust
ocntenoo
(2),
the
be indefinite
and
is
with
associable
must
and the
be d©fi.
scntenco
'nuu'.
particle
o noun followring
have an ind©finit
a=ciato
with
associatod
cent one cc havo two cnaract©riatica
they
and the
nominal
nominal
the* particle,
of
variability
nominal,
positions
nominal
taaa'.
the
terns
in
are statablo
the
with
1. they
no)
(1)
precede
und pcrticl©
with
negative
or
iii
not
the
particle,
pazticlo
me)
of
can. follow
associable
or
the
negative
rite,
in
Thus
with
ß of
relative
form
and the
not
(2)
and
indefinitcno
or
in the
or otherwise
(1)
between
definiteness
particle,
two tickotc)
tt azkart o en
nuu na9i
Difforonce
the
t azkrart ©en
with
the
n©gativo
in
' fii'
particle
is
.J
'maa'.
Moreover,
teristic
that
however,
in
they
the
ceded by a definite
der
as the
fii
sentences
tences,
forms
verbal
that
with
are
nominal
cannot
nominal
particle
of the
suffix
to
sentences
the
in
may be included
fii
particle;
sentences.
are:
(1)
9ando Dyuuf
(he has guests)
?axi 9ando Dyuuf
(my brother
has guests)
(2)
9ando Hafle
he ie giving
(bukra)
a party
(to-morrow)
(bukra)
iii
9ando Hafle
(to-morrow)
(he is giving
a party
)
)
and gen-
person,
by any nominal.
be preceded
charac-
They differ,
6
canpre-
them.
same number,
appended
the
sentences
from
excluded
in
particle
pronominal
moreover,
share
whereas
Particle
cen-
Examples
1A.
C
B. English
Within
simple
aentencea
distinguish
poeaible"to
tepee
and Arabic
of
affirmation
claaeified
it
as otatementa,
is
types.
several
Type I
The first
(1)
linked
a verbal
in
presaible
of
of
first
is
sentence
together
terms
in
The nominal
type
(1)
made up of a nominal
and
of form
ex-
by a certain
a combined
category
is
position
agreement
the
of person
subject;
the
and number.
the
verbal,
predicate.
This
which
Bition;
'-'
'N'
(2)
a nominal
represents
'V',,
indicates
constituents
(1)
may be given
sentence-type
a verbal
the
formula,
or nominal
phrase
or verbal
phrase
linkage
(actual
by agreement
in-terms
the
in
second
(2)
or potential)
11 in
V, in
first
poand
position;
of the
two
of number and person.
The terms 'nominal'
and 'verbal'
are used in the sense
James
by
them
Sledd in his 'A Short Introduction
to
given
1959,
Grammar',
Scott,
Foreman and Co., Chicago,
to English
is
form which occupies
nominal
a word or larger
namely, a
(pp.
typically
83 ff);
by
occupied
and
nouns
a position
is
'verbal'
a word or phrase which occupies
a position
a
(pp.
by
89 ff)
typically
occupied
verbs
Cf.
he, she, it
I, you, they
asks
ask
and
the man
the men
asks
ask
and
I. we, you,
the men asked.
they,
the man
asked
and
15
Examples
of
sentences
The Assembly
Birds sing
Mother
He left
That
(beautifully)
sentences
structural
is
nevertheless
types
type
of
in
bal
sentences
nal
and a verbal,
formulated
in
been
and fii
sentences,
I
in
& particle
Such
patterns
of
of
number
bada
1? ujtimaa9
(the meeting has started)
TTyuur
(birds
butGanni
sing)
? ummi butGanni
(mother
sings)
huwwe saafar
(he left)
haada
(this
byi? zi
hurts)
in
more elaborate
as
simple
distinguished:
English
Arabic.
terms
are not
frequent,
sentences,
frequency.
classified
have
type
minimal
expanded
of high
sentences
main
this
of
pattern,
Within
Sentences
are:
hurts
the
verbal
type
(tonight)
meets
sings
While
three
this
of
nominal
sentences
agreement
and
gender.
to
are
Arabic,
sentences,
(see
sentences
correspond
in
statements
).
pp. 4 ff.
ver-
a sub-type
of
made up of
a nomi-
between
which
Examples
may be
are:
1
rJ
Sontonooc of this typo are cunaarlaod
under the formula,
(1)
to iSli
v, und are in Bonoral coaparablo
ch o ont ono on of
I.
typo
An wo havo coon, the
in
Arabic
(1) TTyuur
(tho
distinguish
to
Dorv©o
or aboonco of tho
prononco
difforcnt
two
artiolo
Cf.
utructuros.
but(},
birds
sing
birds
or
sing)
with
(2)
(1)
is
it
with
Tyuur
(birds
but Gauunt
(that)
clog
aa ent enc © comprising
by agroauont
tionally
in
to
oquivalent
Arabic
dared
and the
below
definite
(1)
the
fact
an nd joctive
article
(2)
and condor.
noun
this
botwoen
the
in
is
by
followed
in
'the'
and a vorb
o noun
a nominal
a verb
phrasal
typo.
article
11'
Englich
linicod
are
func-
in
conai-
(pp. 141Pf)
A mor© important
In
nunbor
differences
Distributional
birds)
singing
ad ofinit
an. indofinit©
containing
phrase
or
that
while
Foriula©
rof©rring
and thoa © rof©rring
difforenc©
the
to
nominal
bot wo
11 -V
can, precede
and n-V
or
follow
in small
be written
Arabic will
letters,
to F.i li air in capital
31013
the
l©tt©ra
17
the
verbal
liary
or
the
a nuthor
directions
stage
for
Contrariwise,
in
of
certain
froo
occurs
oloncnts
'Up
Mary',
cones
lnnguagoo,
r©strictod
'Eater
of.
prooodoi
by cn. auxi-
procodod
'Hora
instance,
Arabic,
is
rdvorbicl
as in,
in
or
it
to
tends
Lich
.
whoro
sentcnco,
balloon!;
'Went the
ate.
cases
whoa. one of
in
i]i
nominal
in
except
initially
of
the
in. Arabic,
verbal
the
',
aurdoror...
is
variation
that
the
case
bet w©en..
bi G Lm1 TT o er
? auk
naafar
%ufto
? an.a.
this
Behind
b©tween
that
II
with,
corn,
and.
und
and
and Arabic,
can occupy the
later
Those
be
called
may
by plural
meubero
nominal
is
co=on
inflection.
with,
the
the
lb
cnd verbal
exposition.
the bird
oinGa)
loft)
your brother
I saw him)
difforcnc
curtain
to
relative
and their
form
this
in.
on
however$
at at ommt
overall
fish
lansuaSOE.
TT oor biaanni
saatrar ? axuuk
tuf'to
7 ana
tho
poc
What is
in the
will
of
foray
iblo
positions
distribution.
oo
two
be dealt
innediato
con-
fact that,
in II1glish,
noninaals which
(1)
nouns (a sub-class
of nouns charactoris©d
an well
co-calked
as by the
case-inflection
a cociability
(2)
do not
of
appear
its
in
pp. 100 PF-
(1)
See chapteroi.
(2)
two-cane
cyst©n
F11glish
speak
of
a
While most 6raars
of
in
that
it
borno
to
be
boing
mind
suet
nouns,
applicablo
it
to
ainco
Eaglioh
only,
nouns
'care'
is not appliccalo
'the
Cf.
larger
hing of
structures.
may associato
with
on nouns,
Is
Cr,
sin gu lar
the
unless
whose members
class
among its
prises
In Arabic,
comparable
hand,
other
'1',
by the article
(3)
or a definite
noun.
The positional
in
Arabic
in
of
of
the
constitutes
by
reflected
Syrian
the
this
type
nominals
between
a conflict
following
a# an,
what are deemed to be
must always
or followed
of
variation
sentences
positions
relative
of
free
the
attested
The class
com(2
this,
my# etc.
nouns.
position,
subject
i. e. preceded
suffix
of
a closed
and can be con-
nominale
the,
membership:
in
a determiner,
identifiers
on the
nouns,
before
appear
or
as markers
sidered
by
acco rapanied
the
by a pronominal
nominal
as opposed
and verbals
two
languages
mistakes
be definite,
and verbal
to
the
in
English
which
made by
fixed
is
speakers
Arabic:
continued
A
far-fetched
England's
rather
people'.
example is quoted
A. Hill
in his 'Introduction
to Linguistic
by Archibald
', Harcourt,
From Sound to Sentence
in English.
Structures.
1951, ?. 187, 'She goes with
the
Brace and Co., New York,
'
the street
boy who lives
brother.
across
s
(1)James
Sledd,
(2)See
'determiners'
(3)See
footnote
op.
cit.,
pp. 97-8.
below,
(3),
pp. -r. &
pp4 o OF.
r
:t tici
© Appeared the results
of the examination.
Sihan an hour ago.
e Arrived
the year.
the students
their
® Neglected
work through
in this
® In our English
course
year spoke our teachers
English
writers.
about different
Mahfouz in
Amongst the Arabic
Najib
writers
stands
first
class.
The following
mistakes
feature
as another
as well
G They had their
In
to
order
is
Reference
Arabic
verbs,
8-term
'to
be')
within
'raaH'
variable
are
a two-term
are of
after
with
is
for
'she
where
should
be pointed
which
in
in
English
the
person
a calque
with
feminine
finite
has been equated
'the
teacher'.
speaker
The tendency
of
there-
what he considers
verbal
forms,
'SallaHuton
with
and
and masculine
'She corrected
of Arabic
verb
then
and only
'SallaHet'
to associate
by the above example
the
by the native
equated
English
(except
forms
out.
parallel
within
tense
present
singular
speaker
form with
tenses
verbs
contras-
and English
Arabic
'he
went'.
and
corrected'
is
two
Thus Arabic
system.
'SallaHutem-on'
'1?
and
ustaaze',
between
variable
only
the Arabic
illustrated
teacher'
and Arabic
and are rightly
an appropriate
is
another
the
whereas
the third
respectively,
Arabic
forms,
systeriSof
mistakes
the children
difference
being
verbs
above
teacher
for
a basic
to
conflict
comment:
the
English
between
feature
tive
of
for
supper
account
same kind
call
will
which
them
friend
Q She corrected
m He went your
the
reflect
'she
and this
them the
ul? uatnaze'
corrected
them'
20
with
Tho
association
tho
vorbal
toxtc,
an in
contoxto,
Arabic
is
rootrictod
form
luvt
tho
not
apoakor
l
in.
con-
IIiGlich
all
the
an in.
position,
p Mir wif© she speak© EaSlIsh
vory
0 Ily dr. ughtor
trio piano.
cho plays
0 The t elovision.
it costs
auch.
'she
'oho
speaks',
imperfect
Arabic
jootival
pro-cub;
oun. occur
post-cubjoctiva,
pronominal
fol-
lplos:
ox
whore
tho
of
to
but
oxaaplon,
in
notably
lovin&
by tho
'it
playa',
' btufki'
forces
well.
coats'
are
btul9ab'
,'
equated
with
' bikall©f'
and
,
r©spectivoly.
Before
that
could
occur
'Ho wcnt,
teacher
your
did
mistakes
vod
than
between.
quoted
(with
and the
a different
(c f"
corrected
then,
friend',
'She
which
them',
bf
and 'your
a negative
involved
are
alternative
more
may be variant
declaration)
between.
or
choice
forms
friend
English
a reflection,
on the
of
part
English.
of
of
previous
in.
punctuation.
and intonational
a conscious
two
on. this
quoted
junctural
is
a conflict
mistakes
be mentioned
should
appropriate
correct
in. contradiction.
it
conncnts
Eagiish
in.. speaking),
tures
that
in
and with
writing,
the
some of
while
page
these
concluding
the
foa-
teacher',
forma
of
'The
did
Sol,
i. e.
the
fact
rono. inn
und Arabic,
the
the
conflict
Arabic
and the
involopoaker
2
II
Tyne
Sentenceo
type
thin
of
N -Va
sub-class
in
linked
(a word
terms
number,
or
occupied
in
which
expanded
sound,
of
position
become,
The most frequent
this
sentence-type
remain,
ring,
grow,
are
typically
a position
occupies
which
).
by adjectives
the verbal
turn,
form
(2)
verbs',
by an adjectival
followed
and are
to a cloned
belonging
'atntive
may be termed
of verbs
of
latter
the
and a verbal,
where a nominal
as follows:
may be renresented
(1)
Adj"
verbs
occurring
are:
seem, look,
appear,
Examples
smell.
are:
He looked
It tastes
anxious
good
Sentences
of
troublesome
The children
grew
The story
rang true
The soup tastes
good
type
I in
this
they
that
two elements
in
ival
occurring
element
stituent
of this
(1) VS symbolizes
(2)
See pp. ici if.
type
have three
sentences
type
in
basic
type
of
the
third
of sentence,
a atative
from
are distinguished
verb.
I.
elements
In other
place
and not
is
sentences
as opposed
words
to
the adject-
an essential
an adjunct.
of
conCf.
Rr)
fýFý
Birds sing
It hurts
with
ö He became
0 It seemed
Moreover,
their
occurrence
with
(non-otative)
verbs
forms
adverbial
in
verbally
and
the
the
verbal
the
position
Arabic
types
of
be comparable
of
arrived
these
respects
in
Examples
are:
of
type
word
classes,
word
classes
the
two
of
number
The difference
this
of
are
is
languages
i
Ga,
bu?
Drbaan
xanled
(Khaled remained angry)
lbadle
Tul9et dnyy? a
(the suit turned out tight)
the
verbs
in
other
to
the
what
the
distribution
contrast
at
and has
to
forms,
occurring
post-
suddenly)
in
which
and gender
that
Thus
in
only
referable
though
with
between
sentence-type.
comparable
of
sentence-typo
terms
membership
are
each
They
basis
adjectival
(of.
in
agree
by
forms
comparable
a partially
contrast
adjunctival
sentence-types
concerns
constituents
bers
possible
in
followed
not
are
on the
established
forma,
by an adjectival.
followed
and Arabic
in
which
and a verbal
a nominal
are
has
are
adjectival
being
other
Arabic
verbs
stative
English
can occur
the
sense
are
variance
be considered
and
English
the
that
deemed to
of
the
in
mem-
other
separately.
ry
2J
SSuura bayyanet waaDHa
(the picture
appearod clear)
TTa? s Saar baared
(the
English
the
the
free
in
above
examples
type
'
can
is
appear
the
the
arise
elements
to
transferred
with
to
no problems
however,
of
variation
Arabic
offer
difficulties,
general;
positionally
sentences
parable
in
Arabic
cold)
of this
sentences
of
speakers
when
became
weather
English.
in
subject
of
final
comThus
po-
e. g.
sition,
bu? i GaDbaan aaaled
dayy? a lbadle
Tul9et
DHa SSuura
bayyanet
wvaa.
TTa? a
Saar daafi
This
the
free
positionally
following
variation
in Arabic
accounts
for
mistakes:
the
beautiful
Appeared
®
scene.
® He became angry my father.
the students.
0 They remained silent
The last
discussed
sentences
on pp 19-20
Loreover,
all
cases,
rollowing
reflect
the
since
last
arrangement,
of.
the
Arabic
tlso
the
0 He went your
subject
can precede
examples
in which
the
as that
same difficulty
are
friend.
the
verbal
in
to
the,
susceptible
subject
follows
the
verb:
26
bu? i xaalcd
GnDbann
dayy? a
Tu19at ulbadl©
bnyyanet
u89uura
waaDHa
Saar uTTa? a daafi
The following
of the order
light
can be readily
mistakes
the Arabio
of
accounted
in
elements
the
in
for
the above sentenee©:
9 Remained my husband late till
midnight
9 Became the weather hot in the afternoon
9 Became all the people educated and civilized.
(n)
II
Sub-type
A sub-type
English
of
II-sentences
Type
may be recognised
thus:
and symbolised
3
N
N-V
In
this
than
sub-type
in
being
with
the
in
the
this
Type
II,
verbs
only
of
Type
is
become,
occurring
is
sub-type
adjective
position
verbal
of
sentences
almost
position
the
II.
by
filled
remain,
seem,
in
frame.
this
by a noun,
occupied
fewer
Examples
in
verbs
look,
grorr,
The third
contrast
are:
The partners
remained friends.
The milk became cheese.
The boy
looked
Here again
a fool.
Arabic
has a comparable
and a verbal
are linked
are followed
by a noun of
nominal.
Exanmlea
are :
by agreement
the
sub-type
where a nominal
in number and gender,
same number and gender
and
as the first
%i
V
? axi
öu? t
cunt oca
m9alloa
{i! y brothor
a toaohor
romainod
Saz u wuzara
zufa? anti
(my friends
have become
(Her aon¢ turned
parablo
Ehglich
the
Thus
hero.
of
sibilitios
ct oro)
out to be doctors)
Tho cwiio positional
with
sentences
of Typo U
examples
subject
aboVe
are
is
contoncos
again
to
two
con-
noticoablo
rurthor
pos-
arrcngeIQt:
tit? i n9 all©n ? axi aunt ©en.
Sa=a
wuzara zufa? uati
Tul9u dakaatra
wlaadha
2.
bu? i ? uxi r9a11er
aunt©en
Sa=u
wuzara
rufa? nati
Tu19u wlaadhu dakaatra
of the
in
oboorv©d
variation
1.
The
two yoara)
daltautra
Tul9u
Yrlapdha
zini
for
following
nictal:
of Arabic
arrongeaentc
poscibl©
for
in. the
light
ccntonc©o
of the
above
ou can bo accountod
type:
ß They remained poor the
® Bocamo the food cold
9 Bect
o Taha
first
Uthi7.e the
"ah
ro
as thoso
reflects
matter
of the
relative
of
oxaaplos
on p. to apply
Arabic
position.
country
writer
punctuation
mentioned
a tranafor
a great
of these
a different
(with
arks
Mosel=
of the
people
structural
of the
is
in
just
possiblo
the
writing),
hero,
i. o. the
poaaibilitioa
subject
and the
in
atme
oxa=plo
in
tho
verb
2G
an tho
an woll
in
Ehgliah
tho
with
Tho third
in
forma
und pronominal
Arabic.
conpricos
aentenco-typo
by a&reencnt
or pronominal
of nuibor.
pact
forgo
vorbal
fglioh
linked
nominal
vorbal
III
Typo
a verbal
of tho
equating
in
number and followed
which Hood not
Thin
a nominal
t roo
by onnothor
then
with
in
can bo roprocontod
ßcntenc©-typo
and
roo.
no
follows:
Vt
Nwhoro Vt reprosont
scatter,
total
its
The nominal
an object
verb dofinable
transitiv©
sa
e. g.
in
paoaivo
im third
occurring
Exuaplo3
or compl=ont.
is
place
in t orn& of
as by
as well
'A pooh was written
'GA an was become
'Ho Wrote, a- pooa'
'He bec=o
a man'
(Of.
N
activo
Yorna.
by hin'
by him')
to
reforrod
co=only
are..
The correepoadcnt
punched a policeman
The president
saw the report
Tho explanation.
Puzzled uß
This
Arabic
in
Chore
number
cui'i'ix
is
sentence-type
a nominal
and gender
which do not
typo
natchad. by a comparabl©
linked
and a verbal
cro
followod
agreo
with
by
than.
thus:
n-
vtn
together
a nominal
Thin
typo
in
by agreement
orr pronominal
may bo ßynboliZod
r
..
Exuiploo
aro:
lu? cuud byaal; lu laiiua
(Lions
oat moat)
? cna bulgab tonic
(I Play tennis)
xaal od Darabni
(Khaled. hit
a©)
Bng1iah
cpeukor
nativö
forcnt
of
this
of
Arabic
above
havo the
following
1. n1: esV
n2
3. vt44 al
4. n2
variant
is
corrected
in
of
the
in
Eft&Lish
in
torias
the
the
third
n2
(by flu
lu? cuud 1cim in)
the
in
the
firnt
wo cm
1u ltiua)
lug ßuud)
R 3.laHum
byw k1u-u
then,
if
arraneomamt t:
1
iiah
in
n2,
position,
al
E
dif©loaonts
Thus
noninal.
(byaaklu
of
boon
the
of
os.
(10 ßuud byt
that
have
constituent
2
n.
the
to tho
no problain
longio
two
wo call
in
poaßiblo
1u? i3uud)
(1laHum lu? suud byauklu-u)
vt*pro.
t
Arabic,
with
the
in
nominal
vt+prß
5. n`
t-%--t
In
explicable
arrangement
typo
and the
offor
aistalcos
aentenco-typo
position.
2. vt
but
again
of
nl
thorn
once
poacibilitie8
smtences
tho
Arabic,
of
and are
observed
of Typo III
aenteacea
order
of the
2 and 5.
a conparaolo
teacher)
elonantn
On tho
order
have
wo
,
othor
1.
in
riund,
to that
hero
in
in
D. case
fro3. y
although
2 (of.
of
'She
difforcnc©
28
of
6ontcnco-typo
uad not
anno typo
as in_ Arabic.
tho
to
that
in. 3 In
a ono
(1)
i; oroovor,
in. modern
possible
variation
within
no ordor
EaGlich,
similar
Thun
wo can-
have:
not
Q Eat tho
It
tho
is
lions
in_ tho
following
moat.
light
cud Arabic
ig1ish
tho
of
fll. stakos
the
Pattornn
n2 and tho
attested
suffix
other,
sh,
all
the
on the
are not
and this
students
fact
between
oporatoa
ono hand,
and botwocn
matched by comparable
may explain
the
bought
0 Tho milk
ttie
p. 40
it
ay £athor.
Good boys drink
it
ovory
pat-
fallowing
ui at &zo i:
0 The car
(1)Soo
toachor.
my tirife
Hucoin
many books
pronominal
in. Ali
terns
the
(1)
4 onä, 5, whore n¬rooaeat
and vt on the
that
(1).
D1Slioh
the teacher
xainod
quoction.
nattorn
rofloctins
® She speaks
® Wrote Taha
9
lesson
in
2
nattorn
© They p_ay football
my friends
t They drink milk my children.
9 Explained
typo
in
bo soon:
should
oo roflectinc
difforoncoa
positional
of tho
centencoc
mistlos
Itiotril;
nl
froo
of
dc.y.
29
Horo
may have
bought,
to
the
use
of
'The
he hired),
the
nistalcoc
F:igltbh.
suffix
thus,
roflout
to
referable
the
Arabic?
ttaraa-ha
? abi
asayyaara
lxaU. ib luwlaad lurmaaii byugrabu-u
Sentencos
of Typo IV consist
of verbs
a sub-class
of
trzinßitivo'
for=la
verbs
of
followed
und
object'
Exampl©s
abovo
of:
yoon.
may be torned
which
by tvo
to
linko1
'Doubly
nominaalu.
other
a
The
113
IV
pattOm
-t " röprosent
occurring
patterns
kul
notably
The
n2.
of a nominal
t"
vc1
171
ill
whore
Biglioh,
und
J
_IV
noia©r
car,
and Arabic
to
characteristics
a pronominal
Ehgliah
whilo
(cf.
botwoon
Arabic
of
aistakos,
quoted
boat,
the
that
out
pattorn
comparable
difforcnco
transfer
the
loco
out
a bacic
to
bo pointoci
should
a more or
ay father
point
It
again
ca
in. this
fr=O;
2a
and 11
'direct
doubly
IT'
is
object'
x2
transitive
. fiat
is
verb,
called
in, traditional
are:
taught
his son Frcncn
fly friend
flothor
Savo no a present
They sent him a ticket
his children
Henry told
a story
John asked no a question
an
i. o. ,a
verb
'indirect
t ©rminology.
U
12
It
and IT are
121
11 nornally
order,
Is
by
preceded
di ctingui
Generally
When it procodoc,
preceding.
'to'
chocl by thoir
relative
however,
11
.Cf.
tcu jht
liy friend
hin son Fronch
Henry told
hic children.
a story
and
tau5ht
Ity friend
Froh
Henry told
to
a story
Arabia
rid
to
ooionging
'doubly
',rabic
This
9roa
? u=o
(Wa.el gav© his
vd "t"
mother
1? uofaaz
tja? al uttulmiiz
(The teacher
asked the
by two
may also
nociinalu.
formula
n2
a1
a rose)
is
nl
interesting
in
the
to
manors)
su? aal
pupil
a question)
to notice
languages
the
wh
to
1!y notthor gav© a prosent
la ? taxi
9uTet hdiyye
? u=i
where
the
which
ward©
? awl 9&i. r uni 1? wduä
(Miy iathor
taught
no good
rnd
followed
may be given
sent oneo-type
waa? el
Ni
of vorbß
a Mb-alaaa
aro
in which a nominal
are:
ples
It
hin non
children.
sentance-typo
transitive'
a_
Xai
his
nas a comparable
a verbal.
bo t©rne
to
both
Illonci
nlcro
conparculo
behaviour
of
212 rind n2 proc odo than.
my brother
proc edel by part 1C Loa ('to'
.
in
F1i ; itch
C f*
tJ
and 'lß'
in Arabic).
However,
oountertY
rto
in
are
last
English
example may appear
1. ?ummi 9aTut-o
2.
?u=ni
other
orrangemento
in
poooiblo
Arabia.
having
no
the
Thun
as follows:
(n
hdiyye
2
1
1
la? axi
(n
?uruni hdiyye
(n
9aTut-o
3.9aTut-o
.1.
la? axi
(n )
hdiyye
(n )
1
(n )
2
2
la? axi
'o'
by a pronominal
1 the verb is followed
suffix
referable
1
is not matched in comThis use of pronominal
to n.
suffixes
In
between
flict
ning
in
contexts
parable
to
English,
English
Transfer
and Arabic.
English
explains
a potential
and constitutes
of
mistakes
attested
Arabic
the
of
conpatter-
following
type :
®I bought her
* The students
* He sent
In
2 the
preceded
21
n.
her
English
only
cede nl
whether
potential
Arabic
a telegram
to
particle
'la'
In other
words,
n2 precedes
between
often
his
wife.
1
n even
preceded
while
or follows.
English
leads
to
in Arabic
Herein
like
lies
the
her
to his
fiance
a beautiful
in
can preanother
and transfer
of
following:
® The teacher
difficult
set them to the students
m Dr. Cook gave them to the fourth
year students
lecture.
0 Sami bought
n
precedes
and Arabic,
mistakes
latter
when the
a particle
the particle
when n2 precedes,
conflict
practice
a dress to ray mother for her birthday.
to the teachers.
ask them questions
ring.
questions.
an extra
ei')
In. 3 wo navo a £atailiar
tho
vhoro
in
thin
vorb,
its
procodon
has
aroa
in
toctod
rofloctin&
of
typo
no ntancou
Arabia
of
oubjoct.
boon
alrotzdy
tc2 o1 occurrinS
nintahos
:roaturo
Potential
in
oxcaplificad
of Typos
this
1.rord ordor
Is
Ir,
a= o foaturo
conflict
atLoatod
nic-
and III.
/t-
in
aontoncoo
includo:
IV
0 He Savo then the
0 Send ne my family
0 They teach
teacher
a choico
of throo
by post.
many things
quoetione.
tinny thinCc.
un our teach©re
T noV
of
this
nontencen
of Typo
IV9
and third
noriinuls,
Seutencoo
are
of
the
this
' Vf
'.
(are
The
' hol o patt
use of
indicate
that
pronoun(
In
person).
the
the
notional
two
in
to
verbal
a special
may too fornulat
IV,
ouzao proof
which
may
thus:
od as folb%, Is:
'a'
ar© substitutable
the
Typo
pia
superscript
a,
socond
may bo symbolized
orn
tez
as
position
sub-class
and which
nouns
of
by the
varbc'
silo
tho
that
contcncoii
in. the
11 - Vf 2,a
%hero the
boiz
substitutable
occurring
'factitive
be called
those
belong
sent=co-typo
as io constituants
difference
the
aurae number
the
have
unlike
The verbale
nounu).
typo
two
nouns
is
intonde3
by the
ro: flr to
the
to
name
nano
tl%l
iJ
This
is
there
type
a eompnrnble
in
in
no difficulty
offers
sentence-type
Arabic.
or.
English
Arnbio
Albert
1.
We elected
2.
John
3.
The teacher
pianist
4.
the
in
thought
English
from
Peter
the
thief
that
and Arabic
Taus
thought
consider
corresponding
ntaxabna
Hanan Haoeab
a fool
ra? iis
caliim
?axi
? ajdab
1? ustanz
aaawa xaaled
byanno
(1)
a
(hunne)
jabnan
a
all
while
crm be shorm
that my brother
that
the thief
of
of Type V,
to be basically
2 and 4 as follow
we may expand
expansions
byu9tubru
9anzet
1Harnami
the above examples
of sentences
characteristic
1 and 3.
John
They
but
ende
must be noted
general
nuHna
president
my brother
They consider
coward
It
since
genernl
share
2 and 4 both
different
:
was a fool
is a coward
1 and
3 are
inadmissable:
cf.
that Albert
m We elected
was president
(cf. We elected
Albert
as president)
The teacher
made that Peter
was a pianist
(cf.
The teacher
made a pianist
of Peter)
Similarly
in
Arabic,
we can have :
Hasan Hassab ?unno ? axi
(hunne)
byu9tubru
?anno
?ajdab
1Haraami
jabaan
-C! )-It
is a common feature
that
the verb is used withof Arabic
Since verbal
forms are variable
in
subject.
out a pronoun
terms of person,
/..
gender,
to
and number,
no ambiguity
as
".
C)j
eJ
but
ýr
not:
® nuHna nt axabna
o ali in
? anno
ra? iic
Q 1?ü 8t aaz a wawa 2unno xaalod
In
othor
V in_ both
of Typo
riation_
in.. place
the
of
third
a main. clauno
of
in
both
clause,
noun
object
nat©
consistin6
scntenco3
complex
2 and 4 can bo oxp=dod
sontencoc
words,
9aaz of byanno
and a cubordi-
and Arabic.
Fa6lich
and Arabic
IIiglioh
han
her
of
type
this
the
like
latter
the
the
proc ©de
(The
With
it.
preceded
in
nominal.
9ayyan
iwaziir
the
to
referabl1
is
minister
iwazi it
lwaziir
Hassabha
the
appoint
9ayyan-o
9ayyan-o
that
ones,
the
the
second
G=iyye
nominal,
(f'incO
mfattet
uantoncoa
un-
centoncoo,
variant
with
associated
in
with
a pro-
which
cane
follow
may
and
'la'
particle
third
Arabic
fr©©ly
are
is
verbal
by the
xaal©d
the subject
of
subject
pronoun
element,
(huwwo)
jabaan
be
fact
Daglish
in, which
suffix
byu9tubruu
botw©en EaGl ch and Arabic
the
fron
corresponding
nominal
(hunno)
rich
arises
sentcnces
other
clever
hin to
conf3. ict
A poteatial
j
on ad octivo
rabic
hin
consider
they consider
clover)
He thought
Ono va-
e. 6.
nominal,
13h
They
(cf.
into
position.
or
C f.
inspector)
dd Khaled
afatt ex. la xaaled
la xarlod mfattoý
the verb
Implies
Is
likely
a kind
to
of
arise.
'hi&hliShtint'
The
use
of
of
this
a
J
'I
When transferred
leads
sentences
m They
to English,
to the following
him
elected
® They appointed
All
the
been
types
found
to
in
Arabic.
Sentences'
to
Tyl2e
son
my friend
son n tenchor(l)
sentences
correspond
to
what
three
sub-types,
in
Sentences'
we have
English
The following
into
considered
so far
'Verbal
called
sentence-typen,
in
correspond,
Arabic.
VI
of
an adverbial
of
this
type
Type VI
of
the
and number,
or
'to
verb
are
made up of
be'
by
followed
and
of
time
or
by
place
may be represented
N11
to
president
of English
'Nominal
Sentences
a form
mistakes:
him to her
be divided
will
general,
to
the last
i
la rfii?
ra? iis
in ?ubunha m9allem
ntaxabu-u
9ayyanu-u
which
of
Arabic
reflecting
have
the pattern
agreement
a nominal,
in
third
a nominal
linked
in
terms
or
an sdjeetivsl,
position.
of
per-
Sentences
thus:
be IT/Adj. /Adv.
(John)
'They
English
appointed
secretary
to my father'
cr.
to her Con',
him teacher
'They appointed
where a different
obtains
relationship
of grammatical
between
the
order
'to'
the
it.
and
noun preceding
particle
vJ
divided
be
nd
may
i,
tho
third
into
is
oloacnt
(cub-typo
B)
or
,
: w1n1o0
Holen
is
Of
cii
throo
sub-typos
a nominal
to
accor1inr,
(cub-typt)
whothor
A) , an ad j octival
ucly urbi a]. (cub-. typo
C) .
A
oub-typo
my friend
fly fathor
Uraa a lawyor
These =en aro foroignors3
Exuploi
of
The children
uorc
They are angry
is beautiful
Spring
anpl©a
,
The
The
The
of
13
sub-type
naughty
C
cub-type
is her©
party
children
are outside
in nearby.
village
Sentences
of
In_ these
Sentences"
.
a nominal
(sub-typo
an. adverbial
Sub-fie
this
typo
correspond
uentencoc
a nominal
a) s or on adjectival
(sub-type
c)
(1300 p. 6).
c
waa? ©l bzfral
(S;a©l to a horo)
mays a ? =lira
(l": uisa is a princoca)
wlr. acina malaayke
(Our children
am cngols)
to
'tlonina7.
Arabic
withi.
colligatoa
(cub-typ©
Exzpl©s
are:
b),
or
rý
iý
Sub-typo
b
? uutaa: na lL iif
(Our t oach©r, ia
17 alul
auxun
(Tho food is
lbndlo
kind)
hot)
beoDa
(Tho suit
in
Sub-typ©
c
whit©)
uaayyaara barra
(The car Is outside)
DDyuuf bu jjnocno
(The
E;zo to
iHaflo
bukra
(The party
to
what
aro
the
between.
II&lieh.
coap, rablo
between.
the
Thus
dish
sentences
a nominal
elements:
and the
(predicator),
complements)
or
adjoetivul,
corresponding
In
iSlioh
it
is
are
view
to
of
ocntoncea
i=odiatoly
tho
Aeabic
(the
verb.
difforenco
structural
apparent
'to
VI
und thoir
that
we have
(the
adverbial
of
two
nominal,
and another
thoro
predicat©3),
structural
consist
subject)
type.
'copula'
co-called
scntenc©s
und
a basic
the
of
three
or
VI
rovoala
framework
tho
(the
copulative
of Typo
Arabic
adjoctival,
a nominal
the
,
Typo
of
made up of
subject)
nominal,
advcruial
in
the
within
corrospondin3
,
elements:
structural
two
(the
e©ntenc©3
sentencos
diff©renco
while
garden)
tomorrow)
A coaparisOn.
dociod
in
are
bot
in
boing
IIigl. ish.
involvod
Arabic
horo
no
botuoon
countorporta,
a banjo
conflict
fora
^ý
6"
i,
tJ
botw©on
the
tontod
two
L=Suagoo,
i iotalcon
Somo of thooo
in
r©floct
i-thich tho
mictukos
'Keats,
(cf.
mother
upstairs'.
withim
the
it
fore
of
afraid
of
death,
ate).
fravwork
mistakes
quoted
of
mistaken
onittod.
Its dinoiplino
pootry
words
out that
in
sonn of the
qua sequenco
is
a possibility
'I
;
poou'
this
wrote
The point
to
tho
compared
units
wo have
be made,
a structural
a reflection.
are
has boon wrongly
bo pointed
should
and Arabic,
iglish
above
mixture
the
mistakes
above
copula
The most inportont
thing
Itt
in its
iin itficonc©
Keats afraid
of death
Your uothor
upstairs
Hero again
od by cn abundone o o1 at-
aro:
® Hein a coaplicatod
Q
®
®
9
ý
of
this
caw your
however,
(the
is
that
centoncos)
in
difference,
difference.
and the
Thus
the
Arabic:
reflect
1? unonon xaliiT
ziu9agqnü
iii
? aha=
niZt o ha
Z19ro
fit
raw9ito
Keats xauyof
? u=ak foo?
It
c:odo or
eXz 1plcc
nun ulmoot
has been pointed
follow
the
on page
out
prodjcato
cm
baT al waa? el
laTiit
?uotaazaa
barra asayyaara
ap_..ear
(p. 9 ) that
in
Arabic
thus:
the
cub j oct cam pro-
sentences.
Thus tho
IJ
U
thio
Sinco
iglich
Sloxibility
potontial
wo havo
tont enoca,
nistacoo
of tho
followlnG
is
iaatchod in
not
conflict
a pot ontial
comparablo
confirraod
by
typo-.
(1)
pAt
oachor my brothor
Q Int aroatin&
tho book
9 With mo tho Pon
Arabic
rofl©ct
trh1ch
n9al. laa ? axi
nuat o9 luvst aab
aa9i 1? alna
is
It
the
conflict;
of
points
that
obvious
omission.
of tho
position
typo
of th© last
alutnkos
of
the
involvo
und rovorno1
copula,
two
of
cubjoct.
Tno
corr©sponds
Sentences
sub-typo
41
is
VII
Typo
in
a hi&h
genoral
of thla
C9 tu, tho
typo
f'roquency
to
i11
ßcntoneos
cane bo doriv03
fo11owtn6
in
pattorn
in
from
EaSlich
Arabic
and
(coo p. 11 ).
ccntoncoo
of Typo VI,
way:
ba point od out that
this
Horo .a3. n -it should
rrord coquonc o
Cf.
'A toachor
'
in En ich.
is possiblo
2 2-Iy brothor?
don't
(incrodulity)
(...
in ronponoo
moan lt).,
you
curoly
'
brothor
lcutt
'your
c-a toachor,
ho 2'.
Iiovortholoaa
to
in which the aictcLj,: oc_in
tho-contoxt
woro unod
quo«tion
thl
(Notico
doom not in any ca0o warrant
soquenco
also tho
fact
the
thoco
that
roaninc
u, 34d) and
zzictal. oc
punctuation
botwoon
diff©ronco
basic
D16lich
a
syntax,
rofloct
und Arabic
7,1
-40'N
be
Examples
are:
Adv. '
becomes
A man is here
Some men are outside
A baby is in the room
Many letters
are on the
table
may be made,
Comparison
very
sentences
it
and
seems in
context
the
those,
freely
general
category
general
for
boy',
good
the
from
of
deictics.
one in which
of place
in
'there'
-
'there'
a good deal
-
varies
a
But this
you'.
this
contexts
certain
'There's/That's
of.
be.. '
belonging
as
-
'there'
and disapproval
is
'It
complements
Thus in
for
type
'There
adverbial
planning
the
closing').
consider
'that',
demonstrative
is
early
to
is
of
sentences
adverbial
contain
'There's/That's
language
is
between
of reversibility,
be'
'Today
of approval
example,
terms
reasonable
as it
-distinct
with
the
of
commonly
in
Adv. '
N
is a man here
are some men outside
in a baby in the room
on the
are many letters
There
There
There
There
table
and 'It
(cf.
today'
closing
early
to
' sentences
be ...
'There
be
'There
more research
area
is
necessary.
The subject
occurring
(1)
a noun and not a personal
miners
(1)
Cf.
of the
'There's
subject
only
like
you'
in
sentences
pronoun.
a,
an,
of this
Moreover,
no,
some,
type
indefinite
is
usually
deter-
(see pp. w,rr) are more
l..
common. than
in
verb
noun. in
ln_ sontencos
or
if
the
indofinit
Arabic,
is
noun. is
tho
as that
oaio
the
glich,
'are',
singular;
it
botwoon
tho
©xactly
tho,
most common
rolationahip
standard
in
which
o nominal
'is'
forms
'worn'
occur
in
sentences
is
a pronominal
o nominal.
sentences
Arabic
fit
and an
with
combinod
by an Indofinit
between
'fiat
mado up of
aro
to
ch oorrospond
F i8l
a particlo
or
Comparability
and fii
tho
boing
(in
of Typo VII
followod
and
suffix
bo'
liko:
plural).
Sontencon
in
VI
the
if
Is
noun
(2)
typo,
contonco
Typo
of
'to
vorb
of thin
tho
occur
scntencos
tho
Finally,
oontenooo
and tho
'was'
dofinit
tho
that.
this,
(1)
(uoo pp. iri tj
o dot orminorc
of
in
VII
Typo
following
on the
justified
fliglish
grounds:
1.
Just
of Type
sentences
derivable
Arabic
were
in
found
to
VI
in
from
of
B293-iah,
nominal
correspond
Typo
to
VII
derived
bo
can
so are
sentences
sentences
fii
fron
sentences
(cub-typo
of Typo
c),
VI
in
which
(cub-typo
C)
Dn, li sh.
(1) Cf.
tho
(2)
as sentences
C f.
(S'lho can I invito
mill=an.
'Thoro
capo
a &,roat
to
ay party
spidor'
?) 1"toli,
thorn'
a always
.9
2. Porallol
boforo
tho
Arabia
w to
noun
enayyaara
(The cur
with
dotorninoro
which occur
of Typo
uontonoon
of indotinito
artiolo
fii
VII,
mutually
in
oxoluaivo
G f,
barra
is outsido)
licain
in
copula
Arabic,
iahen. EaSlish
in
used
'Thore
Arabic,
VN
E =pl©s
'l: a, n'
bottiiecn
the
EnGlish
when the
hau the
rnd
forma
of
abconce
forma
vorbal
forms
'wan'.
such
canon
in
Adv. ' t,'ould
und thotr
sontonc©a
corrospond
Arabic
to
corrooponding
in
Bn3liuh
'vorn',
the
the
Bi
to
Arabic
Lich
.
aro
the
'1o',
vorba]
'aro';
'kann'
contenco-typo
'fii
kann
n
adv. '
are;
bu jjnoeno
kann w1aad ktit'
nI
(There wore many children
in the
garden)
Doof bu lfaflo
fii
kam 9ugriin
(Thorn woro twenty 6uosts at tho
party)
The
1
II11iah
o articlo.
rnc©
countorpcrto
is
tndorinito
fii
barra
(i)
coyyaura
(Ther©'s
a car outaids)
The di
But
in
an a kind
doilnit
tho
with
to tho
last
two
ccxl procodo
examples;
'i`ii',
may bo differcntly
arranE3sl in
that
i. o.
that
dust an
by tho fact
Gonparabibty
rotnforced
-is -ltirthor
dotoriinor(coo
in Ea&Lich
to uco a dofinito
it is possible
'Thoro'
tho
(1) in tho procoding
n
footnote
paso; cf.
also
tho
be
to
tho
tho
butcher,
with
Grocer')
paid,
and
aillian
tho
In
Arabic
noun.
bo
ucod
with
can
article
noun, Lhodofinite
laazoa
'Sii
w
(cf.
1Hallaab
nudfaglo,
contoxta
comparable
iaan, w ulba?? aal' )
Ulla
f-
kann
L"an
Sli
Sit
lion
Horoin.
lctiir
bu jjnoono
Doot bu 1Haflo
wlaad
9uiriin
a potential
'kann'
variation
of
In- ntnta;
koD of
conflict,
since,
talon tronsforrod
following
tho
to
the
i&loh
aba4r©H kacLn Pii bard lctiir
tZutwiyy©
1MazDy© kaan fit
above
types,
such
as Hill's
or
the
heart',
for
to
call
op.
cit.,
contrastive
cinma
wrould have
F116lisn
for
or
Arabic,
the
e. g.
O. S.
be includod
havo
boon
statonent
'Cold
in
loft
to
conkind,
cubj©ct-prodicato
(1)
typo',
to
to
Other
ocntcneos',
no contrastive
P"347"
bu anin©aa
inniila
purpos©n.
of the
'equational
thezi.
(1)
tho
bocce coloatod
'single-construction
and which
of
? aflaati
have
typen
are not
which
so-called
treatment
appear
contcnco
of others
tcnco
in
Arabic
titil. ch roflcct
exclusion
would rosult
typo:
a Yostorday
was thoro much cold.
9 Lant wintor
wero thoro good filnn
The
froo
pocAtional
hands,
'0h
I
',
warn
a separate
out
since
they
be made about
r'ý
ýý
boon
to
To Dun up the
sentence,
found
Lich
that
a major
IIi
group
typos
aontcnco
of
may be followed
which
end the
of
The
in
other
of
differcnce
between
ble
Sentences
in
Sentences
ytord
order
between
parts
in
E2i6ii
lie3
in
the
VI
In
Arabic.
In
and Arabic
in
order
of Typo
Arabic:
V).
through
wore
sentences
of
of
tho
the
of
a form
absence
typo
and in, torms
is
followed
I)
'the
and
p
not
those,
all
the
to. the
the
feature
to
consideraelements.
to
of
and tttoir
Arabic
to
corresponding
Nominal
flexible
a nasor
group,
basic
relatively
Arabic
correspond
by
'coriploionta'
typen
to
subject',
prodieator'
called
are
this
h sentences
and
when it
an opposed
to
bott
'tho
is
corresponding
addition
a verbal,
obaorvablo
4gl. ioh)
relates
found
to
called
Biglioh
of
are
(in
which
Thoa o
Sont one os.
The nominal,
not.
Arabic)
Typo
of
elonenta
in
flexibility
(in
prodiaato'
English
the
or
has
V correspond
linked
agreement
elements,
II
Vorbal
und numb or
sentences
through
subject
forms
of
poroon.
'the
Typo
of
a nominal
it
and Arabia,
I
in. Arabia,
and genier
in
(sentences
order
Typo
of
by other
when.. followed
fixed
of
patterns
callod
(as
forms
aantencoo
by other
of
person,
verbal
giglioh
sentences
verbal
in. torms
number,
in
consisted
which
atntable
typos
difference
counterthe
copula
inliah.
Finally
Sii
Sentences
sentoncoo
in
Araeic,
of Typo
tho
VII
woro
corrospondonco
found
to
corroopa
to
boin;
brougnt
out
o
pM
c',:
by trio
vablo
fact
fron
that
blich
nontoncea
rooponding
Arabic
rosponding
to
uontonooo
of
Typo
contonc©c
En45liah
VI,
aro
oentoncon
of
in
this
tho
co
dorivabl©
of
Typo
typo
way as corfron
VI.
aro
dori-
thooo
oor-
'
jý
(2)
A. Negative
a) Negative
Negative
the
of
use
same class
the
that
is
amply
of
justified.
Such
by which
//a:
of
view
to
tences
it
in
both
is
sought
/a: nt/
deemed
termed
avoids
to
in
derive,
the
since
we are
or
is
particle
the
in
/wount/
affirmative-declarative
to
/xm/,
from
a contrastive
going
English
from
I'
'aren't
euch
tortuous
usual
say,
tag
the
'operators'
conjugation
from
solution,
with
sentences.
postfixed
appropriate
as transformsljf
English
association
negative
a solution
//xl/,
this
adopt
and the
a separate
is
it
from
sentences
negative
(1)
nt/
However,
etc.
'operator'
by
characterized
interrogative
characterize
recognition
definition
/wit/,
the
in
(sometimes
verbs
that
are mostly
'not'
particle
auxiliary
between
Fusion
English
in English
sentences
finites)
anomalous
in
Sentences
a negative
of
Sentences
point
consider
sen-
and Arabic,.
senabove, we are concerned. here with negative
As mentioned
from affirmative-declarative
sentences that are derivable
in a fuller
Otherwise,
treatment
negation,
tences.
of English
intethe
those
treatment,
inter
of
envisage
alia,
one should
in
by
the
'not-'
is
presence.
which
excluded
sentences
resting
'seldom',
'hardly'.
of
quasi-negative
class
elements,
g.
e.
a
of
'He
'CHe didn't
Cf. 'He seldom went',
seldom go', but cf.
he
didn't
Similarly,
(i.
go'
nearly
always
e.
went).
seldom
it
like
'Isn't
',
have
!
nice
which
exclamatory
examples
forma,
in
this
excluded
affirmative
are
no corresponding
context.
t'. 7
in
The operators
can,
could,
have,
has,
may,
had,
question
might,
must,
am, are,
is,
are:
was,
tive-declarative
'do'
lexical
alternant
'do'
verb
the
carrying
appearing
in
forms,
in
marks
the
not
use
He can
They
They
Henry
They
(1)
write
walks
lost
fluently
them novi
see
properly
fast
the
match
to);
of
the
into
nega-
special
operator
the
with
negative
and tense
person
infinitival
any of
form.
and
Examples
the
are:
Negative-declarnt
come early
might
You must
B.
French
speak
of
association
Affirmative-declarative
A.
used
containing
can be transformed
by making
sentences
its
and
particle,
above
dare,
were.
sentences
mentioned
auxiliaries
would,
will,
should,
(need,
to,
ought
Affirmative-declarative
the
shall,
He can't
They might
You must
not
not
'T'hey don't
Henry
They
French
speak
doesn't
didn't
fluently
come early
see
write
them now
properly
walk
lose
fast
the
match
integrated
in
These forms are not fully
and are defective
'You
for
degrees
Cf.
various
s eakers.
need not
various
'You
'G
don't
to
You don't
need
come' ;
may come'.
come'
'He
dare'
m You wouldn t can .
Cf. also
wouldn't
1JJ
NeSative
fii
them;
in
cupies
initial
The
and particle
before
dnd hence
the
sentences
the
serves
negativ©
predicate
to
identify
particle
oc-
position.
shape
the
of
neSative
varies
particle
it
Sentences
this
whether
predicate
by a negative
are charaetorlood
Sentences,
Thus in Nominal
type.
Arabic
characteristically
appears
and Nominal
Verbal
in
in
sentences
which
particle
Sentences
N enativo
bý Arabic
precedes
appeare
follows
or
with
the
ae 'nuu'
the
sentence-
before
subject.
the
Examples
re:
.
ffirm
tine-declarative
laTÜf
1? ustaaz
is
(the teacher
rte ativo-dec1arutivo
kind)
nhsndes ? ubni
(my son is an engineer)
9a 1GuSun
19aSafiir
(the
are on the
sparrows
barra
(the
luwlaad
children
In. Verbal
before
or
the
V. verb
lexical
outside)
are
Sentences,
predicate,
branch)
the
phrase
made up of
verb.
Examples
one or
are:
appar's
particle
the
whether
1? ustaaz
nuu lcTtif
(the teacher
is. not
kind)
nuu nhandes ? ubni
(my soli is not an
enlineor)
.19aSafiir
muu 9a 1ßuSun
(the
sparrows
are not
the branch)
-on. barra
d
luitla
nuu
(the children
are not
outside)
latter
more
i4he
comprises
auxiliaries
fora
of
a cin6le
followed
'naa'
verb
by
l'9
Affirmative-declarative
Negative-declarative
ktiirý
?axi bidaxien
(my brother
smokes a lot)
?axi maa bidaxzen ktiir"
(my brother
doesn't
smoke
a lot)
faa? u bakkiirluwlaad
luwlaad
maa faa? u bakkiir
(the
(the children
didn't
up
early)
got
children
get up
early)
Hasan
maa_ruje9 ydaxxen Hasan
ydaazen.
ruje9
(Hassan
(Hassan started
didn't
smoking
start
smoking
again)
again)
ballalet.
tGanni
ballaget
tGanni
samiira
maa
samiira
(Samira
(Samira started
didn't
singing)
start
singing)
Dall yHaawel yu? ua9o lmudiir
lmudiir
maa Dall yHaawel
yu? un9o
(the director
(the director
kept trying
didn't
keep
to convince
trying
him)
him)
to convince
form
The negative
has
the
form
Imaal
aloneýor,,
suffix
pronominal
cord
is
operative
by 'gam'
between
is
terms
or
of
by 'maa'
and the
which
person,
of
the
variously
compounded with
verb
number,
or participle
and gender,
?anti
(you
?unti maa-l-ek
raa Ha
(you are not going)
) are
going)
the
characterised
?ana maa-l-i
raayeH
(I am not. going)
raayHa
(fem. sing.
verbal
in
a verb
?ana raayeH
(I am going)
gam
yudursu
wlaadi
(my children
are studying)
(1)
pp. 3tt)
(see pp. zcCC is
more commonly,
in which
sentences
(see
a participle
precede
imperfect
by
of
of verbal
a
cone. g.
maa-1-on 9am yudursu
wlaadi
(my children
are not studying)
be stated
is
that
'maa'
It should
but
suffix
also with
a pronominal
infix
having
the
kind
of
shape
a
maa-l-ek,
maa-1-ak,
mark maa-l-i,
as
maa-l-kon,
maa-l-on,
maa-l-na,
of forms.
compounded not just with
what may be considered
if '1',
which serves to
maa-l-a,
maa-l-o,
an independent
series
S3
fii
In
'nau',
and particle
which
? ulak
(there
in
appears
msktuub
a letter
is
initial
the
position,
laratiye
Affirmative-dec
fii
sentences
for
in
appears
a verb
the
in
verb,
shape
the
the
negative
imperative
which
ktoob(you (masc.
ktubi
(you
of
fem.
ICtubu
(you plural)
appears
negative
counterparts
(2)
fora.
In
in
the
sires. ) write
sing.
) write;
write
o. G.
lartivo
? ulnk ntilctuub
naa fii
(thorn
iu no l©ttor
for
(1)
you)
na. 9andi Dyuuf lyooii
(I havo no guests
today)
you)
the
is
particle
Negativ©-d©c
9cndi Dyuuf lyoon
(I have Guests todcy)
further
noSativo
is
'las, '.
This
sentences
which
contain
particle
of
such
imperfect
'laa'
sentences
(3)
fora,
e. g.
precedes
lam tuktob
(don't
write)
laa taktbi
(don't
grit
o)
laa tuktbu
(don't
write)
(I have no guests
to-day)
1_ Cf.
naa Sandi Dyusf .lyoon'
with
(staying)
(The. guests
'nuu 9andi DDyuuf lyoon'
with
are not
The first
is. the negative
counterpart
of a parne to-day).
the second is the negative
ticle
sentence;
counterpart
of
(The
'
lyoon'
DDyuuf
9cudi
sentence,
guests
nominal
namely,
a
(staying
'
9cndi'
to-day)
the
where
with
ne
predicate
are
)
(se©
the
'DDyuuf'
subject
pp.,
precedes
form is one in a system of verb forms which
The imperative
(2)
the perfect,
imperfect,
sub-systems
comprises
and imperative
in respect
It is distinguished
of affixal
shape and in the
forms
its
formal
that
since
scatter,
of
constitute
number
distinctions
ford,
by
it
is
characterised
not
other
unlike
(See
f')
tit
person.
pp.
of
See pp. £' FF.
(3)
.
1. -a
I.' ý
implications
Contrastive
In
the
light
negative
sentences
involved
in
with
others.
each
type
Lioreover,
negation
and
flict
that
two
quoted
mistake
the
mistakes
Arabic.
of
mistakes
with
the
lexical
verb
has been
it
in
to
order
this
1.
Although
the
positional
in
complete
seems
made
English
a conflict
after,
reflected
the
in
of
in
The women not took their
rights.
(© My opinion
not agree with his.
in those days...
9 It not sufficed
of
conflict.
of
the
person
operator.
include
them
the
in
of
area
con-
languages.
the
negative
by mistakes
that
so much to
relate
of
two
Arabic
type
point
to
chatter,
the
is
out
with
picture
the
conflict
morphemes
than
a simple
difference
the
of
appropriate
sentences
negative
do not
rather
found
to
a special
quoted
association
languages,
attested
be found
reflects
quoted
wrong
between
the
problems
speakers
to be pointed
thing
the
context
for
will
as to
tense
constitutes
mistakes
some of
Nevertheless,
this
by
corroborated
the
predict
sentences
The important
of
to
possible
and Arabic
English
of
Arabic.
the
Some of
facts
above
negative
is
of
speakers
is
it
English
Such prediction
by
the
of
fact
particles
before
of
the
the
remains
in
verb,
following
the
C'; 1
vw
Arabic
reflect
which
nnustiraan naa ? axalu H?uu? on.
ra? yi naa byuttufe?
nag ra? yo
bi hadil. k ul? ayyaan
mma kaffa
2.
the
composition.
Bartes,
of
the
the
carrier
aosenco
essential,
the
in
sults
verbal
other
also
use
of
ßnother
The
the
operator
of
operator
phrase)
and torso
markt,
'not',
particle
in
verbs
English,
(2)
he left
poetry.
mistakes
'do'
lexical
an indirect
reflect
even. when. the
verbal
phrase
conflict:
contains
auxiliary:
do not can come now.
gI
Q He does not oust go to
The
children
'They
nowever,
)Cf.,
(,
Eig.
Lish.
religious
'They
however,
(2)Cf.
.
do not
toil
wrote
work to-day.
may play
not,
not
au; d-
without
verbal
the
whatovor
mistakes:
attested
followins
the
as person
or
(duxiy)
tho
application
(1)
I speak not to hin
He wrote not to ae since
Q1 understand
not English
3.
it 0. with
in
to
'naa'
particle
use of
as well
but
following
the
the
auxiliaries
generalised
operators,
of
phrase,
the
English
of negation,
the
to
of
use
iakos
the
in
wneroas
(in
only
Arabic
Since
neither
to
the
in
garden.
do they
ne but
tä
spin'
- him, *
in.
'do'
as
is
not
ro-
tj
4.
The mistaken
as to
negation.
person-
the
and tense
quoted
wrong
do not
association
lexical
the
with
below
to
co auch
the
norpho1oo
rather
than
of
verb
relate
of
tho
with
operator.
4 She do not studies
all the year
Q We did not went with than
do not saw ilia since yost ©rday(cie
The other
and the
'do'
of
lexical
reaohed
verb
and tens©,
person..
is
extrem©
whon both
of
the
auxiliary
the
with
are associated
Examples
)
suc: n nistalc©s
morphemes
include:
her lessons.
8 She does not learns
0 Wo did not heath then tincea they capo
to her mother.
8I oulou does not listens
as the
5. I.1istakes
following;
don't
® She asked hin to
are
Q Their
father
ao.aounted
for
negation
the
use
'direct'
in
of the
and
in
'laa'
f
transfer
' laa'
'reported'
and
to
imperative
particle
speech
has
then
by the
applicable
direct
Jradic
told
put
imperfect
to
don't
of
in
play
the
For
the
in
sun
of
and involving
v¢rb in
in
both.
the
pat am
native
=ereas
+ infinitive
fora
licht
sentences
before
speech.
'not
on the
both
so-called
'don't'
English
has
repoxtod
speech,
Ci'.
J.
Arabic
Direct
Englieh
Speech:
? abuuhon
bu Igams.
? allon
"
Reported
Speech:
? abuuhon
bu hams.
?allon
: "laa
laa
tul9abu.
yul9abu
Their
"don't
father
play
to them:
said
in the sun. "
@Their father
told them
to don't
play in the sun
(ec...
)
not to play...
ý. 'l,
vJ
Interrogative
B.
have been called
The operators
the
but
sentences.
It
of
Arabic
users
to
But
they
those
first
is
relation
to
'operators'
its
sketch
is
certain
the
between
of
interrogative
most
that
English
native
difficulties
to
relation
only
similar
negative
sentences.
sentences
and
their
necessary.
(1)
front
contexts
noun or pronoun
show the
negative
shifting
to
their
of
is
limited
interrogative
parallelism
in
a verb
the
and. interrn'ative
in
to
use.
use of
sentences:
Affirmative-declarative
Negative-declarative
m'^ey can wait for usbe able to come
He will
You may smoke now
They can't
for us
wait
He won't
be able to come
You may not smoke now
They don't
speak French
He doesn't
get up early
She didn't
like
him
They speak French
He gets up early
him
She liked
(1)
of
therefore,
in
of
not
shape
encounter
and principally
examples
cornerstone
use characterizes
to
accompanying
The following
operators
the
interrogative
likely
experience
from
English
be anticipated,
to
are
a rapid
Apart
the
also
counterparts
Arabic
the
and their
predication
negative
in
Sentences
a) Interrogative
English
Sentences
1. Deictic
or
them',
under
terpolations
of predicative
styles
rary
or restrictive
as in 'Seldom
motive
contexts
legs
as 'Away went their
from
'There
2. in literary
goes the ball',
inetc.
he',
'wrote
John', etc.
as 'said
3. in the case
'be'
in,
'Is
John right
say,
?'4.
in liteafter
sentence-initial
elements
with
negative
(never,
meaning like
nor,
)
with,
seldom,
etc.
have I seen such a sight',
'rior
does John like
/...
...
Part
I:
Sentence-Structure
p." !1
J
.:
Negative-interrogative
Affirmative-interrogative
us ?
wait
be able to come ?
smoke now ?
?
French
speak
?
get up early
him ?
like
As 44 is
the
operator
'do',
carrying
the
which
marks
in
appearing
Interrogative
In
Arabic,
tences
only
'reversal'
interrogative
appears
of
person
the
and tense
noun
or
and the
be
46 can
use
pronoun
lexical
of
the
subject,
verb
form.
interr/ogative
in
of intonation
involved
or auxiliaries
Moreover,
sentences.
be terminated
1? akul jaahe z (iii)
(Is the food ready
5. a) 'informally'
it,
b)
I';
in the
will
as in 'Had I known
have told
you'.
Arabic
sentences
frequently
particles
ces can potentially
cont.
before
Sentences
in. respect
by making
sentences
infinitival
its
b)
interrogative
auxiliaries
not
sentences
on- page
mentioned
interrogative
into
transformed
the
sentences,
negative
case with
of
any
containing
for us ?
they wait
Can't
he be able to come ?
Won't
May you not smoke now ?
?
they speak French
Don't
?
he get up early
Doesn't
Didn't
him ?
she like
for
Can the,,
he
Will
May you
Do they
Does he
Did she
differ
not
from
features,
as in
all
by 'sii'.
the
specif
containing
sen-
affirmative
there
being
no
case of English
interrogative
Examples
sentenare:
?
?)
'so'
'so
after
as in 'so can Joe',
inversion
conditional
of formal
style,
the answer to your question,
I would
r1
cr;
iii
?
in touch
fiihon
ttaSalt
(Have you got
them ?)
with
Iii
?
fii
maSaari
ma9ak
(Have you any money ?)
implications
Contrastive
between
The divergence
interrogative
will
to
those
mistakes
Attested
to
correspond
negative
the
for
difficulties
in
encountered
mistakes
under
sentences
interrogative
Arabic
Under
1.
first
the
types.
The first
in
connection
relate
to
with
mouse
of
to English
of
type
we have the
from
result
following
mistakes:
a failure
to use the
a failure
to appreciate
operator
as in:
2. Those which
of
akin
sentences.
a transfer
reflect
" Speak you seriously
® Saw they the picture
fact
and
Arabic,
of
patterns.
Those which
'do',
(2,3,4)
and
negative
different
classified
The second
operators.
with
connection
of
respect
conflict
speaker
native
two
in
a serious
the
to
point
those
and Arabic
constitutes
sentences
cause
English
that
another,
operators
use
of
and that
are
?
from
result
the
?
one finite
'can',
exclusively
verb
'must'
finite
the
excludes
and the
the
rest
forms. Attested
of
use
the
mistakes
-9
are:
8 Do you can coma with me to
9 Do you must leave
so early
3. Mistakes
the
fron
resulting
the
?
?
pictures
misplacing
of
infloctions
are:
8 Do he writes
0 Do she slept
4. Conversely,
?
clearly
late ?
both the
end lexical
auxiliary
the invitations
© Did they not posted
lessons
9 Does she tkes Private
?
VA-Ale the
to
in
tences
In
the
types
of
mistake
Biglieh
and Arabic,
to
English
of
Arabic
following
auxiliary
ffrmative
above
between
transfer
a
are
in:
inflected
contaict
verbs
but
which
are
the
result
the
pattern.
marked
is
neither
the
word
order
of
8I
may borrow your car ?
8 You study in UD evening ?
an. indirect
types
interrogative
reversal
the
point
sen-
by intonational
only
there
sentences:
fron
following
of
examples
G=e
?
features.
nor
corresponding
use
af-
of
59
C. Questions
iah
a) Questions
in
Eh
Questions
in
Eiglish
to
correspond
and r©gularly
immediately
class
followod
by
" C. There are those
very
-a
the oral
of
consists
repsonse
(1)
the repetition
than
other
list
the limited
of words and
to calls.
These
the response
elici
regularly
11
are questions.
While
both
oral
followins
mit the
1.
whom, where,
not'
gative
serves
sentences.
when,
Fries,
r©%onaes
are
only.
sentences
distinguished
from
the
evoke
latter
the
Op. cit.,
bagim
inadmissibility
to
distinguish
begin
with
a quostion.
with
not
of
extensions
questions
Cf.
p. 4.5.
which
word
)
etc,
Can he cone,
or not ?
8 Who came, or not ?
When did he come, or
(1
that
largo
number - in which
variety
of forms
a great
(2)
of the utterance
und
that
word-groups
comprise
those
that
utterances
reat ruage of responses
-
sentences,
typically
questions
or
are
and ques-
gzounde:
2. Moreover,
..,
former
interrogative
Unlike
auxiliary,
(tirho,
the
'oral'
of
typically
utterances
of
and interrogative
questions
responses,
they
sentences
(C)
Frioa's
a cub-olacs
that
grounds
Interrogative
reaponso.
an oral
tions
on the
sentences
interrogative
evoke
may bo oonaid©rod
?
from
like
interro-
an
Go
interrogative
3. While
'no'
'of
by
course',
almost
word
form,
form
to
belong
the
distin6uish
sub-groups:
words
and
' what')
and
'which',
questions
stable
as
adjuncts
and
,
in
it
do not
if
which)
of
(in
as subject
the
is
question
(in
subject
any
one of
the
the
to
possiblo
Involve
and contain.
any,
case
case
the
of
'whd,
of 'what
e. g.
?
can paint
such a picture
this
?
painted
picture
2. Those
the
finite
question
the
a few minutes.
What artist
Which artist
of tho
from
ßonorally
my friend
sub-group
auxiliaries,
Who won the match ?
What caused the fighting
these
following
as questions
first
what,
an 'certainly',
can be followed
Now, tomorrow,
(who,
oxpoct
quostiono
Yea, no, certainly.
John, George, Mary,
of the
'yoc',
Cf.
two major
of
such
prodic
are
classified
shifting
question
that
sentences
1; Questions
front
forms
question.
Did he come 2
Who came 2
he
When will
come 2
forms
of
answer,
though
classes
initiating
Within
the
in
etc.
any
list
a limited
ono of
or
typically
sentenco
words
expecting
of
verb
second
and the
(who,
a torn
do involve
sub-group
subject
whom, whose,
occupying
?
and contain_
what,
object
where,
'inversion'
ono of the
when, how,
or adverbial
),
etc.
position
v1
in
a full
Examples
answer.
tilho did
John. (I
you coo ?
of
questions
from
differentiated
and features
distinguished
second
those
sub-group
of
words,
question
both
common to
being
go tomorrow)
it
easily)
sentences
order,
by
only
otherwise,
the
affirnative
word
of
saw wohn)
(I'll
Tomorrow
(He did
Easily
When will
you go ?
How did he do it ?
While
are:
tho
the
questions
clearly
are
by question
first
words
cub-group
same word
are
order,
and affirmative
sentences,
this
In
so-called
context,
'dependent
the
tho act that
1
terminology,
case,
the
it
dependent
Cf.
sentenco.
has been downgraded,
sets
status
of
question-
a sentence
assumes
the
fora
Toll
soo 2
Iahen did
you leave
?
How can you be so sure 7
ch.
use Hill's
In
of
such
an affirmative
SetB
you
cit.,
by
A and B,
What did
Op.
to
element.
set A
(1)
on the
touch
wh3dh. aro characterized
questions',
question
to the
to
seems appropriate
19.
mo What you o aw
He asked when I
left
He wonderod how I could
be so sure.
C2
Dependent
view,
point
of
which
are
role
dealt
the
of
when Arabic
b) Questions
in
Arabic
questions
in
Arabic
of
interrogative
ces,
that
guu (what),
whom),
and are
English
in
like
'...
lunna
la? '
to
English)
evoke,
but
parallel
response
hand they
other
they
then.
ssayyaara
g ? eenta
differ
not
also
(or
in
they
the
both
words
(when),
cannot
kiif
See p. tts
senten(who,
'niin
(how)
be followed
in
affirmative
the
different
inadmissibility
etc.,
by
sentences
kind
of
of
tags
C f.
(The
t
it
hasri!
htu
?
car
wuSlet,
arrived,
aaheek
(®
?
When did the car
aaheek
wuSlet ussayyaara,
arrive,
(1)
cub-olasses
not)
from
only
ap-
interoAgativo
question
that
and the
a sub=olass
that
from
? eenta
to
on the
(gain
(where),
ween_
the
diccunned.
sense
contain
In
become
be considered
differ-
Done of
order,
us as will
in-the
they
word
are
may also
parallel
extensions
after
in
however,
concern
they
response.
a contrastive
(1)
tonsoß'.
of
of
questions
sentences,
an oral
evoke
features
need
fron
many foaturos
'Sequence
the
only
interesting
involve
under
with
auxiliaries
below
parent
they
since
context,
present
are
questions
didn't
it
2)
?)
63
difference
A major
is
the
fact
first
and those
sub=group
paralleled
both
distinction
the
that
in
botwoon_ Arabic
Arabic,
in
sub-groups
auxiliaries
as subject,
operating
Examples
answer.
second
thereof,
is
not
to
corresponding
sentences
involve
whothor
or
object,
tho
of
Aub-group
specifically,
do not
Arabic
quostions
questions
in_Arabic
Moro
in
'shifting'
or
the
one group
as questions
classified
between
of
English.
and Eliglish
adverbial
the
thoy
use
expect
of
a fora
in
complement
the
aro:
?
niin_ Galab
(Who won_? )
tuft
miin.
(Who did
?
you
see ?)
?
?e ent a wSult
(When did you arrive
?
Ikiif
saafart
(How did you travel
the
Moreover,
words
quostion
fixed
order
word-order
of
which
either
biguous)
in
in
in
expect
a subject
?)
relative
Arabic
English.
the
?)
order
is
fairly
Cf.
the
following
an. object;
or
an object
sentence
flexible
different
seta
the
of
of
afrond,
in
the
elements
as opposed
to
the
a subject;
(and
a
of
po iLbilities
questions,
anarrr
including
first
not
and the
thrd,
hence
is
am-
ýt
r
A. miin
Set
ns object
1. miin waa? el Galab ?
2. waa? el miin Galab ?
?
3. wan? el Galab miin
4. Galab miin waa? el ?
5. main yalli
waa? el Aalabo
(Who did ti7ael beat ?)
B. miln
Set
0sv
80v
svo
vos
0
?
yaili
ss subject
la waa? el ?
1. miin Aalabo
2. Aalabo main la waa? el ?
?
3. waa? el main Aalabo
?
4. vraa? el Aalabo main
?
Galab
5. mlin
el
waa?
yalli
(Who beat Wael ?)
C. miin
Set
or
as subject
It
the
not
relative
where
the
is
the
occurs
is
associated
'yalli'
object
sentences
tences
of
the
'miin
rsaf
be pointed
out
e. g.
object
position
is
walad
that
preceded
(B 1&
?'
2),
in
by
except
and is
(B 5);
and that
miin
N(vihero
+V+
arises
(Who saw a boy
wherein
'1a'
particle
when
the
is
miin
N stands
?)).
main
relative
(In
for
'yalli'
senan
be subject,
it
should
the
subject
when occuiring
or
subject
Finally,
is
whin
except
Nd.
+V+
when
sentences
suffix,
N cannot
since
wherein
except
in
subject
a pronominal
sentences
the
S)
sentences
suffix,
with
no ambiguity
noun)
in
object
structure:
miin
(0V
or
a pronominal
(A 5);
of the
structure:
is
main
occurs
in
(8V0)
with
associated
'yalli'
verb
relative
indefinite
that
0
0
?)
17ael beat
be noticed
will
verb
the
(Who did
S V+pra.
la
V+pr3.8
in
09 V+pra.
0 V+pra.
8
8 yalli
V0)
object
?
rniin Galab waa? el
(Who beat Wael ?)
or
)
S V+pra.
in
final
occurs
(B5).
65
followring
The
word=order
in
particles,
e. g.
1.
Aý
the
reveal
examples
containing
questions
poaaibilitiea
other
of
specifically
question
weer. and ? eeatas
weer: na=
waa? el
?
( woen. VS
2, weer waa?el naam ?
wean SV
1. ? eemta raaH' ? abuuk ?
2. ? eemta ? abuuk raaH ?
? eemta VS
? eemta SV
S weer. V
3. waa? el ween naan ?
4. naan wo en waa? el
? ( V we en. B
5. waa? el naam ween. ? ( S V woen.
6. naam waa? el ween. ? ( V B ween.
(%lhere did Wael eleep ?)
B.
3.
? abuuk
? eemta
? abuuk
raaHi ?e ©mt a ?
S ? eemta V
V ?e emtaB
6. raaH ? abuuk ?e eat a 2(
V 5? eemte. )
is
possible
native
of the
light
:En-the
S V? e emt a)
implications
Contrastive
the
-?
4. raaH ?e eat a? abuuk ?
5.
it
rac
to
at
predict
öf
speaker
of Arabic
above patterns
Arabic
least
three
faces
in, connection.
kinds
questions,
difficulties
of
with
quostions
in. F Elish.
The first
torod
in
lure.
- to
auxiliary
mistakes
kind
'do'
that
the
in
similar
with
connection
'shift'
is
the
reveal
to that
interrogative
if
auxiliary,
absence
the
of
of difficulties
sentences,
any,
other
first
kind
the
swimming
of
or
failure
to
notably
to
difficulty
pool
?
fai-
use the
Attested
auxiliaries.
lo wing:
0 How wo can got
encoun-
are
the
fol-
cpi
© TO
Whom
book
gave the
you
?
® 'whomyou arm calling
?
0 Whero he works
The second kind
flexible
of
order
to
Arabic
tho
is
of the transf©r
rocult
(subject,
elements
Attested
F2iglish.
?
vorb,
question
of the
mistakes
of the
in
word)
cocond kind
include:
you ?
how much he gave
® Your father
® What the teacher
said ?
0 What bought
you your
The above mistakes
to
addition
the
kind
The third
fish
1
The nature
tions.
the
order
word
following
independent
dependent
order
in
independent
of
the
mistakes
attested
questiozi
omit
is
related
has been
'do'.
the
different
and dependent
the
transferred
pattern-
in
error
qu©sfrom
can bo appreciated
9wheroin
in
since
auxiliary
to
questions
difficulty
kinds
the
thoy
difficulty
of
both
reflect
actually
word
wrong
?
mother
of
to
the
the
clause:
p He gave ne what did he possess.
® You may ask what do you want.
how do they
to understand
ý1 He tries
think
Cf.
iuu
naa
? ulut
smt9ut
(what
&;uu ? ulut
no distinction
in
Arabic.
questions
whore
did
is
you say ?)
(I
didn't
made between
hear
whet
dependent
you
said)
and independent
7
D.
a) The' Emphatic'
v©rbal
to
In. addition
tivo
and interrogative
have
still
stress
function:
In
to
sh
in
operators
and tags,
quostiona,
the
carry
describing
the
W. F. Twaddell
auxiliaries,
emphatic
Digli
by the
Played
contoncos,
of the
their
of
say
role
sentences.
emphatic
characteristics
to
the
a in
p©riuhraai
important
another
in
Emphasis
noga-
they
emphatic
grammatical
has this
role:
grammatical
"Occurftce
for gran--atical
stress
and pitch
as the locus
is on the last
Usually
the main stress
noun,
signals.
Elsewhere,
main stress
signals
verb,
adjective
or adverb.
insistence
on the stressed
a specific
a meaning of contrast,
some situationally
part
possible
as against
word or sentence
But
part.
sentence
on on
word
or
main stress
alternative
(affirmathe
truth
insistence
signals
on.
value
auxiliary
doubt
tive
whole,
or negative)
of the sentence
as a
against
disagreement
by
hearer
implied
the
whether
expressed
or
or
by thrl
pecker
atas the hearer's
probable
or anticipated
"
titude
or reaction.
Thus
in
questions,
sentences,
of
by
all
addition
verbs
stress
as well
tration,
of.
its
the
marks
following
in
role
and tags,
(except
as the
the
to
the
sets
person
of
'do'
operator
aunciliaries)
of
and interrogative
negative
to
carry
and tense.
non-emphatic
is
made use
emphatic
As an illusand emphatic
sentences:
(1)
'The English
Verb Auxiliari©c',
W. F. Timddell,
(Providence.
Rhode island),
Prosa,
University
Brown
196o.
Vj 7
IIsphat 1c
Non-emphatic
John can play well.
Mary is going hone.
George has smoked the
John can play well.
Hary La going homo.
Goorgo. has caokod tho
cigar.
John did play Woll.
1!ary did go hoho.
George. doos aaoko cigars.
cigar.
John played well.
1.1ary went hose.
George smokes cigars.
The
following
the
sentences
emphatic
sentences
eziphatic
stress
emphatic
sentenco.
above
should
the
lexical
where
and yet
the
sentence
be distinSuichod
verb.
is
classified
not
is not
in
has
ponding
to
that
above.
no way of
to
possible
Arabic
defined
as
as an
smoke them)
in. Arabic
bý Emphasis
tences
the
roceivoc
(but he can't
John
speak)
can write
well
(but he doesn't
John buys cigars
_nocessartly
I saw John. ( but I didn't
speak to him)
It
from
corresponds
This
does
not
sentences
to
English
mean,
of
Examples
emphasis.
marking
emphatic
set up a category
in
IIigliah
of
emphatic
sentences
that
Arabic
sentences
corros-
course,
of
son-
enphatia
are:
Vufto
(I
did see him)
?
Una
akiid
(Adnau
did
9ana
Hakaa
fu9lan
moan what
9adnaan
yalli
(I
it)
by
I
did
lit.:
God,
it
bu9t
sniff
sell .
;
a
walla
in
which the
of the
foraa
Arabic
sent ices are ohractezzed
'? ald. id'
,'
i1i91cn' , 'walla'.
by the
he said)
inclusion
GU
Non-emphatic
mphatic
John can play well.
Mary is going hone.
George has smoked the
John can play well.
Mary ie going homo.
.
Goor5o. has smokod the
eigar.
John did play well.
Mary did go hon©.
Goorgo doom smok© cigars.
cigar.
John played wolf.
nary went home.
George smokes cigars.
Tho
following
the
sentences
eaphatic
stress
is
©mphat
sentence.
John
John
I_
is
It
in
tences
defined
as
has
ponding
and yet
s in
bo distinguichod
where the
lexical
verb. receives
the
sentence
is not
from
the
classified
as on
smoke them)
Arabic
not
possible
Arabic
that
above.
no way of
to
should
(but
he can't
speak)
can write
well
(but he doesn't
buys cigars
-necessarily
John. ( but I didn't
sp©aL to him)
Ezphasi
b)
above
sentences
emphatic
to
corresponds
This
does
not
sentences
to
in
of
English
mean,
of
Examples
emphasis.
narking
emphatic
up a category
set
English
emphatic
sentences
that
Arabic
sentences
corros-
course,
of
son-
emphatic
are:
tufto
(I did see him)
? ana ? akiid
(Adnan
did
9ana
Hakaa
iu9lan
mean what
gacinasn
yalli
it)
(I
by
I
did
lit.:
God,
it;
bu9ta
soll
sell
walla
in
the
which
of the
forces
Arabic
'? akiid'
sentaaces are characteilzed
,'
fti91rn'
walla'.
,
by the
he said)
inclusion
üý
Ex
pies
of
v
u na
Una
lacken
?ult
abaare
view
for
defined
as
the
grammatical
the
difficulties
what
ßiß"
is
emphasis
maa Hack©©to
(I
muu lyoom
are:
(I caw him but
to him)
said
I
didn't
talk
1-yesterday'
not
'today'
i1plicationo
Contrastiv©
In
contrastive
of
the
fact
that
is
English,
level,
native
a characteristically
it
the
category
non-exist$.
would
not
speakers
of
English
nt
of
in
Arabic,
be difficult
Arabic
' oaphatic
will
'emphatic'
at
to
sentencoa',
least
at
predict
find
verbal
in
acquiring
pcriphra.
ý'
It
glish
of
English
d©red
so far
in
tiona,
a 'The
role
with
connection
(below)
and
English
to
stago
is
which
auxiliaries
emphasis,
Twaadell'
this
at
Booms appropriate
feature
this
in
Substitutes
E. Verb
on anothor
those
oonsi-
interrogation,
Again
to
quote
quocfron
when dealing
Auxiliaries'
Verb
to
akin
negation,
tags.
touch
with
Auxiliaries:
of
t
'
for
the
" occurrence
the
substitute
ontiro
vorb,
echo
as
(predicate)
in
its-complements
ropetiand
constructiom
'Barbara
'You'll
before
can. road
tions:
will'
we
arrive
hard and so is
' 'rotor's
but Mac can't.
working
Tocharian
is common
as echo-substitute
].like. ' This use of auxilixy
'Will
it
it
No,
?
Yes-No
rain
in cnswerj)to
questions:
"
won't'
Here
Ido'
m=y
againis
in
the
made use
of
absence
of
the
an auxiliary,
so-called
Examples
as an echo-substitute.
better
than I do.
He speaks iglish
before
there
She arrived
we did.
Henry works hard and so does his wife.
Do you smoke ? Yes, I do.
implications
Contrastive
Arabic
j: igllsh
itself
has no parallel
usage.
is
In
repeated,
comparable
or
left
to this
contexts
out
highly
in
alto6othor.
characteristic
Azrabic,
Exaaples
ba9äna
wuSel
wSulna
yuusef
(Jo esph anived after. we did)
ruHut 9a 1? ahw© ? -- ? oo/? e o, ruHut
Yea/Yes,
?the
to
care
(Did you go
cý3 OF. c; r.
the
I did)
v 'b
are:
are:
rý h
V.
Here again
the
with
we have a problem
comparable
and questions,
terrogation,
"an inevitable
of an auxiliary
(1)
"
echoing.
Given
Syrian
ones in
these
students
op.
cit.
connection
since
it
of our
corollary
in interrogation,
contrastive
facts,
after
Yes,
should
with
is
be tackled
negation,
in Twaddell's
grammatical
negation,
I graduated.
I smoke.
inwords,
requirement
and predicate
one can understand
say or write:
0 Adnan graduated
0 Do you smoke ?
(1)
which
why
r; r)
:j
F.
in
Tags
F3icli
sh
A consideration.
comparable
Tags are illustrated
gigli
is
in. Arabic
complexes
'tags'
so-called
of
the
after
in
relevant
Eiglish
und
at this
point.
in the
co=as
following
sh sent enc eS:
for
A. 1. we must wait
them,
we ?
mustn't
2. The children..
can. play there,
't
thoy
7
3. They'll
won.
phone,
can't
there
4. There are many books, aren't
he ?
didn't
film,
5. He saw this
6.
B.
John
It
the
tor
The
does he ?
smoke cigars,
(so
(so)
(co)
for them, must
we must wait
the children
can. play there,
they ?
they'll
will
phone,
4.
5.
6.
(so)
(so)
(so)
there are many books there,
are there
did he ?
film,
he saw this
does he ?
John smokes cigars,
will
be seen that
and pronoun
negative
?
1.
2.
3.
preceding
firmative
?
1. We musn't
must we ?
wait for thew,
2. The childrencan_ they
can't
pltzr there,
they ?
3. They won't
will
phone,
4. Thero aren't
?
many books,
are there
did he ?
film,
5. He didn't
see this
6. John doesn't
C.
?
he ?
doesn't
cigars,
smokes
they
main
main
selected.
clause
sentences
affirmative
clause
is
under
examples
'tag'
the
in
terms
In
the
followed
we ?
can they
provides
of
the
particular
by
B' are
followed
under
C are
under
?
'echo'
an
examples
?
of
opera-
A the
tag.
a negative
by an affirmativ©
followed
by
afThe
tag.
on affirmative
r; e)
6J
tag
be initiated
and can all
Here,
being
again,
the
'maheok',
has one tag
Arabic
that
'auheek',
is
Examples
faaDi,
lbarmiil
is
(The barrel
?
maheek
empty, isn't
buuza,
(You didn't
oat ice-Crean,
The difficulties
in
this
regardless
(1)
an a%
'echo'
principle
one tag
of
freely
variant
of
sentence-types,
all
it
affir-
?)
?
did
you 2)
maheek ?
set at home, haven't
a speaker
must
particle,
complexity
area
is
you ?)
implications
Contrastive
relative
in
an. operator
Use
aro:
maheek
ßi1 9aadkon taltvizyoon,
(you have a televisiom
only
which
used with
or negative.
maa ? akalt
has
its
in. Arabic
Taa
native
of
absence
t; the
(1)
main clause .
a negative
case of
cu xi li arq,
as a general
or conforming
main clause
firnative
with
acta
to
related
either
im the
'do'
'so'.
by
consist
what
of tags
in
the
precedes
in
be
enormous
'isn't
in
view
Tho usual
Biglish.
inö. criminate
it,
whose language
of Arabic,
use
it'
of
being
of
the
mistakes
'isn't
taken
it'
as the
the scope
than is possible
statement
within
A more refined
limited
thesis,
is
to
form,
it
this
written
would
as
of
detailed
inter
intonational
consideration
of
alia
envisage
features
characteristic
of sub-typos
of 'tag'-clauses.
rý
6ý
equivalent
French
syri
ns.
of Arabic
'n'est-ce
'naheek'
pas ? ',
which
and is
is
probably
fairly
well
a calque
of
known among
r",
Chapter
Two
Complex Sentences
In. chapter
one,
with
and contrasted
In. the
in. Arabic..
Arabic
and
from
and
tences
following,
what
in
sentences
complex
and distinguished
be considered
will
were: outlined
deemed to be comparable
are
what
in English
sentences
simple
are termed
sentences
both
from
English
simple
sen-
compound sentences.
(1)
(1)
We have
occupied
cally
by
verbs,
sentence
operate
ý1)
subject
was
linked
to
occupies
positions
patterns
of
'clauses'
of
of
two
in
to
stated
by nouns,
category
consists
sentence
which
consists
as
a simple
phrase
certain
a combined
English
noun-type
which
phrase
type
that
The
or
a noun
nal,
of
seen
a predicate.
and
in
Sentences
Complex
consist
occupies
a verbal,
typically
agreement
of
more
a larger
simple
unit,
a verb
a nomitypi-
or
verbby
occupied
in
expressible
terms
A complex
sentences,
the
of
positions
tense-person-number.
or
a subject
complex
which
sentence.
'A Grammar of the English
I have drawn on George 0. Curma's
V. III
Syntax,
D. C. Heath and Company, New York,
Language',
in my treatment
in English.
1931,
of complex
sentences
r
ý.
GJ
In. a. complex
between.
the
ordinate
forms
pronouns
(where,
main- clause
the
of
imain.
ordinate
of
subject
From the
outset
quote
of the
elements
on_ whether
from
it
into
of which
is
the
object,
or to
to
appropriate
is
sentences
a sentence
is
following
the
Sub-
expanding
be emphasised
or not(1)the sentence
from
Hill,
example
am.
Thus a
noun. clauses,
Before
complex
should
main: clause,
the
those
exemplification).
clauses:
it
to
predicate,
as subject,
im the
adverbs
from
parallel
of
re-
rolative-
(see below) :
sentence
clauses,
subordinate
simple
lexd. ty
functions
an. element
and adverb.
sentences
gniish,
effect
to
) or
(that);
distin6uish©d
below for
as a whole(see
thus
divided
usually
clauses
clauses,
jective
further
can; fanctioni
a number
con junctions
etc.
A cub-
clause.
by one of
which,
fulfils
a simple
of
as an adjunct
is
It
it
clause
subordinate
or
in. that
eloments
whose,
)*
etc.
when,
subordinate
subordinating
(who,
distinguish
to
convenient
introduced
usually
called
usually
lative
is
is
and the
main, clause
clause
it
senteeice
is
that
on. the
distin-
moro detail.
the
comp-
made up has no
simple.
is
ad.
Thus to
a simple
sentence:
'
ise statesmen,
sturdy
county'
In: our beautiful
have
consciously
merchants
adventurous
and
pioneers,
to
youthful
nation,
our
combined
stve
unconsciously
and
freedom,
its
and greatn©ss.
wealth,
'Introduction
Hill,
A.
chibald
in'EZigliah',
From Sound-to-Sentence
1958, p. 337.
Company, New York,
to
Linsuistic
Harcourt,
Structures.
Brace and
PS.ry
CC
following
the
In- contrast,
a complex
dishes,
Mary washes the
If
is
John will
#ýna
Compound
(and,
two
adjectives,
while
ordinate
clauses
sets
of
of the
two
position
(between.
complex
Complex
the
a number
(at
sentence
the
begin1Ling
co=ordinated
and compound
sentences
is
sen.
to
two
sentences.
Fur-
introducing
sub-
both- in.
subordinate
the
of
ctm only
clause)
complex
in
occur
sentences).
Cf.,
below:
sentences
A.
B.
Because the door was locked,
we broke
hurry
It -you -want to catch
your train,
When he called
ready.
me, I was quite
a window.
up.
sentences
A. The day was cloudy,
and we went for
join,
nouns,
door
locked.
the
because
was
We broke
a. window
: curry up if you want .to _catch your train.
I was quite
me.
ready when he called
Comuound
.
co=ordinating
of
can. occur
main- and the
conjunctions
two
two
conjunctions
the
complex
i. e. two
or
nt a3,nB
verbej
whose function,
clauses,
in.. a complex
neg
from
same status,
co=ordinating
sentence),,
)
etc.
or,
(between
initial
inand
position-
but,
verbs,
position.
by
together
subordinating
thermore,
medial
distinguished
are
linked
two units
together
f
inito
(--lxe-ate-more-
sentences
being
conjunctions
them.
erb) ; _whereea-a-complex-rent...
n
in
dry
talns_on
mpl
teaces
sentence:
a walk.
medial
the
r" r1
ý ;ý
He makes good resolutions,
Seize the chance,
or you
he went for
B. ®gnd
from
what
ono of
may contain,
which
resemblance
superficial
the
Cf.
conjunctions.
them, he makes good resolutions.
it,
the chcnoo.
seize
must bo diatingulahod
and compound sentences
may be termed
of
sequences
both
sets
of
the
sentences,
a number
one of
to
two
forms
of
bearing
a
and subordinating
co-ordinating
complox,
compound,
second
and sequence
below:
sentences
Compound
sentences
drinks
tea.
drinks
Barbara
Mary
coffee,
and
The girls
wept, but the boys went away.
senses,
or he would
He cannot be in_ his right
statement.
such a wild
Complex
make
not
sentences
The history
of our country
became what they were: '
Fools rush in where angels
I
thorn.
keeps
day was cloudy.
the
a walk,
® uzt he never keeps
® or-you
regret
will
Both_ complex
but he never
it.
regrot
uill.
help
will
Sequence
you though
us how our
tells
fear
fathers
to tread.
you do not
desrve
it.
sentences
for
therefore
went
a walk.
cloudy;
we
The sky was
he
is
debt;
in
nevertheless
is
chin-deep
He
always
jolly.
always
boys
the
however,
went away
The girls
wept;
It
less',
with
will
'however',
and
both
property
be noticed
co-ordinating
of
occuiling
that
which
the
forma
connect
sequence
and subordinating
between.
the
'n©v©rth©-
'therefore',
sentences
share
sentences,
con junotbns
they
serve
tho
to
linkk.
r, 9
differ,
They
they
from
however,
cannot
initial
in
occur
subordinating
in
conjunctions
Thus
position.
that
have:
we cannot
©Therefore
we went away; the sky was cloudy.
jolly;
he
is
is always
he
always
ONevertheless
debt.
in
chin-deep
In
this
boys
the
®However,
junctions,
they
sentence
or inside
mal also
occur
at
etc.
resemble
end of the
con-
second
Thus we can have:
it.
wept;
wept.
co-ordinating
the
we went for
The sky was cloudy;
in debt;
He is always
chin-deep
nevertheless.
The girls
girls
But unlike
conjunctions.
co-ordinating
the
away;
such as 'therefore',
forms
respect,
went
the
boys went
a walk therefore.
he is always
jolly
away,
however.
and
The sky was
He is always
jolly.
always
The girls
but
we therefore
cloudy;
in debt;
chin-deep
wept;
the boys,
went
he is
however,
for
a walk.
nevertheless
went
away.
not
Mary
GMary
drinks
drinks
Barbara
Barbara
coffee,
coffee,
drinks
tea
and drinks
and.
tea.
or
called
(1)
®Fools
@Fools
rush
rush
Forms
joining
'Sentence
in
in
ang .fs
angels
fear
to tread
to
where fear
sequence
sentences
Connectors'
by Paul
Sentences',
'English
ff.
109
pp.
Harcourt,
where.
tread.
(like
(1)
Roberts,
Brace
'therefore',
though
& World
Inc.,
etc. ) are
others
1962,
l
call
them
con junctions,
and still
others
them
call
by
Joined
sentence
connectors
and. sentences
are
(2)
The distinction,
therefore,
Sentences'.
'Sequence
between.
classes
to
Needless
to
primarily
the
say,
features
distinguishing
of
comparable
different
a
Having
as between
In
sort
of
them Prom compound and sequence
to
deal
It
has been, said
are
often
(1)
See Fries,
(2)
Ibid,
Cf,
of
op.
the
cit".,
form
of
it
sentences,
a complex
p.
types.
however,
important
in
and may even
distinguioh©d
and
sentences
structures
that
are
ces,
sentences,
within:
sentence
and one or more subordinate
main,, clause
clauses
different
with-the
as muoh.
classification.
complex
characterized
is
English,
spoken
of
classes
called
applies
and juncture
pitch-
boat
sentence
classification
above
sentences.
written.
phonological
g. ve us
'connector'
of
(1)
wivorba
;
simple
250, footnote
is
appropriate
complex
consists
sentonooa.
of
one
clauses.
Subordinate
sentences
but
without
4,
pp. 24o ff.
19,
for
him
ch.
where
Hill's
cit.
a
op.
analysis,
two
is
that
sentence
sentence
consists
of
which.
complex
"are
structures
superpitch
placed under a single
which
fix of two or nore morphemes", and whore the phonological
dependent
from
distinguishes
linking
main_aantence
a
a
sentence*
(1.11.
status'.
Such clauses
adverbs,
or as sentence
'independent
adjectives,
into
divided
adjective,
noun,
have
may
as nouns,
(1)
adjuncts,
and thus
and
adverb
clauses,
the
heading
'Noun
are
below.
I1oun Clause a
Clauses
can
classified
typically
positions
occupy
be subject,
in
tion,
Their
spent
Wet
coming
er
subject
a relative
(how,
(1)
is
he is
clauses
pronoun
where,
or
of.
pronoun.
they
Thus
a preposithe
underlined
pairs:
the
seem to
not
time
did
not
be certainly
known
seem to be certainly
known.
can be admitted
visitor
W owner calls
His
a noun
did
whereabouts
now they
An
to
Clauses'
by
governed
complement,
following
the
by nouns.
occupied
object,
apposition
in
subjects
under
can be admitted
doubtful
coming
are
(who,
is
doubtful
introduced
whoever,
by the
conjunction
)
etc.
or a relative
'that',
adverb
)
etc.
is a word or phrase
A sentence
adjunct
not definable
as
these
or
verb,
object,
or
of
part
elementa.
sentence
subject,
features
Pitch
in the spoken language
to
and juncture
serve
distinguish
from adjuncts
a sentence
adjunct
of sentence
In writing,
by
elements.
sentence
adjuncts
are set off
'he took the path at the corner'
Cf.
commas.
and 'he took
the path,
' 'at the corner'
at the corner,
in the second
being
See Hill,
a sentence-adjunct.
example
op. cit.,
pp. 329 ff,
and pp-335
ff
below.
1
t
Object
'that. ',
clauses
a. relative
I
pronoun,
saw the
introduced
or
the
in
objects
underlined
I
are also
by the conjunction
a relative
following
adverb,
Cf.
the
pairs:
accident
saw how ho -was . k111ed
t}ive
Give
me the book
me what I want
He asked me a Question.
He asked
the
In
by
me when .Z .was RoinR
following
the
pairs,
forms
underlined
aro governed
a proposition:
the
the
He told
He told
The
The
=
I
took
took
explosion.
explosion
him
him
rominded
reminded
to
to
story
story
of
of
place
place
listen
the crowd
hero
stood
-we
near
near
his promis©
whbt -ho -said
forms
The underlined
everybody
whoever .'would
in. the
following
pairs
are
comple1enta:
We are not cold
We are
This
This
I
I
is
is
made it
made it
Appoaitl:
'that',
must
to
be
comfortable
what -I wanted
it
to
clauses,
which
not
what
we used
my reason
key -I. like
onal
be distin
them
1iahed
.
from
be
mostly
introduced
by
adjectival
clauses,
or
are
ü3
in. subs eat
noun: clauses
the
lowing
sontences,
clause
in. appositive
clause
im attributive
The thought
The figs
It.
first
that
the
of
sitional
clauses
that
The fornal
clauses
is
second,
fol-
a subordinate
a subordinate
death
on after
relative
clause.
sentences
serves
live
were
distinctionimportant
subordinate
in.
t. er is
"
the
of introducing
'that'
verb
'ate'
Moreover
the
to
in
in
the
as well
the
second
as
dirrereat
distinguish
cola.
between
the
Thus
many.
first
appo.
sca-
into
on, after
second cannot
we ate
relative
clauses.
and adjectival
we shall
that
except
oonooloo
'that'
conjunction
to tho
as object
clauses
notional
the
whereas the
can. be transformed
0 That
contains
live
has no function_
both-
tability
the
whereas
tho
we shall
clause;
That
which
tho
C f.
function:
functions
e
enc
n ent
t©nce
of
function,
be noticed
sentence
introduces
first
function,
th at we at o wer(r in. wood en- boxou.
. _
.
will
subordinate
ob j eot
or
in
death
be transforaed
wooden
consoles
into
boxes.
between. appositional
in, view
qualify
of the
the
many
fact
preceding
and adjectival.
that
both. kinds
nouns,
to
speak
of
Q/I
The distinction:
or
betwean. a subordinate
function.
objoct
and a subordinate
can, be seen. in. the
''unctioncontaining
second,
in
clause
a subordinate
function;
to
that
It
clsuaea
the
the
in
clauses
position.
case
of
in
to
contrast
the
and
does not
clause
appositive
element,
that
the
subordinate
functions
as subject,
third
sentence,
which
functions
as object.
become
appositive
subordinate
substitute
subject,
functions,
appositive
The fact
® The tact,
third,
which
in.
in
the
sentence,
will
to
the
second
have
other
possible
the
in
the
sentence,
as a sentence
function
clause
first
first
function.
object
doubt
had
the
The good people
no
place
of
hnd really
cone.
come was certain.
That the _en .had really
Nobody
that
the end had really
con©.
.
.
-know
In. the
the
function;
appositive
subject
subject
appositive
sent onees9
in
in
clause
a subordinate
in
clause
following
clause
a subordinate
o1o ico in
that
his
clear
by now that
function
flour
are
for
clauses;
a noun- or
object,
not
conpleient,
parallel
exactly
whereas
noun. phrase
no such, substitution:
clauses.
subordinate
or
is
for
and
noun.
to
has been,
it
subordinate
object
possible
of
a. prein. the
Of.
he4son survived
should make her grateful
survival,
should make her grateful.
t
Clauses
Adiective
Subordinate
in
a noun or pronoun
They are
adjuncts.
that,
etc.
which,
)
classified
clauses
to which
main clause
by relative
introduced
have
clauses
they
as
serve
pronouns
(who,
whom,
(where,
when,
why,
adverbs
or relative
as)
whose,
Examples
the
as adjective
are:
there
however
corrupt,
In. every
seemingly
society,
those who have not bowed the knee to Baal.
are
Is
hold
in
an English
grammar.
my and
The book which I
There was that about him that did not please her.
I saw her
ae .
I cannot remember the place were
Clauses
and
clauses
are
This
is
restrictive
to
set
above
off
kind
by
introduced
of
pitch
to
appropriate
especially
clause
usually
termed
from
non-restrictive
and
written
in
),
in
English;
sentences
as compound
has
juncture,
rather
than
those
cases
no antecedent
in
restrictive
Non-restric-
pp. 128 ff.
classify
justified
forms.
similar
(see
see
by a comma in
clauses
are
be distinguished
as we shall
by features
seem more
restrictive
the
are
clauses,
guished
and
are
which
clauses
tive
of
distin-
are
English,
spoken
it
and
would
non-
containing
complex
where
the
sentences.
the
nonclause,
preceding
e. g.
the match,
Our team lost
This time the weather is
difference.
which
fine,
is a pity.
which makes all
the prisoner
He commanded that
should
was carried
out instantly.
order
by the novels
She was much attracted
his
faults
genius
and
whose
she drew
be set
the
free,
which
between
of Kingsley,
a drastic
contrast.
tI .ý
Clauses
Adverb
that
The statement
to those
parallel
is
partially
only
of
clauses
to
those
elements
true.
A consideration
Yet
in
behaviour
of
(see
footnote
adverb
under
Adverb
of
clauses
comparison,
this
forms
the
then
1,
to
in
adjuncts
p. 81),
parallel
as adverb
Cf.
clauses
clauses
to
should
comparable
exhibit
which
relation
which
is
simple
justify
to
parallel
sentences
grouping
them
classified
into
clauses.
have been traditionally
clauses
time,
place,
manner,
cause,
introducing
each of
of question
correlated
purpose,
concession,
could
are
majority
great
we may see
?
main
classification
type
the
be done.
as adverb
relation
sentence
that
classified
clauses
classified
function.
so that
classified
clauses
sentence
whereas
also
clauses
other
lantern
lantern
the
the
Turn
Turn
that
as it should
we .
I have done it
I have done it
of
(p. 76)
can be shown to have functions
so classified
of adverbs,
of a simple
clear
show no such parallel
clauses
clauses
of the
makes it
clauses
as adverb
subordinate
functions
fulfil
words
with.
etc.
in
sub-classes,
(when,
condition,
The formal
be sought
perhaps
these
result,
where,
how,
basis
the
as well
for
type
of
as in
etc. ) some of
S
Following
of
classes
a few
are
illustrating
examples
these
clauses:
adverbial
When I was Young I looked
at these things
he went, he was kindly
Wherever
received
because
so that
failed
lantern
The crops
the
Turn
sub-
the season
we may see
differently(time)
(place)
urns dr
(purpose)
(cause)
lived
that he cannot
He has always
such a life
exne t
(result)
svrrmathy now
You may go where you like
you are back by
provided
(condition)
noon
that
ten criminals
It is better
should
escape than that
(comparison)
hanced
innocent
be
men should
one
I must go just
as I am manner
They will
cession)
start
to
Needless
clauses
is
survey
which
of
the
such
of
gerunds,
etc.
parable
will
topics
But
provide
which
use
of
present
first
complex
the
say,
to be taken
not
as the
tomorrow
will
tenses
thouc! h it
above
sentences
of
sketch
a frame
of
be dealt
sketch
in
Arabic
in
the
sequence,
past
of
is
in
reference
with
and their
cats
complex
It
as exhaustive.
participles,
a rapid
rains
is
are
sentences
rather
the
following
the
participles,
what
and
deemed
necessary.
(con-
and
a rapid
discussion
chapters,
distribution
infinitives,
to be com-
Üý
(2)
to
Parallel
the
in
tences
in
Arabic
Arabic
English
and
compound,
simple,
in
Sentences
Complex
classification
it
complex,
is
of
to
possible
basis
way on the
a similar
into
sentences
sen-
classify
of
comparable,
criteria.
Arabic
i. e.,
and
the
the
a compound
result
a complex
the
by a member
of
lux,
(and,
? iza,
? moo,
sentences.
"downgraded"
unit,
larger
Although
clauses
but,
to
yet
the
status
complex
the
and
la? unno,
of
(when,
'yalli'
enter
joined
sentences
w,
laaken,
bass,
sen-
a compound
lamina,
sentence
Hatta,
if,
that,
so that,
complex
constitute
a complex
'clauses',
sentences
are
form
and together
a
sentence.
structure
of
behaviour
are
parallelism
two
subordinators
etc.
of
can
may be subordinate,
constitute
of
relative
constituents
the
their
by a set
and the
the
nor)
or,
One,
may be co-ordinate,
conjunctions
of
class
it
Thus
sentence.
mag ?unno,
The
or
Chapter
sentences
combination
sentence;
joined
because)
although,
Arabic,
but,
Sentences
tence.
The
closed
in
considered
& particle
combinations.
result
wala
type
and fii
verbal,
different
into
and
sentences
nominal,
the
of
complex
and that
sentenus
not
identical
in
between
complex
aentent
English
s and
of
and
ý1
ý.
clauses
these
two
in. tho
terms
with
lanEgla8o3
refereuae
is
to
such
both
as to
aiglish
make tho
uae of
and Arabia
amply
justified.
between
Thus the difference
in. Arabic
tencea
and complex
is
comparable
to
in. English,
sentences
Complex
compound and complex
that
Of:
between.
the
aen-
cbmpound
following
aetat
sentences
A. 1? aale lkaatbe
(the type=writer
lu9eb
fiiha
la?
anno
waa?
of
ntaz9et
fiddled
beoaus©
damaged
Wael
was
with
it)
ddunye
bard
bimaataksi
?
unno
raH naaxod
113
it
because
(W '11 take
taxi
cold)
a
udros
maa ba9rof?
(I oan't
study if
B.
? iza-. aaa numut t=un* saa9aat
hours)
for eight
I don't
sloep
la? unno waa? el lu9eb_ fiiha
(Because
Wael fiddled
with
binaai ? anno
(B©csuse it
ntaz9et
it the
ul? aale
type=writer
lkaatbe
damaged)
was
ddunye bard raH naaxod takai
is cold we! 11 take
a taxi)
? iza maa numut tmun 13aa9aat maa. ba9ref? udros
hours I can't
(If I don't
work)
sleep for eifit
Compound
sentences
bass, man. sta9malnaa
Ä, 'Stareure:
on..
-taltvizyo
(We bought a television
set but we haven't
da?
xams
aaye? w ruuH
ntuZurni
for me for five
(trait
minuted
t ruuH
(Will
ba9doen.
and thou
?
lumina.
tub?
?
ummak
mag
a
magi
you stay
you come with me or will
usad it)
go)
with
your
mother?
)
u
B. ® bass maai sta9malnat
(0
but
we haven't
itar©ena
it
used
®w ruuH ba9deai ntuZurni
(0 and. go then wait for
.
.
tali
we bought
begIn_
or
at
the
the
the
membership
compound
complex
sentences,
In. complex
and the
main,
with
subordinate
is
introduced
by
is
analysable
as an expanded
to
one of
tence.
the
elements
The rest
of
the
in
the
is
the
sentence
larger
sentence
is
oust
sentence.
of
in
addition.
diu.
languages.
possible
to
kinds
cluuaea:
of
A. subordinate
clause/s.
or
it
connectors,
in. both.
two
Eagllah,
conjunction
conctitutonts
sentences
a. subordinator
the
sentences,
it
following
compound
of the
moreover,
in. parallel
distinguish,
the
from
the
complex
fora-classes
the
of
of
have
rather,
the
go.
olauco,
olauoo
sentence;
of
you
subordinate
cannot
between.
and those
not)
s©nte oos can
subordinate
constituents
contrast
sentences
tiniißh
compound
two
transpositional
compound
to
of the
beginning
the
sentences
compound
between.. the
appear
and the
?
will
rna91
mother
complex
while
introducing
subordinator
main- clause,
The
that
with.. a: subordinator
have
the
be noticed
will
a television
xaraa da? aayo?
m© for fivo minutoa)
® lumaw, tub? a mag ? ummak truuf
(0
or 1-6.11 you stay with your.
)
with
m©?
.
It
vizyoon.
! yalli'
relative
or
element
unit,,
the
the
main
clause
and
an adjunct
con-
complox
clause.
Cr.
r;
U
tx
? aaa ba9ref
uttaari
(I know the date)
? eeata 9iid
? ana ba9ref
(I Imowrhhca your birthday
miilaadak
is)
j jdiide
?
? addeo Ha?? ulkanera
(How much does the now oanara coat ?)
Ptarootha
?
yalli
? addeer Ha?? ulkcnora
(How auch does the camera which you bought
Saadafton:
abaaroH"
(i net then yesterday)
laama kurt
Saadafton.
(I
met then
Clauses
in : nigli
operate
in: a simiaar
thereof,
general
gigliah,
of
syntactical
s,s nouns,
all
them under
in
clauaen
noun,
adjective,
behaviour
ex=plea
exhibit
below).
in
which
one term.
clauses
as in
can be classified,
Arabic
and adverb; clauses
to
comparable
and adverbs
adjectives,
or-adjuncts
olaoants
as subordinate
subordinate
of
in. Arabi c
clauses
sentence
(see
behaviour
subordinate
case of
subordinate
classified
Classification.
Subordinate
in tho
manner to
clauses
grouping
into
out
ah, not
comparable
justifies
bu ljaam9a
wab at the univeräity)
when I
As has been- pointed
but
?)
cost
that
of
on tho
form
banie
classified
respectively.
ljoun_ Clauses
Clauses
characteristic
predicate,
classifed
as noun clauses
of nouns;
object,
object
TWO they
of
have syntactical
can function
a proposition,
functsoas
as subject
coaplamont,
and
19
to
in. apposition
? iza
(how),
clauses
Subject
clauses
being
in. this
Arabic.
pr©cede
nearly
their
main
the
clause,
'9iit'.
a kind
of
in
simple
where
the
Examples
sentences,
din this
subject
is
whose usage
from
carry-over
'? anno'
subordinator
(It
? anno
pleases
written
which
cam
subject
clauses
cas© the
main
clause
prec©doo
pr©cedod
by the
are:
la ? ummi ? unno nuskon ma9ha
ktiir
byuz9ujha
(It
bothers
with.
my mother much for -us to -live
bi surrna..
obsorved
speakers,
(see p. 9 ),
predicates
cases
rare
spokoa. Arabic,
educated
predicates
their
follow
the
In
of
subjects
or follaw
clause).
form
case is
unlike
always
? o©ata (whcn) , kii±
in
co=on,
are not
characteristic
particular
But
olcu ooo
noun
etc.
Sub"loct
instances
the
(if),
introducing
ween (whore),
?anno (that)*
comprise:
Forms
a- noun.
her)
tzuuruuna
you to
us for
visit
us)
der
bu?
1aHaali
?
maa
?
utHamnal
ulmas? uuliyye
iit
unno
to
for
the
me
responsibility..
Z can _t -take . all .
-Lit.:
.
)
the
I
take. all
responsibility,
can't.
predicate
predicate
follow
tho
I ya3.1i t.
yalli
(What
clauses
are introduced
clauses
main clause,
Exanples
which
is
by
initiated
'? unnO'
by the
and usually
relative
are:
butSawwaro
is
I think
bisalli
bu lbaaxira
2unno ssafar
-that sea travel
is antortcluing)
.
.
.
rý
ba9urfo
? unno btu? d©r tun? ulon
yalli
(what I know is that
tronofor
you
.
-can
machine)
-
yalli
(what
taonyo
cnothor
bugturHo 9alookon
unno tu truuha
I suggest is for you _to _buy it
.
Object
clauses
Object
clauses
occur
introduced
by '? unno',
(iß)
Examples
etc.
,
In ? aalo
thorn to
after
transitive
'? eemta'(when),
verbs
and are
'kiifI(how),
'? iza'
are:
9am'ii 9allamni
? unno ? rolled ? u1D
hia
(My uncle taught ne to imitate
.
.
.
signature)
der
byi?
iza
?
ysaagdak
a? alo
(Ask him
Y-he
-i,
-can -help -you)
guu
9uml et mays acz?
?
bt a9urfl
'y
(Do you know
sa
-what -1Iai
-did
are
Prepositional
clauses
prepositional
clauses
introduced
by the
relative
by a prepQsition.
are preceded
' yalli'
been yalli
Hadiis
? aHyacnau_ biSiir
bu
inaaa
been
s
allt
w
(sometimes
takes
ogue
place
_i
_a
in the pictures)
stage and those
.
Examples
are:
9a lnasrali
waa? f'iin
between
those
luwlaad
Tu19et
naa- byitHannalu'
aun yalli
(she turned
out -to be -on©. -or .those
who -can not
children)
bilaa9buuhon
byunbusTu
luwlaad
nag yalli
(childrenare happy with -those -who -play
and
-with
on the
stand
them)
r
Clauses
Complement
clauses
in
occur
which
are
Complement
occur
the
after
type
of the
sentences
by
introduced
(l
Examples
'? anno'.
mun lahjet
(From the
on page 22,
discuasea
he wanted
long negotiations
would
each country
Appositive
Appositive
? unno
)
(lit.
the agreement
was reached
its
the
of
share
costa)
contribute
Examples
are:
to
they
which
su9uuro
? anno ? axuu
(His knowledge
that
makes him jealous)
raH
his
group
?unno
evidence
Adjective
Clauses
Adjective
clauses
is
introduced
biaallii
yGaar munno
him
will
compete with
we are
can
be divided
relative
not
SalaaHi
itna
overstepping
our
aawaz
that
and are
apposition.
9anno maa najHet
did
news secret
9am nut
by the
in
stand
ynaaz9o
brother
lxabar
Yxabbu
mulaawaluton
(Their
to keep the
attempt
burhaan
by'? unno'
introduced
are
clauses
preceded
(This is
diction)
kul
Clauses
by a noun,
haada
to
ulmas? ale ?anno 9am umzaH
it wan clear he was joking)
bayyanet
Hadiiso
tone of his voice
Dall
Tawiile
ul? uttifaa?
ba9d mufaawaDaat
b idfa
balad
uzu? mun ulmaSruufaat
(After
that
and
are:
ul? uSSa ?unno buddo yutjawwazzha
turned
the story
out to be that
her)
Tu19et
(Lit.:
marry
of verbs
same group
into
'yalli'
two
succeed)
juris-
groups:
and is
the
first
used when
u
the
is
antecedent
any form
by
introduced
A.
is
md
Examples
indefinite.
(see
definite
bu9tu ddawaliib
(did you sell
kennet
9nndkon
yalli
?)
the tyres
had
you
ynlli
whose
which
to
the
have
(in
and
number,
form
the
that
the
of
yalli
duces
the
agrees
relative
is
gender
(I
liked
as the
the
with
a pronominal
house
as in,
I rented),
verbal
the
with
the
where
number
adjective
suffix
of
where
the
the
lbeet
as In,
verbal
'lbunt
who intro-
girl
't? added
When the
the
clause,
same number
yalli
pronominal
in
agrees
and gender.
the
'9ajabni
clauses
antecedent,
(the
9arabi'
an
adjective
as subject,
in
in
contain
in
the
gender
Arabic),
as object,
antecedent,
clauses
bta9ref
antecedent'lbunt
functions
compounded
knows
?
high)
Thus
functions
gam t? addem ulbarnaamej
the
in
devils)
is
sentences,
in
singular)
while
with
not
a garden)
adjective
verbal
'yalli'
programme
has
antecedent.
the
relative
tempts
Gnalye
whose cost
?ulo ineene
a house which
be noticed
referable
is
?nxDnr
is green)
iuldo
cover
19sfariit
magi mablaG bviari
(I have a sum of money
that
will
group
antecedent
9nm tu? rnn
?
vn11i
book you are reading
?)
6tara beet
(he bought
element
when the
used
9uu ha luktaab
(what is this
fiiha
mawaad ku]±utha
(it
has raw material
It
second
are:
luktaab
naawliini
(hand me the book
B.
the
p. atti);
verbal
and
sta? jarto'
suffix
'-o'
J
',
colligates
and
as the
gender
When the
or
sentence
a fii
is
with
jnrt'
is
clause
or
particle
a pronominal
the
and is
of
in
form
the same nuunber
antecedent'lbeet:
adjective
of
constituents
gender
the verb'sta?
with
antecedent,
the
sentence,
suffix
whether
a nominal
the
one of
agreeing
the
of
in
latter
clause
number
is
and
definite
or
as in,
indefinite,
Antecedent
definite
19ulbe
?azra?
loonha
gaTiini
yalli
(give
is blue)
me the box whose colour
fiihn
vlbnrnnmei
yalli
waa? el biHubb
musiiqa
(Wael likes
progrnrmes
which have music)
Antecedent
indefinite
Aufna fulum mawDuu9o saxiif
. (we
saw a filar, whose theme
9ando
?ulo rfii?
(he has a friend
in
Adverb
Clauses
Artverb
clauses
the
sentence
sense that
they
like
occupy
adverbs
positions
Cf.
lmasa
(we arrived
in
silly)
?al9aab
k:tiire
who has many toys)
behave
adjuncts.
wSulna
is
the evening)
Gaabet uicazrs
wSulna 1a=a
(we arrived
when the sun set)
or sentence
occupied
adjuncts
by adverbs
or
C:
rl
r
hoon
ehurna
(We spent'-£he
here)
evening
maTraHma ? ultuulna
shurna
(We spent
the evening
w ere
you
told
us)
bisuu? bisur9a
(He drives
fast)
bisuu?
mutulma waSSeeto
(He drives
as I advised
bisu9ur
§tareeto
(I bought
it at
stareeto
(I
bisu9ur
can
them
ducing
into
9allamuton
(She taught
fii
naSb
(There
is
according
of
Examples
3uu y? uulu
them what
time,
muu Daruuri
was not
although
price
clauses
clauses
in
English,
to
adverb
the
place,
type
manner,
clauses
forms
of
intro-
condition,
(time)
I come)
lamma buji
to say when
a monument where
ul9aDme
Yusef
(place)
Al Adme died)
? aHsan bu9tibaar
b9iid
ulmasraH
tie
is better
because
is
stage
Hatta
? u? der ? utxayyalha
mniili
it accurately
I can
so that
lahatta
Dallo
yusrab
(He kept drinking
till
necessary)
are:
9andma maatyuusef
SSafif ul? awwal
(The first
row
wSufiiha
(Describe
mag ? unno
a high
be divided
etc.
concession,
at
mun suu? u1HaZZ
unfortunately)
price,
Gaali
to adverb
Parallel
in
it
bought
Arabic
Gaali
a high
him)
(cause)
far)
(purpose)
it)
imagine
(result)
suker
he became drunk)
law kaan byuHturem
? abuu maa byiHki
(condition)
heek
"(-Lf"wie na
he would not talk
any respec
or his father
this)
like,
f1
"3
(comparison)
la? oeto mutulma waSafto
(I found him as you described
him)
9am yJHki ka? anno 1naWDuu9 bihunno
(he is. talking
the matter
as though
$axSiyyon
concerned
9nndo
kaner
?
Sawwar
?
unno
ubno
ma9
maa
ýjo hasn't
photographed
his
.
although
-son-.
(manner)
him personally)
(oonceaaion)
he has
a camera)
Part
Il
to
Phrase-Structure
199
Chapter
One
Noun-Phrauoo
type
A favourite
of
phrase
a nominal
features
which
A noun-phrase
is
so-called
'modification'
modifier.
The head
can
perform
the
whole
that
consists
the
member of
the
of
the
two
a head
in
on those
languages.
structure
of
and a
structure
function.
syntactic
consists
emphasis
a syntactic
which
is
with
botwoen
conflict
essentially
(1)
by itself
which
performed
by
structure.
in. 4ioun-phrase
Modifiers
A noun : dogdays,
A verb.:
adverb
money to
water,
: gloom
: people
A propositional
can, be one of tho
men's trousers,
running
JLi adjective
ji
to
rise
give
below
English
Noun phrasos
phrase.
discussed
are
in
sentonco
simple
and a verbal
and Arabic
English
of
rooms,
here,
phrase
dining-table
burn
barbed
Darope
followings
wire,
Pleasing
annnero
now
: non above
suspicion,
places
in
the
sun.
(1)
'The Structure
Francis,
W. Nelson
Roland gross Company, Now York,
of Anoriocn
1958, p. 297.
Enslish',
The
1'ý
j
the
In
in
the
the
first
part
head-words
chapter
be considered
by modifiers
part
second
this
of
will
noun-phrase
III
or
runctionins
to
first,
be followed
adjunct-words.
(i. ) }esd-trords
WWordawhich
EagliG h and Arabic
constituto
into
be subdivided
can
nouns
and pronouns.
JL.
ouns
in
a major
as head
operate
both
English
open
word-class
in
a najor
various
of
open
it
is
the
which
b©ins
chief
to
possible
on. comparable
nouns
both
word-olaos
sub-classes,
and Arabic
in
noun-phrases
set
up
syntactic
criteria.
Both
of
belong
Thus
table
while
nouns,
are
(singular,
'collective
ktaab,
aiglish
sen),
IIau/plural:
system
different
totally
nouns,
variable
it
is
dual,
nouns'
dual:
ktaabeen,
nouns
though
of number,
a category
to
and Arabic
II1glish
or
the
of
the
rather
the
to
category
of
coun-
(sinGular:
systsn
in
and
t
in
terms
languages.
two
a three-term
recognize
system
kutub
this
sub-class
a two-tern
and plural)
plural:
terms
in
necessary
in
variable
systems
within,
a five-tern
are
the
Ambic.
and singulativ©:
case
C f.
of
singplar:
r*ajara,
in
1"10-
4ajar,
gajarteen,
dual:
big
4
ýijllective:
asjaar.
plural:?
The conflict
number
the
in
may arise
which
plural:
two languages.
connection
different
the
of number reflects
in
Leaving
exponency
relations
plurab
and loan
criterion-criteria,
fungus-fungi,
alumnus-alumni,
in
only
three
/s,
Arabic
by
plural
in
spite
singular
ble
from
suffix
and plural
the
Common plural
other.
(wlaad,
ccuuc
(byuut,
SHuun)
cucac
(9ulab,
sukak)
(9ummaal,
a more
that
clear
complex
See. T. F.
Universities
to
appears
complementary
xayyaaT-
plural'
where,
between
correspondence
is
not
patterns
klaab,
major
always
predicta-
are:
?alwaan,
?aSHaab)
Sunnaa9)
the
a less
Mitchell,
Press
of
two
) e. g.
'broken
and
one form
patterns,
ccaac
is
English
into
etc..
-aat,
regularity
and ?accaac
It
can be divided
(-iin,
considerable
of
cuccaac
(1)
formation
sayyaara-sayyaaraat;
xayyaaTiin,
in
shapes
like
which
exponent
like
iz/.
z,
plubal
of plural
conditioned
phonologically
distribution
types:
type
of
aside
child-children,
one regular
the
with
foot-feet,
man-meng
has
ýajaraat,
implications
Contrastive
category
little
speaker
complex
'Colloquial
1962,
Ltd.,
of
Arabic
pattern
of
Arabic',
p. 36 ff.
is
moving
plural
from
formation
The English
-e)
Li IJ
8o that,
except
should
be learned
plural
formation
Another
is
fact
the
the
for
of fgliah
they
that
appear
Chapter
other
of
iglish'
deals
with
class
1 contrasting
3 are
learning
these
in
the
no big
of nouns in
characteristic
aharod
which
plurals
conatitutes
word-classes.
of
items,
as separate
to
Dcamples
irrogular
iglinh
regular
problem.
both
forma
many contrastive
VII
forms
contrastive
with
'Tho
Fri©s's
of
those
of
languag©o
of
rolativo
L3tructuro
word-cla
clans
cos.
2 and class
follows:
as
Class
Class
Class
2
arrive
arrival
refuse
refusal
departure
delivery
robbery
achievement
judgment
Arabic
depart
deliver
rob_
achieve
judge
nouns also
other
word-classes,
vowel
patt ern.
exhibit
contrast
Ex=plea
1
bigness
big
blackness
black
goodness
happiness
kindness
activity
equality
good
happy
kind
active
equal
contrastive
being
Class
forma
to
relative
marked by variation
are:
Verbs
Nouns
Adjectivas
Nouns
? Ual
gaaf
tool
goof
? amiin.
baltid
? aaaane
balaade
na=
? anar
nooa
? anur
sa? ill
? abynD
sa? aale
bayaaD
? akal
? akal
? aHaar
Hanaar
ra? as
ra? uS
? axD ar
xaDaar
of
1:
different
is
sition,
relates
appear
a verb,
perhaps
the
which
fact
in
of
the
The word
word-classes.
as a noun,
used
to
many words
a great
which
of
Arabic
of
however,
of English,
One feature
speakers
3
case.
down in
He was knocked
To round up the matter
by
as members
which
an adverb,
an adjective,
an extreme
homophony,
same form
'round'
native
puzzles
can
and
be
a prepo-
Cf.
the first
(verb)
round
(noun)
(adjective)
is
Mine
a round watch
(adverb)
turned
He
round
(preposition)
house
the
He went round
High-frequency
are
fairly
shop,
(1)
sleep,
words
numerous
in
drink,
hit,
belonging
modern English
miss,
love,
to
at least
and include:
paper,
(1)
two word-classes
show,
walk,
drive,
etc.
hit
in
Hockett's
F.
classification
of word-classes
Cf. Charles
New
Linguistics',
in
Macmillan
Modern
The
Company,
Course
'A
inif.,
he
225
H
1958,
up
where
sets
class
which
York,
pp.
food,
day,
friend,
like
art,
strength,
action,
nouns
cludes
includes
A
function
adjecnouns
only;
class
which
as
which
icy,
false,
likely,
long,
like
soft,
certain,
sleepy,
tives
includes
NA
function
which
as
adjectives
only;
class
which
like
American,
male,
white,
sweet,
private,
savage,
words
(cf.
have
functions
a
good
nounal
and
adjectival
which
red,
he
is
they
he
is
American,
Americans;
and
an
are
American,
his
than
is
they
John
American
American,
more
are
American,
includes
like
describe,
V
admit,
punish,
verbs
class
sister);
NV
function
have
class
only;
which
verbal
bury,
strengthen,
like
love,
includes
air,
eye,
words
cure,
change,
walk,
which
build,
have
funcnounal
verbal
cut,
which
and
elbow,
nose,
includes
dry,
thin,
AV which
tions;
words like
clean,
class
idle,
busy,
have
verbal
which
and adjectival
clear,
slow,
NAY
finally
includes
class
which
functions;
words like
and
blue,
brown,
black,
faint,
yellow,
fancy,
gay, damp, which
functions.
and verbal
have nounal,
adjectival,
If
Since
tax
the
are
also
a clear
speakers
memory of fnative
kind
of this
indication
individual
items
of Arabic,
for
The following
forms.
of
these
can. cover
and
whom they
in Arabic
word-classes
since
a sourcelconfusion,
distinctive
have
or statement
have to be learned'as
they
cases,
rule
no general
attested
mistakes
are
confusion:
GI wished to strength
my English.
English.
©The useful
of studying
Olt cultures
people.
I choiced it.
OFinally
An important
the
two languages
is
the
fact
they
that
teristic
(and comparable)
positions
tifiable
(and comparable)
word-classes
forms.
of
Thus( nouns
The sun sets
glams btuGrob
also
is
possible
in
with
fill
certain
to
relation
in
phrases
verbs
to
the
other
Within
to
(1)
Francis,
(2)
Ibid, pp1342 ff.
distinguish
op.. cit.,
pp.
verbs
to
structures
different
325 ff.
form
of
form
a 'structure
'structures
complementation,
types
iden-
and extended
west
after
in
charac-
mua. ulGarb
occur
(2)
complementation'.
it
can colligate
in
s%red by nouns
Cf.
predication'.
Nouns
is
that
characteristic
according
of
L.
to the typo
of pros eding
J
r,
(o. s.
vorbs
tranaitivo
whether
or
stativo)
The conplenont
When tho
complement
nitivo
of
object';
'objective
an
object'
or
Direct
Ob ect
rect
a trf
consists
*%'direct
termed
always
of
in
verb
two
objects,
the
other
'object'.
called
In
one of
them
either
'
ew indi.
Examples
complement.
is
are:
lieh
My son. Is studying
? ubni gam yudros ? unQ11izi
j ect
Indirect
-ob
two books
He gave his friend
huwwo 9aTa rfii?
o ktaabocm.
Objective
Complement
John president
the elected
nuHaa nt axabna Hanna ra
In
and
object,
object.
Indirect
belong
(i.
obi ect
the'sane
to
e. the
the
and an indirect
formations
in
the
indirect
objects
fact
which
and objective
the
latter,
same substitution.
Moreover,
object
either
the
proc ©des the
object
that
f
oj
ect
dir©c
the
and
referent').
direct
a
complementation-comprising,
by the
distinguished
former,
direct
of
an indirect
direct
are
a structure
iis
class
complements
unliko
the
an the
direct
objective
coapleuant
havo
sentences
containing
a
have
passive
can
direct
two
or
the
indirect
transobject
`.)
may appear
as subject;
transformation.
He gave his
Two books
His friend
a direct
containing
on the
complement,
and on objective
one passive
sentences
hand,
other
object
can have only
Cf.
two books
friend
to hi.s friend
hie -frt
d by him
two books by him
were given
was given
und
his
We elected
is brother
0 President
Unlike
look,
remain,
Examples
by us
president
by us.
his brother
sound
a Stative
of
verbs
(see
p. ti ) as well
'subjective
called
which
class
a closed
are
is
verb
transitive
verbs
Stative
class,
president
was elected
was elected
The complement
complement'.
brother
belong
comprising
as the
to
an opm
become,
noon,
'bo'.
copulative
are:
The partners
remained
uraka bu? yu rufa? a
friends
The water hecaie ice
lmayy Saar et t al j
are heroes
? a1ii aal
Soldiers
1 junuud
So far
all
correspondence
1 fish
the
last
betweem
the
different
and Arabic.
deuce between
partial
except
since
In
mglish
'? abTaal'
the
last
'heroes'
is
example have ahoi
ktndo
exanplo,
and Arabic
structurally
of
a one-to-one
in
coaplement©
however,
'? abrual'
equivalent
corroepon-
is
to
I
only
'are
horoes"
in
othor
'? abTaa1'
words
not
is
,which
this
is
oontoxt
a prodioato
betwooa
botwoon
an abundance
of
glich
fhglish
and
Arabic
and
and Arabic
attostoci
mistakes
of
type:
following
the
by
roflectod
in
conflict
a serious
constitutes
rý
ý.
difference
This
a complement.
ý
l
drew the
that
in the centre.
thing
place
® The first
its
one
attention.
of
every
thing its discipline.
® The most important
in Syria.
g It the first
university
the
in
its
c amDd
comparable
by
illustrated
which
(see
examples
above
Another
is
1gliah
Arabic,
Unlike
what
'object'.
requires
also
Sentence
position
copulative
Type
followed
'be'
pp.; S ff.
VI,
of nouns in
both
'prepositional
may be termed
is
a preposition
the
1an
in
)
ia8oß
phrasoc'
by a noun
which
may be
modify
othar
nouns.
number
1
(as many as 25 per
C f.
(trait
Under water
ulmayy)
(ba9d
dinner.
u19aia)
After
(too?
ubgubha)
Above suspicion
Nouns in, both
(1)
cm
also
nouns make-up a considerable
g1glish,
Cent)
languages
of
Ibid,
the
p.
single-word
299.
aoc-ifiers
of
nouns.
Im
1rn
J
ýl
involving
Structures
are
the
in
is
(a)
kinds:
two
of
form
base
the
or
and
those
in. which
t-es}.
inflection
the
other
with
the
and
of both,
Examples
noun has
modifying
Noun-Adjunct
house
My father's
Child's
play
A day's work
image
A father
Child psychology
The day shift
between
difference
the
as follows:
cribed
for
we cannot
(cf.
a day')
other
for
example
'The
hand,
the
following
two
say
boy's
(though
'The
book'
some other
constructions
The first
'noun-
the
same noun
of
noun-adjunct.
Cf.
constructions
where
or
'the
the
boy'.
of a child'
'The
and
be des-
can
by no means invariably,
play
kind
appears
may be substituted
construction
genitive
'of'
with
by a construction
the
it
one another.
with
Genitive
The
the
(b)
plural
can be matched
as modifier,
the
construction'
construction'.
adjunct
tuted
the
with
and a noun-modifier
in which
J1819
'genitive
the
called
the
those
inflection
genitive
a noun-head
book
construction
the
different
( --)
of
must
mutual
forma:
house F)
The house
My father's
image F-j
An image like
A father
That
That
work
of
On
besubsti-
transforms
separates
since
of my father
a father.
The doctor
(_)
woman's doctor
of that woman
That doctor who is a woman
(_>
woman doctor
of
trans-
9
Itit:
In
Arabic
to
form what
as
'the
is
be modified
can
a noun
(rjditionally
construct'
noun
can be associated
Hite
construction.
the
with
The
first
relative
the
head
is
nouns
reflects
the
in
precedes
the
in
order
the
head
in
difference
This
by mistakes
like
two
a comparison
in
modifiers
different
head
Arabic.
reflected
as noun
noun
the
modifier
a defi-
form
house. )
emerge from
of difficulty
of
to
to
,
second
Cf.
Two kinds
the
'1'
grammar
the
only
article
noun
in Arabic
construction
baab beet (chouse door)
(the door of the
baab ulbeet
behaviour
to
referred
In this
.
by a following
of
the
the
noun
languages.
English,
it
constitutes
the
two
of
languages.
modifier
For
whereas
follows
a conflict
the
which
following:
®The book's pupil.
doctor.
@The car's
The second
(1)
kind
of difficulty
relates
to
the
restricted
from other
facie
Constructs
are distinguished
prima
similar
in
the
to a subwhich
modifying
noun belongs
constructions
'nouns
by
fact
the
that
the seof
material'
of
only
class
be
the
'l',
can
associated
noun
with
article
whereae
cond
'1'
in other
both constituents
can be associated
with
Cf.
constructions.
saa9et
ssaa9a
ulbunt
ddahab
the
the
girl's
watch)
gold watch)
it
of
use
as opposed
to
comparable
construction
Thus
the
with
(2)
the
Palmer,
used
in
used
b.
of
absence
according
to
of pet
animals:
a cat's
between
nouns
d.
is
genitive,
almost
ohiofly
to
exclusively
person:
John's
book;
house;
o.
names designating
logically
names
animals:
intermediate
and duration:
time
tho
of
construct'.
my brother's
words
of
and adverbs
capo
and according
is
basket;
e. certain
whiskers;
the
1
names of
persons:
Fido's
'the
human beings,
a.
inflection,
in. the
Jespersen,
with
designating
names
Genitiv©
Arabic,
inflection
genitive
tho
restriction
in
names of
connection
have
which
noun. modifiers
yesterday's
correspondence.
Since
nouns,
in
the
construct
of this
a transfer
mistakes
of
tho
® The table's
A The door's
1
(2)
in
following
Arabic
is
characteristic
applicable
to
to
Diglish
all
results
type:
leg
handle
'Essentials
Otto -Jespersen,
London,
Allen & Unwin Ltd.,
Graiinar',
of Diglich
1938, p. i43.
Georg©
'A
Hoffer
W.
Spoken
English',
Grammar
Palmer,
E.
of
Harold
however,
1927,
37.
cr.,
Cambridge,
Ltd.
Sons
p.
and
9
'The
Genitive
his
findings
in
Inflected
Thomas's
Russel
Bhglish
in Applied
Readings
Prose',
in Modern American
in
Now York,
Inc.,
Appleton-Century-Crofts,
LinGuistics?
489
inflected
he
genitiv©s
of
collected
examples
which
beings.
denoting
human
of words not
!
I
i
Classification
In both
is
'1'
and
the
lcnguages
lity
in
proper
and can be
lack
speaking,
definite
the
with
For
Arabic.
not,
cases,
a noun
appear
in
the
less
more
or
for
number
instance,
on, con-
variation
'the'
articles,
wo can
in
say:
luwlaad
0 lwaa? el,
0 Johns
to note,
classified
plural
of
contexts,
interesting
is
to
established
lwalaü,
comparable
John,
0 the
thomsolVon
noun,
of
oxaaple,
man, meas..
in
basis
cub-class
gaerally
criteria:
niglish,
article,
both
nouns land
on the
the
Thus
to
applicable
It
and Arabic,
EDiglioh
and non=colliSabi
but
nouna
of
criteria.
parable
`'
sub-classifications
comparable
similar
.ý
however,
as a proper
or
®lwaa? liin.
that
noun
can associate
with
the
class.
in
in
certain
Di fish
the
can
detinit©
e. g.
1. There
are many Johns in
2. aI saw John yesterday.
John ?
Which
you about.
o. Ihe John I told
In Arabic,
nom
Hite
glglish
on the
the
in
can never
appear
article.
In contexts
examples
Arabic
hand,
other
has
a noun clLWßiti©d
plural
comparable
or
associate
with
those
with
in
an a proper
the
the
dofi-
last
4'
1.
f il,
9uddet
? ußaon, joon
wlaud
(lit.:
"
bu SSaf f
thore are many boys their
class)
boon mbaareH
2. a. tuft
b. ? anu joon
2
joon
C.
Another
is
that
yalll
? ultullak
9alee.
sub-clans.
of nounß in the
parallel
of uncountable
divided
be
can
Uncountable
nouns.
two
into
main
that
have singular
concord),
(those
that
have a plural
concord)
lacking
tics,
mathematics,
classics)
nouns of
abstract
a miscellaneous
group
(news,
Forms
furniture).
what
like
plural
may be termed
countable
of
of
this
nouns.
plural
naglich
a plural
lacking
a singular
subject
(wood,
materials,
(knowledge,
should
measles,
gold,
happiness)
couraso,
billiards,
(phone-
names
information,
be distinguished
counterparts
instance,
'damages'
a singular
are often
from
which
is
pattern.
tho
not
'damage'.
Those nouns lacking
( annals,
include
class
For
the
.
homophonous
their
in
lacking
and those
; names of
ideas
rubber);
aid
fora
a plural
John in
two languages
nouns
those
types:
(those
Those
(to)
nano
bellows,
types
trousers);
(cognoscenti,
no mark of plural
(cattle,
plural
in
fora
a few words of clocod-olaas
magi,
antipodes)
cleigy,
folk).
;a
few that
exhibit
v
....
Within
that
construction
(the
as apparently
plural
suffix
Arabic
type
subject
(social
sciences),
drinks:
=gabbilaat
dishes)
aurc
,
(jewelry)
Those
comprise
saeento
(1)
genitive
that
what T.
F.
contain
Mitchell
component.
possible
to
or.
set up a sub-claca
divided
be
may
lacking
membership
(ethics)
(appetizing
(cold
forms.
and coapricoo
?u jtinaa9iyyaat
; names oß dishes
dishes),
drinks),
two typos:
into
plural
(mathematics),
? axlaa?
Tibaat
those
pro-final
a limited
(communications),
nuwaaSalaat
rasa
has
riyaDiyyaat
nahes:
in
and those
singular
first
The
is
nouns which
lacking
those
but
the
(cf.
a gare of billiards)
(cf.
indoors)
cultivation
it
also,
of Uncountable
the
In
appear
appear
of
table
a billiard
indoor cultivation
In
caa
thooo
form,
a singular
byres),
cattle's
'neutrality'
the
te=j3
plural
of
no mark
carry
lacking
uncountablen
as-? aalt
and
(fried
group:
and a nisc ellancous
(payments)
nadfuu9aat
jawha.
nu
q
.
lacking
names of
(cement)
fora
a plural
material
; names of
Phrasal
'Some Eh6lish
Memorial.
J. R. Firth
have
an open
membership
and
: fulfol
(pepper),
dahab
(gold),
abstract
concepts:
karam
(genorosity)
Types',
Volume,
Proprint
p. 12.
to
appear
in
,A .0
GoDab (ungor) 9 1uTuf
between
The comparison
shows that
nouns
languages.
The
forms
lack
a form
is
'news'
in
item
again
following
the
explain
® The news are
0 The furnitur©s
which
items
'? axbaar'
The
sub-class
torned
'collective
speakers
classified
the
basis
as
of
surprising.
we bought
of
nouns
bellows,
nearest
claosifiablo
) and baTalonaat
(pl.
).
its
Conversely
nearest
'? axbaar'.
while
corresponding
The above
facto
expensive.
sub-class
membership
(countable
(uncountables
in
nouns
of
tho
in
is
traditionally
can be a source
of
difficulty
nouns
has no such
nouns'
appearance
in
are
both
Arabic),
for
Daglish
category.
recogiisablo
plural
lexical
Fhglish).
which
F2iglish
which
'collective
their
(sing.
are
'nafruugaat'
nouns'
Arabic,
of
are
a countable
'furniture
and
the
jn
mistakes:
and
'news'
Arabic
a plural,
different
the
reflect
and
lacks
trousors,
Fhglich,
) and manafiix
that
is
Arabic
in
emerge
so clasolfiod
while
banTaloon
cf,
(sing.
) ; munfaax
(pl.
items
nounu,
as countable
Instance,
both
for
however,
nouns
a singul4i, r in
lexical
corresponding
of
uncountable
established
implications,
membership
which
and Arabic
can be
category
For
.
F1lglich
contrastive
languag©s.
thd. two
are
the
different
the
from
(gentlcnesa)
as such
and singular
nouns
on
.,
twj
.
Cf.
concord ptterna.
(1)
Kruisinga
tho
following
taken
oxanploc
fron
have dotorminod
to econoaizo
The Government
in tho
to import
foodctuf
requirod
chipping
c fron
abroad.
that
The educated
class
whatovor
may paean - usually
public
EYiglich.
what we may call
school
prefer
has
States
Govornncnt
The United
to Italy£5.000.000
From an economic
point
and social
important
class
of the popülatioa
Absmc© of this
is
which
problem
in
reflected
is stolen
0 The cattle
0 The team is shaping
Other
uncountable
in
with
connection-
'De-adjectival
There
nouns
this
of
plurpl
which
the
in
the
the
class
concord,
of
be doa t
(Boo
with
pp., i' (r)
nouns'
are homophonous with
they
minister.
will
articlo
to be considered
still
(2)
'de-adjectival
Strang calls
(though
a loarning
characteristics
is
group
the most
davon.
mistakes:
the field.
with the
languages
dofinite
of
constitutes
following
from
hands
two
of view
was the
Arabic
distributional
contrastivo
nouns
in
oat©gory
made a loan
are
not
and P. A. Erad©a,
1953,
Groningen,
another
class
adjectives,
compounded
'An English
62.
p.
(1)
E. Eniisinga,
P. Noordhoff,
(2)
'Modern
flgliah
Strong,
11.
H.
Barbara
1962,
(Publishers)
97.
Ltd.
p.
mold
.
cub-claw
of
nouns'.
Nouns
and oubjeot
with
the
to
plural
Grammart,
Structure'
3iward
,
ýin
ýý
....
und must bo preoodod
aorphemo)
Examples
with
(sweet)
i. e.
agree
nouns
in
(ugly
and,
number
with
variation.
Cf.
ul(}ani
envies
made to
(tirod)
which
Bnglish
can
nouns,
(ono)
rich
also
liko
bohavo
with
bu: 9a (an ugly
and which
the
nouns
forma
aro
which
girl),
operate
are
liko
an
subject
)
1? aGniya
lfu? ara byiHusdu
(The poor envy the rich)
between
The conflict
accounts
for
the
following
® The blinds
need
Q The poor envies
which
)
rich.
vary
of nouns which
is
(bunt
'tho'.
tirticlo
Pow, the
preceding
and gender
corresponding
byiHsed
lfa? iir
(The poor (ono)
Sco
ta9bacn
unlike
the
cub-olans
with
girls)
dofinito
of
Refo
(ugly),,
colligate
number
bug9iin
bmaat
first
adjectives.
buge9
q
adjectives,
they
the
poor,
by the
has a corrosponding
homophonous
to
the
are:
Arabic
fiulu
:ý
translations
are
our
the
Ma lieh
attested
and Arabic
in. this
connoctioa
mistakes:
help
rich.
of
19uayann byiHtaaju
nusaa9adutna
byiHsed
lfa? fix
ulaani
Given tho
na©ly,
their
characteristics
number
variability,
of the
sub-class
and asaunin6
0
of Arabic
that
the
nouns,
op©nlcor
A' 19
Y
of Arabic
nouns
in
transfer
will
II1glinh,
kind
following
those
to
in
tho
thoy
c&litionn
by nouns and which other
shade
that
they
the
definite
but
differ
are
capable
2 clan
con
in
Q Of all
(; ß,
'Of the
by the
is
colours
dresses
aro
und tho
both
fully
Biglt
liko
fill.
oh
cd joo-
typically
positions
cannot
occupiod
Examplos
aro:
of
mo.
have adjectival
number
and nominal
forms
corrosponding
variation
(rod
is
ar
(ones)
are
distributional
Fhglish
0 The yellow
in
Of nouns
in
in
fligl. ish
rind must
(a red pen. )
? cFi iar
reflected
abovo
with
appear
C E.
.
The differemt
la
fill
suit
Arabic
1? uHiaar 9alaamet
ulxz
1Huriur ? aHla (the rod
adjectives
group
Thorn
doesn't
from
article.
in
tho
colour.
blue
of
forms
Comparable
fdnctions
last
adjectives
Red is an oxcitinC
I an fond of blue.
That
of
corresponding
blind
tann
ho b oo ano blind
the blind
hao Fallon
(for
'the blind
man')
tho blinds
havo £allca
(for
'the blind
üon'
'colour-wlj©ctivea'.
are
but
tived,
to
charaotoristico
aro gonorat ed:
related
und Arabic
V
coo how rsictakoc
wo can
=a
ru jj an]. ? a9na
Saar ? a9ma
1? a9ma t--'u?o9
A0
19umyann wu? 9u
Closely
S.
of
characteristics
and Arabic
following
the sigl
)
nicer
constitutes
attested
my favourite
I prof or the
we have seen,
den&or)
of
a conflict
colour
izhich
mistakes:
colour
blue
I prefer
the blue
(one).
ý, ý
B. Pronouns
Pronouns
Digliah
Because of thoir
have
been traditionally
on syntactic
purposes
(we save
as
(they
objects
to
it
nouns
ne,
in
my,
then
that
structure,
adjunct
racteristic
Personal
),
the
that
),
us
can be
objects
hand,
latter
have
nothing
like
to
differences
pronouns
of
do not
nouns
(of.
can be tabulated
Second
person.
Sing.
you
you
your
yours
plural
no
na
go
Ga
we
us
our
ours
you
you
your
yours
g=
genitive,
positions
(ho talks
subjects
prepositions
differ
pronouns
such
of
colligate
the
sonn
fill
of
other
I
me
ay
mine
whore
they
cpoooh.
of
for
can
On the
no
na
60
ga
n. = nominative,
they
etc.
words
pronouns
First
person
thus
invited
part
can be regarded
because
nouns
relatable
mine'
and in
of
pronouns
as a separate
they
by nouns:
occupied
'I,
however,
grounds,
nonsense),
charactorictica,
classified
as a sub-class
typically
from
morphological
a scatter
cyntactic
the
with
man;
0 the
cha-
hod
as follows:
Third
porson
Masculine
Feminine
he
him
his
his
she
her
her
hers
Neuter
it
it
its
Its
they
them
their
theirs
0=
con joint
9a=
absolut
o
S'
A morphological
1© extremely
then
of
analysis
(1)
complicated.
as a ooaplox
(gc),
my
practical
in
3
fora
paradigm
to treat
way is
dinonalono:
aovorol
botwoon
by 'I
illustrated
scatter
in rolation
olation
sion. obtains
shouu
(ga)
wino
A noro
in
thoao
and person.
gender,
fourfold
Thus the
pronouns
system operating
number,
cane,
of
a rolationnhip
which
to the
2
(no),
grannatical
of
(na),
ne
mutual
envirox
ct
oxclu.
niSht
be
as follows:
go ...
with
a following
6a ...
with
a genitive
'
ne
1;hoso
hat
is
fora
that
Is
this
my hat
is
over
there'.
(i)
...
(ii)
nominal
? B.
fLino'
Toga
or
in, the
elsowhero
a following
finite
with
a preceding
operator
o. g.
or
B.
with
taxt,
No,
that's
verb
(loss
as part
yours
vino,
the
oporators),
of
intorrogattwe
the
operators)
r
complexes
(t)
na ..
(ii)
(iii)
with
a preceding
finit©
with
a procedinG
proposition
with
a following
infinitival
too?
1
(2)
See,
for
example,
verb
(loss
vorbal(o.
s.
'Is3 it
')
Fill's
MalYsia,
itcholl'
t
F.
c'
fron
T.
Incorporated
Transactions
Analysis'
in LinBuistic
107-8.
1958,
pp.
Society,
op.
cit.,
Synta6matic
of
tho
p. 145 ff.
Rolations
Philological
ne
(iv)
0 19
free
in
variation
with
and a following
in
all
'A.
me',
A two-term
though
not
all
ber).
Gender
is
the
three
tinguish
ment
nate
'you'
are
'We'll
the
you
on the
the
in
to
is
the
'we'
is
taken
criteria
of
John
went
-I
relationships
Similarly,
you'll
where
'they'
'you'
justify
be there,
and
the
'we'
saw them
exhibited
you
her
and
are
excluded
common designation
and
co-ordi'they',
a component
element
justifying
the
person.
Moreover,
linking
'he/she/it'
together
3rd
Justification
as
person.
way
some
'they,
them, etc. ' would
then be provided
them with
by
those
exhibited
as
tionships
He and
accompani-
in, say,
for
num-
dis-
example,
in
John went
He went
to
'we'
as
as let
for
singular.
facts
by
pronouns,
marked
one hand,
occupied
is
not
Thus, for
other.
'I'
personal
justifiable
is
of
you and
person
on the
which
and
provide
ending
like
)
third
it
place
This
'I'
of
the
basis
on the
V.
'between
person
forms,
phrase.
designation
mon
+ -s
person,
from
and
co-ordinate
verbal
of
pronominal
excluded
go,
in
phrases
(e. g.
applicable
marked
category
pronominal
is
(second
members
only
'He doesn't
? B. lie'.
eydtem
persons
single
of
Whole that
number
to
As to
conditions
other
(e. g.
)
it'.
my/me doing
(v)
gerund,
verbal
a preceding
with
gc,
comgender
linking
for
by
of
such
rela-
there.
by
from
the
'you'
place
occupied
as 2nd person.
by
_..
Pronoun g
Arabic
has a conparcblo
Arabic
are
in terms
variable
Arabic)
in
fora
in
the two tenses.
To the
conjoint
thin
gander,
is
parL4lel0
'variation
a structurally
of
Second person
Third
To both
absolute(ijrm,
correspond
(1)
manc
huwwo
of
"
fora
in nominative
comparable
Bot in Arabic
zlural
nuHna
? untu
? untt
hiyyo
feno
personal
to
and
a set
? unto
vorbul
hunno
person
the
(masc.
(
(fem.
variation
appoaring
2 una
p©rsou
have
botwoon
pronominal
S1ngu1ar
First
but
und number,
that
Eaglish)
pronounn(in
corresponds
which
pronouns
The main difference
respect
exactly
personal
fora
of porconal
of person,
in
and Arabic
(in
not
case variation.
no corresponding
Biglish
..
pronouns
those
pronominal
appearing
in. genitiv©
in noainativo
conjoint
fora(in
Fhglich),
suffixes.
and
in
is
two
partial
limited
to
only
contexts:
Correspondence
(in
Eiglish)
following
nominal
1. with a
and a procoding
) (cf,
(ib. th© capo of
my book ; ktzb-i)
(in Arabic
nominal
form)
conjoint
2. with a pr©c oiling
in
gonitive
;
prononouns
ish pail Arabic)
(of.
both
her
IIi&.
he
saw
;
verb(in
finite
in nominative
( in the case of pronouns
fort)
absolut©
roaaf-ha)
11
frr
Singular
lot
porson.
maoc,
2nd person
3rd person
Examples
Plural
nisi
ak
na
kon
ß0a.
ek
1T1ä8e.
O
f em.
on/hon
a/ha
arc:
: aathi (he saw ne)
taaitiuha, (they saw her)
(my pen)
? alami
? alaraak
(your
The fact
that
forns(in
two languages
of pronominal
one sot
to both
corresponds
conjoint
pen)
the noainativo
Eligl. ish)
which
absolute
conatitut©s
accounts
for
Arabic)
suffixen(in
und the
between
a conflict
Mistakes
like
6anotivo
the
tho
followings
8 He gave our a present
is then books
This
The F3lglish
in
Arabic
pronominal
haada
(this
by the
in. genitive
forz3 'taba9'
suffixes,
to
absolute
which
e. g.
taba9na
lbeet
house. is ours)
? aGla nun taba9na
taba9kon
(yours
pronouns
is
aobe
expensive
than
ours)
fora
aro aatchod
are appended the
ot of
0- cl
". ia
While
matched
not
Thus
(cc.
a noun associated
noun is
the
definite
markers
in
simply
that
article
and are
article),
be defined
suffix
and a pronominal
therefore
a definite
by a pronominal
a noun may not
mutually
true,
not
form
absolute
following
followed
is
which
characteristic
definite
the
with
in
of pronouns
opposite
genitive
commonly occur
of Arabic
a rule
the
in English,
by pronouns
'taba9'-forms
indefinite
range
have a distributional
'taba9'-forms
since
the
covers
set
form
absolute
genitive
is
'taba9'
the
exclusive.
in
English.
noun
whereas
an
suffix;
it
more than
are
both
definite
Cf.
ktaabi
(my book)
luktaab
(literally:
In
following
the
taba9i
trio
light
book mine)
öf the
mictakea
above facts
are readily
of distribution,
accounted
® The garden ours is beautiful
0 The government bought the house
the
above mistakes
taba9na
jjneene
1Hukuume itaret
reflecting
Hulwe
ulbeet
Arabic
taba9hon.
for:
theirs;
once,
the
is
to
Mr 1i ah Rofloxiy©
Reflexive
tional
in
porson,
themselves.
number,
the
set
related
tcnsi$iers
the
differ
function,
adjunct
pensable
sentence
i myself
I posted
of
in
the
pronoun,
aro,
horcolf,
from the
sonmyself,
itself,
the
forces an follows:
function
immediately
the
after
in
rofloxiven
Examples
cotiplo
that
as
the noun
after
font,
name indieatos,
r©flexives
whereon the
element.
a distinct
As their
subject.
to
the
Slash.
have
occurring
posted the
the letter
Corresponding
forms
himself,
pronouns
personal
before
rarely,
a set
of
of
are:
intensifiers',
'subject
or
sane
subject
The
and Bonder.
invariable
and post.. propoci-
the
with
yourselves,
Examples
are formally
complement
aroo
He shot himself.
She looked at herself
Tho
Bi&1ich
occupy
yourself,
ourselves,
in
They
positions.
tonco
pronouns
pronouns
typically
which
words
t
they
constitute
or,
the
have an
on indie-
arc:
letter.
myself.
reflexive
pronouns,
Arabic
in-
has
Singular
ist
poraon
narsi
fas.
nafn ok
naao.
narao
poroon
is
Dnglish
which
corresponds
I=
EaSlish
'self'
to
appears
in
English
transfer
IIzgli
when using
of
Arabic
The
is
still
encounter
anomaly
(himself,
forms
(myself,
theirselves)
(Note
that
sub-standard
Eiglish).
is
in
the
tho
by the
first
'self'
Henc o,
plural.
of
'nafs'
to
write:
of difficulty
iglich
of
half
speakora
rofloxivoo.
of
the
third
person
to
the
other
forma
in
Arabic,
unmatched
analogically
Attested
and
'nafs',
Whoroas
invariable,
relation
being
these
Doran
picturo.
use
),
or
source
in
thorn
invariability
their
etc..
but
to
the
in
wrong,
rise
is
themselves)
yourself,
'self'
the
another
reflected
plural.
eh and say
© They saw themself
0 Wo hurt
ourself.
There
the
'solves'
ac
Arabic
between
contrast
counterparts
of
speakers
nfau/nafcha
a striking
their
naTu1; on
nafoon/nafohon
f om.
There
nafsna
nafoak
2nd person
3rd
Plural
forms
correct,
forms
appear
mistakes
in
like
gives
(hiccoif,
dialectal
the
und
following
Af7
this
corroborate
pr©diction:
thotroolvon
if they
when ho was shaving.
p They are docoiving
9 He woundod hiuaolf
intennifiors
The English
the
'nass'
sane
Examples
forma
to
'bi'
which
in
Arabic
by
with)
is
profixod.
to
tho
reflexive
matched
aro
(by,
think....
aro:
9aTooto luktaab
Una binafci
(I myself Savo him tho book)
huwwo kat abo binafso
(He wrote it hianelf)
Arabic
Since
forms
where
ap©akers
the
uses
tend
of Arabic
following
and the
prefixes
a1Slich
(by,
'bi'
name set
to trnncfor
nistckea
with)
for=a
of
their
are att©ated
habits
in
the
as intenaifiero,
into
corpus:
by myself saw hin
pI
when he fell.
told me the news.
® 23aick by herself
difficult
is
it
0 The teacher by himself
said
no distinction
'I
did
it
being
myself'
mode in
and 'I
did
Arabic
it
to
parallel
by myself'.
Eiglich
English
rar'
h
ii
w
Relatives
who, whom, whose, that,
The relatives
to
in morphological
pronouns
personal
their
haviour.
1lIýn
be
can
appropriately
gender
and
differs
however,
here,
being
pronouns,
personal
from
terminology
Gender
used.
that
be-
and syntactical
the
classification
which, are close
system,
case,
distinction
to nouns
appropriate
a two-term
of
or
human. and non-
human.
(whom, whose)
'who'
Case distinction
'who',
is
to
applies
form
and objective
'which'
that
that
from
within
of
'whom'
'which',
'non-human'
has a subjective
form
and a genitive
function
sentence
sentence.
Thus
of
the
to use Hill's
of a 'reduction
independent
a longer
which
syntactic
consists
Downgrading
'who',
and downgrading,
linking
of
forms;
'human'
form
'whose';
form.
a case-invariable
The characteristic
is
are
of
to
'the
that
status',
relatives
(2)
terminology.
for
intance
of a sentence
man came to
dinner'
element
can be
(1)
Gender is a category
not just
a means of clasof concord,
be
like
'duchess'
Forms
considered
may
nouns.
sifying
but because
"feminine",
of the regunot because
of '-ess'
'shop herl. otc.
lar
association
of the form with
concordial
is also
forms.
This
to the exclusion
of other
pronominal
is recognizable
in relation
to he/ehe/it.
why gender
(2)
Op. cit.,
-
chapter
19.
r'
3
_..,.
doarnSradod
the
to
the
atatun
'who'
of
addition..
or
a ninglo
aontonco
Ina
and placement
element
longer
by
consttuo.
Lion:
'The
man who coo
to
dinnor
exomplifiod
in
tho
is
Linking
cltuiso,
which
clause
abovo.
In
so-call.
bo distinguishod
should
Quirk's
broke
hic
arg'
od non-roctrictivo
tho
fron
rootrictivo
words:
" Restrict
to their
c%1clauses...
are linked
antoco-.
dents by close
by unity
puncture,
syntactic
of intocontour,
of the degree
nation
and by continuity
of
loudness.
In contrast,
non-rostrictivo
clauses
aro
(rocogniz©d,
by open juncture
together
characterized
by a comma in writing),
features,
with the following
intonation
contour,
and a change (Q¢peolally
a fresh
degree
diminution)
"`11
the
in
of loudness.
a
Exaaples
'It
is
about,
striking
John,
A further
(1)Randolph
Beglich
clauses
non-restrictive
are:
past one o'clock,
so there
are few visitors
which seems to make the coincidence
a very
'
indeed.
one
'I told
'
wifo.
ram=atically
of
who told
relative
freely
Quirk,
Studies,
fora,
variant
his
and he told
brother,
the
with
invariable
the
other
'that'
relatives,
his
9
in
except
'Relative
Clauuos in Dciuoatcd Spokcn Fligliah',
Vol. XXXVIII,
p. 101.
.A 0- JPl
IJ
clues©s,
in. non-rostrictivo
and in
'There
were few people
'The mists whioh/that
'
light.
the
obscured
In relative
have been the
may be omitt
rolativ©
The
(whoa)
family
Clauses
the
where
od,
he would
cover
object
addrooo
the top
'air'
an
of the
island
pronoun, would
rolativo
the
of a preposition,
o. s.
(that)
How auch was it
/that
whom.
Boaotiaos
or the
object
paoaod his examinations
tho Rolla
for admiccton.
whore the
clauses
ovor occuro,
Of.
has
who/that
tho Kantor
of
candidate
apply to
hardly
position.
pro-propositional
'The
st
whoro it
ho stole
ho lived
with
relative
is
?
simply
omitted
adored
aro
him.
callod
by Jeeparsen.
'Contact-oluusea'
here
" Relative
connooting
word
are
without
clauses
any
because
'contact-clauses',
os
what oharactori:
called
in sound und dense between the
contact
then is the close
'this
is
like
in
it:
sentences
and what precedes
clause
the
'ho
love
in
falls
with
all
the-boy
and
we spoke of'
the
'all
'the
'
boy'
the
sirlc'
he
and
words
sees,
girls
what
be
just
Intimately
with
to
felt
contioctod
as
Lro
is
them.
Ito
pause
possible
follows
what procCipc
as with
11
before
contact-clause.
a
Tho most
in
gi&lish
outlinod.
(1)
Op. cit.
rolovant
(from
facts
a contraotivo
Coaparablo
P. 360
facto
portainins
point
of Arabic
of
tötho
u6o cf rolativou
viow)
havo
aro as follows:
now boon
'
1'.
f,09
Arabic
tribution
has only
one invariable
the
of the
covers
that)
together
below
and which
which,
whose,
be discussed
Examples
forms.
range
form
five
with
(who,
forms
English
functions
other
are not
whose dis-
'yalli',
whom,
will
which
by English
paralleled
are:
? alga lauHaaDara
Habbu 1? ustaaz: yalli
kul uTTullaab
(All the students
the professor
liked
who gave the
lecture)
9azamtha
2. ba9ref lbunt
yalli
(I know the girl
whom you invited)
9aleehon.
?
I told you about
?ultullak
3.. ?areet ulkutub
yalli
(Have you read the books which
luktaab
4.9aTiini
(Give
5.
me the
below
be enumerated
relative
In
clause
compounding
laab
the
(1')
'yalli'
whose
reveal
a number
five
of
point
(A,
of
of
the
and 'l? ustaaz
with
as the
'yalli'
These will
subsequently.
subject
of
the
as a transformational
for
two sentences
?alga
which
By C, D, E) and
be dealt
sentences
substitution,
features
of view.
sections
will
blue)
prize)
may be regarded
base-sentence)
Habbu 1? ustaaz'
is
cover
a contrastive
under
zar? a
uljaa? ize
who won the
and the whole
(by the
second
julutto
implications
contrastive
A.
in
examples
from
interesting
their
book
Aufna yalli
rubeH
(We saw (the one)
The above
are
yalli
?)
'l? uotaaz. '
'kul.
lmuHaadara'.
UTTu1-
0
frI
yalli'
Siailarly'
of tho
rolativo
formational
(2) may bo rogardod
in
o incl tho
clru
compounding
wholo
two
tho
of
as the ob j oct
as a tr=o-
sontonco
'ba9rof
citencoo
ulbunt'
'9azamt
ulbuntI
and
(4)
In
it
which
' y411i'
forma
a discontinuous
' hiioso'
to. IIi&]. ish
(2)
B. In
suffixes
(lbunt
I11I
in
antecedent
) (lkutub
(3)
wo have
a non-human
D. In
(5)
'yalll'
is
usod without
in
all
antecedent
Contrastiv©
which
sketched
are samples
to the
different
related
' yalli'
has
subject
or object
above under
b©twon
of those
9aloohon
(lkutub)
dotinito
are
to
Biglish
und Arabic,
of attested
njstu:;
as. -
aecor-
classified
toaturos.
case
no case
poßitions,
A. B, C, D, and E,
mistakes
contrastive
A. 141stakes
Since
and gondor
an entocodont.
oxuaploo
by an abundance
reflected
FollowinS
cnt ec edc t
tho
conflict
a serious
is
number
prononiml.
implications
The features
constitute
ucuallq
contain
? u1tu11ak
yalli
C. In.
E. The
din6
pies©n
relativ©
the
with
9azamtha
yallt
corroapondc
olonont,
with
.
(3)
the
and
areeing
suffix,
pronominal
rnd a succooding
distinction
dintinctioi
tho
whothor
corrosponding
it
formal
fills
dic.
./1
. L. c. öI
in
the
form
from
the
point
tinction
fluous
to
the
confuse
of the
of view
the
of
forma
different
in
relative
pronominal
form
quires
pronominal
Transferring
the
English
leads
to
B. Mistakes
the
The fact
must
to Arabic
to the
haada rrujjaal
ha nnaas
ay11i
object
of
following
mutually
exclusive
) which
were found
rethe
with
to
be
(nee p. uuj).
pronominal
suffixes
'yalli
...
pronominal
attested
mistakes:
car
for
element
English
where
an whom you used his
lands wait
who their
suffix'
yesterday.
them...
yalli
ota9malt
sayyaarto
`larpon btuntuZurhon
related
relative
that
to
the
a pronominal
mbaar©H
use of
superfluoun
pronouns
clause.
when 'yalli'
a prepoeition
contain
notes...
Arabic
reflect
in
the
contexts
is
etc...
discontinuous
® This is the
0 These people
which
which
(my, your,
comparable
partially
in
suffix'
'whose',
forms
likoly
who is
to the use of the discontinuous
The same applies
the
learnor,
oupor-
as in
know the one whoa told you.
®I
A The student
who you have given
'yalli'...
io
English
in
the
suffix
functions
relative
relating
as object
piece,
to
the
the
or
latter
antecedent,
ýýý
.: t. J
tho
tho
for
accounts
following
suporfluouo
attoDted.
0 fly father
uoo of
nintal;
Is tho
Ilictn;:
os rolnted
' yalli'
Becou3o
ono whoa I owo him ....
have
hiss
who nabo tho
to
Given
on her
in
followin&
Sh6lish
I; ictal;
distinction
may conftico
in Arabic,
cpoai oro
of
cmcio
Arabic,
uistzikoo:
bolt
0 The 6ir1
which I like
fp The house whoa w© bought...
D.
lovo...
mo.
your
botrayed
distinction
candor
has no 6ender
distinctions
formal
in
pronouns
oo;
O The friend
whoa you
I dopendod
0 Tho
rl
whore
.
C.
porconal,
o3 rolatoci
to
tho
...
uno
of
c relative
without
a pr ©c©din fi Lmt Qccadent .
Since
a transfer
counts
for
' yalli'
can bouß
of this
characteristic
the
following
p 1lho reads this
end helping
® Y1ho hasn't
which
correspond
yulli
ed without
to
a prec ©ding
Ei31ich
ant oc ed tht ,
relatives
ac.
miotnk©s:
poem feels
..,
who need help
flood taste
crnnot
approciato
litoratura.
to
byi? ra ha 1? aSiido
w ysaa9ed yulli
ya3: 11 raun. 9ando
byur'v'm9or
la uuoaa9ado
byuHtaaj
dor
byi?
naa
: oo? saliim
)rut: awvia? ul? adab
rI
ýY
k
howovor
Cf.
of
' ya13i'
in thin
tho
connoction,
and tho
II1&1ioh
compound
distribution
conparablo
rolativo
in
pronouno
-ovor,
Whoever rowlo thin
pooh fools...
holping
holp.
whoovor
and
nooda
....
I";istnkoa
E.
of
1.
the
buddi
(I
(I
yal. li
wont the
wont
yj iib
is
definite
the
cnt oc cdcht
is
Indefinite
in
fer
the
frequent
used
has
Arabic
which
of
is
opposition
being
Arabic
mistaken
rocoivoa
all
recoivoc
(in
antecedent
relative
lur}!
iib
all
1) ; and that
(in
2).
irrelevant
in
otationa)
or
distributional
stationo)
l is
it
in
this
is
In the
caaoa,
of
made to
c1vUDO3
wives
with a group used
swim.
for success
must work hard.
riatics
"
II'igliah
the
which\cro
so-called
not
roculta
purrllolod
'zoro-rolativo'
in
o-
F2iglich,
both
those
trrnc-
in
auch
onoo-.
was
0 Every =4n asks
conflict
definit
results
p The women in the pant werd no more than
look after
children.
and
.
in touch
oI
to
followins
whai
ant eo odent,
characteristic
attostoci
used
to
on indefinite
following
not
context
eorrosponding
hon
ucod
the
Now since
in
contexts
a definite
as the
T aat
' yalli
1 cad 2 shown that
of
the
the
onnoottion
lunHalT auf
kul
(that)
a radio
kul
bi
that
radio
raadyo
J. comparison
lndefinito
dofinito-indofinito
tho
ant©cedont
rraz$yo
2. buddi
to
rolatod
from
oharacto-
in Arabic.
and to
u=h
Roforonca
'non-rontriotivo'
.,
-1
has boon
It
when it
of
the
pointod
rolativo
in
iglich,
in
contexts
'The
no such
speak,
saw yestorday
the
speaker
of
expects
a rolative
link
to
the
spoal:
tiro
rola-
of
in
poeciblo
the
the
conparablo
followings
no to
abeonco,
to
puzzling
the
native
bocauso
conprohcnsion
this
in
clauco
relative
to
pocciblo
a bank'
his
and hinders
Arabic,
is
t ont enc oa like
oxtroaoly
of a proposi-
object
omission
is
robbod
is
relative
it
on optional
in
may bo ouittod
rolativo
or the
Whilo
omission
Thus
Arabic.
man you
of
of
or
tho
objoct
clnuoo.
'zoro-rolativo'
a
tivo
that
out
havo boon. the
would
in
tion
ýJ
he
con-
text.
having
Arabic
EaE;lich
of
is
bring
not
uses
out
clause;
with
the
a phrase,
has
relative
or
especially
but
convoyed
starts
relative
pronoun
when the
ante-
clause.
In
a whole
clause,
a fresh
for
an obstacle
a non-rostrictivo
distinction
subtle
non-restrictive
dispenses
J2iglish
an ordinary
the
constitute
happens
This
a word or
whero
contexts
either
Arabic.
clauses,
non-rostrictivo
clauses
non-rostrictivo
speakers
codent
no conpdrable
clauso
which
fails
by the
sentence
(1)
altoSethor.
Arabic
to
naglish
and
Examples
are:
xass wazno 9aBara kiilo.
(He lost ton lkilogrannes,
(1)
Written
Arabic
Aii
haada
w
which will
bifiido
ktiir
do him a ]6t of
Doom to havo boon intluoncod
)
good,
by Ehglioh
/...
..
dich
of
and the
The sago forms
112ow
cocond
introduced
contrastive
rable
of
whom,
are
uyL3to1 of
who o o,
what,
usually
three
with
a postponed
girl
and how.
wh on,
intorrogativo
intorroGativo
,
A,11
cdvorbo.
'-over'.
Intenciflor
used as clause
wordu
quootion
wily,
called
linking
'those'
distinction
by those
point
inherited
whose father
',. Tho' introduces
example
structures
different
a. cloooci
last
ox=plo
Tho
clause.
to
as in:
words,
on
the
first
Pronouns
are also
who
He loves
the
J
four
may be associated
the
'"
who,
first
the
pronouns;
In
..
interrofativo
1gli ah uro:
those
r^ Iý
bolonging
Item
in
ý
question
of
in
view,
Arabic
a noun
introducon
between
as will
being
is
two
kinds
adjoctivo
of
important
be seen
charactorisod
in
clnuco;
a rolativo
tho
words
a fortune
claucon
fron
bolow,
a
compa-
by tho
uoo
forms.
cont.
It is vary
translations
in this
throush
case.
particular
find
inincont
to
rod
of
clauaoa
which
nowadays
aro
co=on
Tii
jaranuhu
clauooa,
gaglinh
non-r©strictivo
o. g. quri9a
1?
lla
ii
llayl,
?
az9ajahu
a=u
mina.
axxirin
rota?
waqtin
(litorally
tho
lato
(Hin boll
:
which
runs
was
at night,
dinturbod
Thin pattorn
hin.
has bocono conthing
which)
thus
in
for
to
Arabic
cued
students
anoiailato
non cnough
than
holp
to
toaching
tho
to
in
bo
situation
ronort©d
can
in
Ehgliuh.
clausos
non-rootrictivo
understand
1i
r
Arabic
Intorroßntivo
Arabic
has
C1ioh
C. aot
Pronouns
oS quootion
intorooGativo
Thoy
pronouns.
Luu
(ghat)
(which)
? nuu
,
words
Ex=plot
.
izo
uljau?
ruboH
niln
(who
?)
on the prize
u hach corroopond
aro:
niin
to
(i ho/lilion),
arc:
?
?
racH waa? el
nag niin
(With whom did Waol Co 2)
? unu butfaDDof
?
(Which do you prefer
ýuu itarcot
?
did
(What
?)
you buy
7)
Those intorroSativo
' yalli'
rolativo
niin
? allck
it
that
tho
is
yuu yalli
(What is
by the
?
told
9ajabak
? onu yalli
(which
can bo followoä
Q.
6.
,
gal. li
(1-;ho is
pronouns
you ?)
?
ono that
appoalad
jubto =a9ak ?
it you brou&ht with
Tho anno rorI3
Hazsrt
tutu
(I Giessod
crn
also
? onu butfhDDof
nsiit
(I forgot
which you profor)
you 7)
you ?)
intrdduco
rubeH ul jaa? izo
who won tho prizo)
to
noun clauses,
o. g.
/. r
ý-J
luu
that
? ulli
(Say
in
Howovor,
or
' yt. 11i'
whoco
in
antocodent
tho
end not
forma
wftoro niSlich
contoxta
clauco
rdjoctivo
uuo
ctaroot
)
bou&ht
you
abovo
introduco
dofinito,
Arabic
nalcoc
C f.
wordo.
quostion
cn
ba9rof aiin ?u ja
(I know who cano)
?u ja
who cao)
ba9rof
uzgax8 yalli
(I know tho porcon
inplicationc
Contrantiv©
face
that
spoakers
of
introduce
question
by
the
sot
a spootal
of
problo
iu
fo1louc-.
w
makes use of homophonous wh-forms
clauses
adjective
words,
resulting
can be cuiariood
Arabic
1. Sthoroas i&1ish
to
and the
iflpllcationc
The contrastive
lust
two
forms
und
and
noun
functions
not
by
clauses,
in
Arabia
the
and
ad
are
perforued
'yalli'.
relative
Thu13,
The
on who died
who died
Who did
I
know
?
you
words
Arabic
that
(niin,
rru j aal
9aZiin
aunt
niin
ba9rof
' ya3
follow
can
.'
? suiu,
I*uu)
alýlt
kc
7
ºlirý
so :o of
conutituton
at
?
tuft
niin
ae©?
died
rho
2. The fact
in
was Great
amt.
the
question
a conflict
with
ý+r. ý
.. +, v
ýigliuh
und givoo
riuo
to
on lilto
mistal;
o What which uoao you sad ?
7
Q ittiich who won tho battlo
which
reflect
4uu yalli
? cnu yalli
Arabic
xallaok
tu-"9a1
ruboH ulma9r^
?
*o
7
tho
tollotringt
ýý
.. '.
J
(2)
Adjuncts
It
has been seen that
(see p. q1).
In
noun phrase
were
and a modifier
in
tioning
the
to
will
be devoted
the
noun phrase,
Adjuncts.
forms
the
in
occurring
called
'determiners',
called
'adjectives'.
within
both
section
closed
in
func-
The present
the
second
section
part
of
or adjuncts.
noun phrase
system
may be divided
items,
items,
and open-class
Finer
head-words
considered.
occurring
the
of a head
consist
(1),
to modifiers
namely,
two main classes:
into
noun phrases
which
which
sub-classification
be
will
be
will
be made
will
classes.
A. Determiners
The term
serve
which
Determiners
genitive
to
identify
include:
conjoint
invariable
nouns,
Liý
tiator
is
'determiner'
the
the
appropriately
head of the
definite
pronominal
forms,
op.
cit.,
variable
to words
as a noun.
and indefinite
determiner-pronouns,
I have drawn on Strang,
treatment
of adjuncts.
phrase
given
articles,
determiner-pro-
and noun-phrase
chapter
VII
ini-
in my
I
Articles
Among foray
the
traditionally
to
as adjuncts
There
phrase.
'the'
the
article',
in
With
to
article'
,
to
dosig
indeed.
From the
outsot
articlo
system
two
lansuaGes
must
of
the
they
always
form
part
the
of
a so-
noun
in
an the
knots
appear
to
or
articles
'indofinite
Mhgliah:
'definite
tic
of
tho
o.rticloc
the
dofinito
points
of
difforonco
o the
use
of
Arabic
of
and tho
difference
C. striking
relator
article
distribution
the
e the
be understood
co11iFational
since
head
Is
which
may be conaidorod
exclusive
first
to
given
or noun-like
the
a discussion
that
is
thoso
(1)
reveal
t ompting
the
The
as the
of
similarities
apparent
In
hmd
noun
mutually
.
second,
in, order
Arabic
'an'
discussion.
The
go bond
/
class
constitute
two
are
'a'
and
which
Is
the
of
a following
forms
of
quonco
very
'articles'
nano
representatives
central
as dotorninora,
classified
to
within
possibilition
the
the
fact
behind
torn
nouns.
'dofinito
the
botwoon
in
tho
a tioloe,
ajlich
..
frciokwor1with
in
article
the
that
will
Glich
of
articlau
the
a throo-tor
Thus
a
a noun
draws heavily
1) The discussion
of the articles
on Paul
'The Articles:
theory
Christophersonn's
a study of their
1939,
I.
'tlnks3uazd,
Copenhagen,
in
Rinar
EnSlial',
and use
the notional
therein
though
have boon tranalatod
criteria
t oral.
formal
into
in a couruo of ondloss
(2) The use of the English
articles
This
trio
boing trio caso,
to speakers
trouolos
of AraDlu.
0 . 0/0
0.
1»rithout
appear
can
/'
=1
r-'
book,
:a
Conbinod
pen.
any
ý"
ý'1
.,.
J
(Coro-fora):
article
an applo;
with
..
Sinaulur
zero-form
a -form
C. C ako
4413-4
tho-fora
tho
tho
a anall
nuabor
: tho
with
o ako,
poscibilitioo
the
rooult.
p4t
calcoc
havo tho
of nouns actually
formal
abovo
A largo
scatter.
cub-
do
not
nouns
of
(book,
Singular:
Stil
cnoth`r,
(John,
in. tho
as a rulo appear in : oro-fora
(2)
Anothor sub-class
paso, boy),
gencrally
sub-class
London,
the
the
other
mostly
equator,
coat .
disproportionately
to
fora
a- orn nor plural
has neither
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
cako
in their
possibilities
fire;
Plural
8ý'fL
class
(1)
ri'vo
caii©
only
five
'tho'
and with
contrautc
nunbor
too,
items
longor
seems
(butter,
appears
The Unitod
troatnent
justifiable.
in
music,
one
form
(3)
loicuro).
only:
states)
of
tho
urtiolos
rolativo
'sono',
'any'
Some may Irish to regard,
say,
or the dcnon'thin',
'that',
forms
which aro uutually
strative
otc.,
'a'/'=',
the
with
classifiable
articles,
with
as
exclusive
the
behave like
'tho'.
But though tho forms in question
the
forms,
are
nouns
articles
with
or
noun-like
articles
they cannot
that
by the fact
distinguished
occur as heads.
solitude'
or 'ßono proror
Thus we can have 'Some non prefer
'The
C'Tho
but
not
prefer
solitude'
and
only
men
solitude'
however.
Soo
below,
solitude'.
prefer
'Boy ;'
however,
in a vocative
Cf.,
context.
'It's
however,
butter'
Cf.,
a-wonderful
'There
dozens
directory'
Johns
in
the
however,
Cf.,
of
are
'The Londons of thin
Cf.,
however,
world'.
ý"
-.
on tho
in,
baala
a poaaiblo
(1)
tho
or
ý1
_ .i
poaaiblo
olaaaification
forma
a noun
of nouns ylolda
can
appoar
fivo
cub-
claaaoa.
SubC1a3u 1
SubClnno
2
cako
(1)
a cako
a book
tho
tho
cako
book
SubC laaa
Clanc
butter
John
Bub".
a
tho
4
DubCilaza
"
tho
butt or
o al: ©a
books
-
the
cakes
the
books,
-
In. Arabic,
the
(2)
oporatoß
articlo
"
Iquator
..
..
in
a two-torn
ogctom:
The above classification
to on the Grounds
cam be objected
it implies
that
that
a belief
a form has the nano granit occurs.
value
C f. 'I oat an oCZ every
whorovor
natical
'There
day'
in ogg on your tio'.
and
j_ noro appropriate
fron
and_intorcotin6
c:laoaifioation,
point
a contrastive
for hcndlinS
the facts
to the dintribuof view,
relating
tion. of the articles
is that
of countable
vs. uncountable
this
to both IIlslish
boing applicablo
nouns,
and Arabic.
if.
Boo P. 11%
(2) Tho articlo
appoars in difforont
chapoc according
following
norphophonological
rulon:
1.
to
tho
initial
bogina. Boforo
nouns,
nuaorl r n, or adjoctivoc
(b,
following
the
ning with a single
consonant
n, f, k,
of
'
l'
it
4, x, g, H, 9, h, ?Iw,
an
o.
g.
y)
apponro
,
boot : lboot,
furun
maraD : larroD,
: lturun.
be 1-than words of tho abovo typos
aro, proo odod by a word
'ul',
the article
o. F,
ending in a consonant,
an
appoars
baab boot : barb ulboot.
tho
c. Phon a word begins
with a cluotor
of consoncntc,
is ono of the abovo conconanto, /..
first
nonbor
of union
0
..
0
A"A
ýr
und dorinito
zoro-torn
a countablo
Definit©
fora
Here again- it
the
possible
lowing
sr
Torsi.
noun can havo tho
Zero-fora
to
*.
Conbinod
with
followin&
numbor contracto
poooibilitioo:
Singular
Dui, ].
Plural
bzb
baib©on
bwa
lbc, ah
lbaab oon
lubwaab
is
forms
possible
to
in
they
which
classify
nouns uaoording
may appear
into
the
fol-
snub-olasDoc:
12
zero-fora
dofinito-fora
.3
bnab
baaboen
bwaab
9aJaa9a
lbaab
lbaaboen
idajaa9a
yuu1Of
lubwaab
cont.
taken the shape of 'lu',
the article
Hßaan : luHSaan, xzaano : luxz anno.
e. g. ktaab
: luktaab,
tho
of
consonant
2. a. With words beginning
with a singlo
(t, d, T D, s, z, B, Z, r, L, J) it taken tho shape
followin6
,
is
it
conpoundod
the
initial
the
consonant of
word
of
j
jao1
bans
glans,
ru
:
ßukkar : acukkknr,
e. g.
with,
rzujjaal.
2.
described
tho
type
a. are
under
b. 'hon words of
in
when
by
or
consonant,
a
a
word
onding
preceded
first
the
bogin
consonants,
of
with
a cluster
words
the
in
aontionod
consonants
of
which
one
member of
the
initial
taken
the
the
2.
shape
of
article
a.,
under
'u',
Tul9ot
u6iana,
o.
g.
consonrnt
with
a procoding
biHubb ussahar.
. fh,
tV
Lý
1 co©prioon
Sub-class
connicto
or uncountablo
proper
nouns;
nouns;
2
sub-clano
3 inoludoo
and cub-olaos
nouns.
intersecting
other
the
account
by
rizod
the
in
oountablo
sub-clan
five
case
classifications
o of
categories
of,
say,
collectives,
of
trastiv©
flow
point of
can
of
acsociability
with
two
uncountables,
both
in
distinguished
fron
countablen,
of
their
of
the
lack
of
the
subsequently
by
nodified
fi6lich
number
with
articles
the
sub-Glances
of
gajartoca
(big plural)
articles
fron
is
nouns:
and Arabic,
in
both
associability
nouns
of
the
a con-
terns
of
lcnguawoc,
the
will
their
countablon
and
boing
uncountablos
First
variation.
unnoditiod
throo
lativo),
? aQaar
described
be boat
to
Cf.
nouns.
distribution
the
into
characto-
an oppocad
Cajar (collective),,
bajara (sin
(dual),
Lajaraat (little
plural),
Howovor,
in
which
nunbor
countable
toko
would
by roacon
a scociability
be considered,
particles
with
and
nouns
adjuncts.
Singular
'The'
For
countablo3:
with
a consideration
is
countrblos
it
and within
the
table
after
noun
nocousary
sentence.
the
the
of
to
'The'
countable
anaociabiiity
so both
beyond
can colligato
noun
has
of
the
with
previously
'tho'
with
sentence
a counoccurred
a.
in
tho
cooaa
that
(contoxt
uttorcnco
to
bo tho
'tho'
in
mado to
formal
ucod
basic
(or
writ
thoro
The
above
of
typo
contextually
Implicit
(after
author'),
or
'the
the
state:
formal
In
tionally
eil
of
king,
a 1112'
door'
a
on the
on the
other,
'the
'the
and
would
apoasor
tailor
all
ntato=ont
goon
above
in
a
the
over
font)
far
on to
nay
can be not
only
a book
the
nano
.
Mithin
transpocablo
'tho
the
of
oxploit,
of a door
of the
:a
door
intondal
coiloca-
Dran©
' the
) 2111and
' Lho handle
as in
author
to
exceed the
partly
rs' a 212-11i'
unit,
necessary
handle
also
wo can
(in
known
may oo expressed
handle
but
example,
situationally
a collocational
analysis
one hand,
vn old
3ra^natically.
between
both
was Imown
the
door-handlo),
a
The descriptive
distinction
this
(frequently
(cf.
to
, o. E,;.
mentioning
govorn
terns,
fora
112 an a rule
of
the
and partly
known
individual
an in
explicit,
of
of
a particular
contextually
talk
is
Harry'.
notional
knowledge
that
'old
as
ctatomont
i.'hon roforenco
livod
c
villago
notional
noun
The tailor
villaßo.
tho
and rordor)
or
Thin
nontion').
a countablo
'Onco upon a Lino
small
for
individual
a particular
und hoaror
' ilirthor
of
with
r+
J
a book'.
say,
the
door-hcndlo',
: the
door-handlo'
scope of this
thocic,
,
", S
r
inadequacy
the
but
the notional
of
hao porhapa
definition
demcstrated.
been sufficiently
In
b
the explanation
the same tray,
the use of
of
'the'
Queen of England'
is more likely
'Queen
an
Elizabeth',
comparison with
tThe "Queen Elizaboth',
such texts
'Elizaboth
the First',
'the
Elizabeth'
'the
ins, say,
intralingual
from
first
the kind
between,
with
(the)
Queen,
may well
Government,
provide
in
lationships
an analysis
nouns
variant
with
Referree
with
both
'the'
another
the n-form
is made to the
is
in
what
noun
, contrasts
(atatablo
Faith'
the recognition
(the)
be
would
examples
explanation
r emonic naming
that
has not
in
association
yet
use in which
and the
associability
known as the
'generic
is stronger
The lion
than the tiger
A lion is stronger
than a tiger
than tigere.
Lions are stronger
up of re-
been undertaken.
with
'the'
zero-form
of
of
nouns regularly
The old notional
etc.
a satisfactory
The above use of
contrasts
Other
the article.
remains.
Similarly
of proper
as one member of a class
associated
ble
justify
would
the analysis
'the
and
'faith'
say,
terms)
in collocational
'Faith'
to be undertaken.
- still
regrettably
of
and so on, but
to appear
'the'
uses,
countable
is
in
with
of.
freoly
the plural.
a counta-
I'
In Arabic,
countabloo
caaeo,
individual
known to both
in what
2.
and
(b),
implicit
contextually
is
2.1?
Exaipleo
uuo'.
arc:
ktaab
gam yulraH
ulrmu? a11oP tu
....
ulwrazaara
in
Arabic
in
example
definite-fora
known (o);
? a? wa mun unnunur
aaad
The last
'generic
and
(a),
explicit
or oituationally
b) mbaareH ?areet
stagaalet
(or writer
byu6tuuo1 xayyaaT.
groom
aal
9a
ur
nni
aauu? ....
nuzol
1. a) kann Yii ru
mun ul? ayyn
c)
article
and hoarer
contextually
io known no the
in
to a particular
reference
opoakor
knowledge
whether
reader)
are uoed with
i. e. 1. with
comparable
the
the
is
freely
variant
the
with
Of.
plural.
1u? suud ?a?wa mun unnmuura
So far
is
no conflict
involved
between
English
and
Arabic.
'A'
with
countable©:
The use of a-fora
noun appears
countable
such as the
factor,
appearance
it
from
what
lies
of
singular
appearing
behind
in
can be described
negatively:
in
there
a-form
factors
in
considered
countabloo
a-forra(see
the notional
unless
in
nloo
a determining
connection
the-fora,
below).
statement
is
a singular
that
which
This
the
with
in
the atom
prevents
again
of
4,
6$
a countable
lean
reTero
at random out
to an individual
being
of
of ouch objects
a whole
individual
a particular
claoo
taken
when it
of a countable
more or
no ngainat
in uood in
ito
the-form.
hand,
On the other
the
type,
Thus
the-form
of
vie can
in
a countable
i. e. those
to frooly
the a-fora
having
bo'.
any both
in a practical
only
'The motor-car
has become very
the Teat quarter
of a century.
Arabic,
by sharp
definite
Thus a-Porn
in
in English
English,
but
where English
and zero-forms
during
popular
has no indefinite
contrast,
'at/tan'
to
corresponding
the
with
tho equational
'to
verb
(or
'A motor-car
the motor-car)
means of conveyance. '
but
of
sentences
the copulative
variant
to
corresponds
article
makes
use
requires
zero-form
the
of
an a-fora.
in Arabia
ctareet
sayyaara jdiide
(I bought a new car)
the-fora
to
and
ssayyara
(A
in:
free
is
motor-car
The use of
example
relates
variation
9a aaliyye
wasiile
a practical
the definite
not
of
la
only
the
to the
Singular
Saatar
means of conveynnco)
form
in Arabic
'ganoric
definite
use'
in
both
the
laut
(formally:
form with
they
in:
.Ar-
£%)0
Of.
.
form
plural
(rotor-cars
to
nouns
in
Arabic,
whether
dual,
or
plural,
tust
of
or
countable
be definite
la
ooafar
) but
conveyance)
Arnbio,
of
characteristic
general
a more
means
a practical
are
9amaliyye
waaiile
aaayyaaraat
that
nanoly,
uncountable,
when occurring
also
all
singular,
in
initial
position.
of
English
in
English
Arabic
and
two
languages
requires
so far
transfer
since
in
results
It is important
® But after
short
* They lived
lies
Herein
article.
a-form
relate
emerge from
to the fact
in Arabia,
to a zero-form
corresponds
no indefinite
that
implications
The contrastive
happy
of
the
a conflict
Arabic
zero-form
following
that
a-fora
Arabic
between
where
attested
to learn
foreign
time I began ....
the facto
having
the
Erg lieh
mistakes:
language.
life.
Uncountables
Uncountables
the-form
in
English
appear
in
zero-form
and
only.
Zero-fora:
Lead io heavier
History
The-fora
never
than
repeats
iron
itself
: She poured some water into a kettle
it on the fire;
half a minute later
was boiling.
and put
the water
Ap f'" A
The distribution
can be boat
in Arabic
tables
the uncountable
position
In 'subject
i. e. aaaooiated
with
in
an uncountable
the definite
with
with
the
to the
rotoPhoo
sentence.
moat be dofinite,
a pronominal
article,
dotinito
a following
unooun-
with
article
deoaribed
occupies
position',
or in construct
fix,
the definite
of
aufExaraploo
noun.
are:
1Kadiid
?axaff raun urrSaaS
(Iron is lighter
than lead)
Sefiitak btunwa ddunye
(Your health
ie sror.th all
cajaa9et
(Antar'a
in
this
like
uncountables
hive
we
,
reflected
a clear
appear
1n their
conflict
by an abundance
zero-torn
between
of attested
Engl ah
miatakeo
the following:
0 The poverty
The learning
0 If the luck
which
weird)
9antar
taaihuura
is renouned)
courage
Since English
tan e-tt
Arabic
and
the
are tranalationa
him from
prevented
in this university
helps me ...
of Arabic
lWur
mana9o yks
al
19ulum fii
ha ljaam9a
? iza 1HaZZ oaa9adni
diraasto
...
...
completing
...
his
studios.
.4Mn
ß. .i ;1
'predicate
In
tables
position'
in
appear
Examples
arises.
(coo pp. li
this
in
)
langungoo
in both
context,
tt.
to the
correcpondo
Now eineo
zero-fora
uncoun-
aentenceo),
oentenee
in English.
in
appear
uncountables
nominal
has been found
of a npminnl
complement
subjective
It
zero-form.
the predicate
that
(in
no problem
are:
SSaHHa na9aade
(Health is happiness)
ijusur
Hadiid
(The bridge
is
In
unless
doing
position'
in
there
so.
kitid
the
'object
(made of)
a determining
to the
appearance
appear
uncountablea
factor
factors
The determining
relates
)
iron
are of
same factors
of countables
in
which
mentioned
the-form
in
zero-form
provent©
them from
two kinds.
Rho Eirot
in connection
(seo
p. 04ý).
with
Exampleo
are:
(In a cooking recipe)
tcrayyet zubde w dwayyet
: butjiibi
bu TTanjara N ba9deen btuxulTi
ruzz butHuTTiihon
zzzubde
mag urruzz.
(You take some butter
and some rice and you put them in
)
the
a cooking pot, then you mix the butter
with
rice.
The second kind
the preceding
be definite
certain
of determining
With
verb.
regardless
verbs
(he encouraged),
like
of
come verbs
any other
Babb (he loved),
ata9mal
(ho used),
rotor
is
in Arabic
determining
kureh
connected
the object
factor.
(he hated),
uncountable
with
must
With
gajja9
nouns operating
ý
to tho©e verbs
aß object©
/%J
cannot
in
appear
indofinit©
form.
Thus we can have
Stara zubde
(Ho bought butter)
and
biHubb uzzubde
(He likes
butter)
but never
® biHubb zubde
In the
following
in
appear
cannot
all
examples
zero-form,
but
waa? el byukrah ulma9karo
Wael hates macaroni
cf.
the underlined
be in definite
uneountabloo
formt
na
twaa? el byaakol
ma9karoona
S7ael eats macaroni
every
kul
day)
yoom'
ul9aSiir
maysa butHubb
(Uaisa
1ikcs juice)
lxeer
ma.a bimayyex
(He doesn
nun uglarr
t distinguish
good
from
evil)
ddawle butdaj je9 ulfann
(The state
encourages
art)
s ta9ra1
ulkurub
(H e resorted
Since
in
English
the-Porn
in
no comparable
Arabic,
conflict
to lying)
uncountables
object
effect
gives
position,
do not
the preceding
on the object
rise
®I add the benefit
to
® She wants the eternal
necessarily
as it
to mistakes
the pleasure
love
is
verb
appear
having
the caso in
of the
following
typo:
A w. 'ý
ýj
Arabic:
reflect
which
bujma9 ulfaa? ide w ullazzo
'budda 1Hubb ul? abadi
Men
preceded
in
do appear
tables
in
form
definite
their
by prepooitiona,
almo©t
zero-fora
unoountobloo
all
Caoea whore uncoun-
cases.
be considered
will
in
appear
below.
Examploa
are:
Eý
rood Habatten =9
(Take two tablets
bxaaf
(I
IL
ul? kul
with mealo)
mini ulmaraD
am afraid
of
sickness)
gam, tuhrob
mun ulwaage9
(You are running
from reality)
the
following
mI
01
which
of distribution
fact
This
of
the article
for
accounts
mistakes:
have never worked in the teaching.
was going to burst with the laughter
'literal'
are
translation
of Arabic
bi tta911im
Yana 9umri maa ätaaalt
Xunt ran TuYY taue uDDuHuk
Exwplea
preceded
aside
is
of
uncountables
by prepositions
examples
made of
iron)
by an uncountable
like
are not
: lbaab
all
with
appearing
others
in
zero-forts
easy to find.
maßnuu9 mun Hadiid
Leaving
(the
seem to comprise
a verb
preposition
'big
a preceding
when
door
followed
in
an
r
h'
ýr
r
Exnxnplca are:
phrase.
adverbial
9aamalon bi
(Fie treated
ýj
luTuf
them with
kindness)
Haakaahon bi GaDab
(He spoke to them angrily)
The above
pattern
a productive
tempting
is
it
and
(abstract
bles
in
question
with
speaks
In
blea,
'fii'
as well
uncountableB
in
reproconto
spoken Arabic
educated
'big
and eondider
up a
of uneounta-
no a marker
of
such
(see p. S r1 ).
pattern
reflects
noun
of a nub-class
consisting
no problems
offers
be a loan
tart
thn,
nouns)
last
This
+ uncountable
auch cases by netting
to handle
sub-class
adverbial
bi
especially
of adverbs
sub-class
of
examples
from
English
comparable
accuracy',
to
Arabic,
examples
she worked
With
'particle'
and
sentences
as countables,
appear
in
and it
Ix'.
Mxy
45 suspected
as the
in English
(see pp.,
i'r)
zero-form.
taOliim
4orooppa fiiha
muTalaT
(Europe has co-education)
9ando zaka xaareq
(He has extraordinary
intelligence)
pattern
like:
the
deterAination'.
are:
dawaam ktiir
maa kaan fii
usaune
(There has not been much attendance
to
this
year)
uncountnExamplca
of
w" n
J
..
ti
oentencoa
correspond,
Type VII,
in which
an the
'tii'
ainco
in general,
to Englioh
nouns
uncountable
'particle'
and
appear
of
contenoen
in
-cro-form,
above example© show.
'particle'
and
'fii'
of
here,
1e no conflict
Thorn
©entences
corr©opond
aloo
to eenteneos
type:
the
Nominal
'to
--- verb
have'
+ noun
Example o are :
9ando lajaa9a
(He has moral
?adabi
courage)
labaaqa
9ando
bi
(He has tact
Here again
nouns
Hakyo
in his
speech)
arises
no conflict
in
appear
also
o
since
English
uncountable
zero-form.
Plurals
Only
nouns
countable
only
can appear
in
The zero-form
the
of
zero-form
appears
appearing
in
this
in
are
zero-form
of
the-form
unless
of
number
and the-form
a countable
a countable
fora
capable
in
there
in
the
is
(see pp. "lwsc').
and
in Engliah.
the plural
singular
variation
rezemblea
in
some reason
Exenple©
that
for
it
its
of the-form
He had bought us some presents
for Chriatrmo;
but
Christmas
came he could not find the
ents
when
are:
4 0' "/
He ate
the
all
Keep clear
Examples
the
of
zero-form
of
In the case of
tables
is
singular
two-term
for
for
of plural
both
(a definite-form
As is
in
countables
other
'subject
noun,
with
there
is
a zero-form
English
system
the
system
and a the-form
uncountables,
reference
of Arabic
to
the distribution
countable
the position
nouns
occupied
the sentence.
position',
whether
the
to a
in
nouns,
a two-term
in
Arabic).
the case with
described
In
nouns
ooun-
as opposed
countable
singular
and definite-forms
zero-forms
best
countable
and Arabic:
for
between
correspondence
nouns,
plural
with
article
'
words.
into
we have a three-term
Arabic
countable
English
the
the use of
a one-to-one
system
-32
are:
English
of
case
case
the-
except
rropollorn
For whereas
Arabic.
and
given
to
difficult
jut
are sometimes
to result a
others according
'Thoughts
'We judge
there
he van
apple
singular
a countable,
or plural,
as well
rust
as any
be definite,
e. g.
butsakker
ddakakiin
yoom uljum9a bi auuriyya
(Shops are cloned on Friday
in Syria)
aainamaat man btu9roD 4aflaam mniiHa bu 99eof
(Cinemas do not show good films
in the sunraar)
of
is
by
A 0" P
Here wo have a cano of conflict
in
appear
countabies
® The flats
thin
to the following
rise
gives
conflict
in
zero-form
plural
This
context.
miotnkoo:
London.
in
expensive
are
English
since
in our cocioty.
0 The wives are well troated
to
their
joy
The
parento.
a
are
children
.3
'predicate
In
complement,
in
no conflict
sentences)
in zero-form
(predicate,
contexts
and subjective
in
in both
the cane of
the case of Englidz).
are :
Examples
alaadi
rjaal
(my children
are
lja: 7aa? oz ? lam
(The prizes
are
In
'object
aPPO uin
both
unless
from
appearing
comparable
Zero-fora:
yr kutub
books)
and
pens
hoäevor,
do°inito
in
is
this
to those
(pP"1,61tee
"
men)
position'#
there
forn
nouno
nominal
nouns appear
countable
in comparable
languages
Arabic;
position'
plural
since
occurs
(in
plural
12"1:
r-i 3-.
a determining
factor
form.
considered
Exampleo
countable
They appear
which
The determining
itaru
? aoliHa
(They bought wenpono)
2cuobu ?aSdigan?
(They
won Prion3o)
in
-oro-
prevents
factors
in aonneot. on vrith
aro :
noiro
them
are
uncountable
"1.
No conflict
occurs
D-.3£inito-form:
a.
hero.
hum
kunt bi
lnna
?jiit
r
T,
magi.
london dtaroot
la 66area jubt
hridnayn
ulhadnayn
(flion
I rrao in London I bought
prononto
I brought
an3 when I oame to Dq=oouo
the prononto
with rio)
b.
?ubni blTlabb ulk-utul
My son 1ik: c., 3 books)
oozi byi1 rah uLi2Plnat
'it huaba.
haton pzrtion)
INo conflict
is
arioeo
u3od in the
definite-Pony
does occur
conflict
English
unlike
objects,
17horo the plurrl
its
in
after
Attested
the plural
verbs
requiring
Where the verb
as to the associability
implication
mistakes
countablo
But
33eond occurrence.
(b) where
under
in definite-form
appears
object.
(')
un3or
of
reflecting
countable
definite
has no comparable
the
article
this
type
the
i'ocque.
with
the
of conflict
are:
A People
0 Moslems
love
perform
When prdceded
behave
like
the dogs in England.
the
prayers
by prepositions,
uncountablee,
i. e.
they
e. g.
mnaaaod nooTaat bi lmuHaaDaraat
(tile take notes in lectures)
in
plural
countebleo
appear
in definite
fora,
aý
ýUý
luklaab
bixaai
mun
yawner
(Yacaer
in afraid
of dogs)
bu
Tiuro?
buddna
nubHa©
man.
(Pie don not want to discuss
English
Since
tan
countabloo/nppeor
plural
(unless
by prepositions
when preceded
tested
this
reflecting
mistakes
there
in
zero-form
is
a determining
the two languages.
between
we have a conflict
factor),
means)
At-
include:
conflict
(pra
(sic)
the
is
full
0 The mosques
prayers
5 era
with
(congregation)
is used here for praying
people
Arabic
in
books.
the
is
found
0 ....
not
rhich
is used by the great trajority
0 English
of the politicians
In
English
'fit'
and
of
sentences
'to
verb
have',
both
in
nouns
since
context.
both
L'oreover,
forms
accompanying
Examples
sentences,
Type VII
singular
appear
as uncountables)
etc.
'particle'
in
Guth
to
zero-form
as
'ktiir'
no probletro
zero-form
deal
(many),
of
lexical
(no well
countable©
in
show a great
the
with
and cause
appear
to
correspond
sentences
and plural
languages
they
or
rhich
in
this
with
similarity
gwayyet
(a
fesr),
are:
V&
sawaare9
ktiir
fii
bi
muZharaat
ulbalad
(There are
demonstrations
in
the
streets
ºany
9undi Iwayyet mulaafaZaat
buddi ?ullak
(I have a few remarks to tell
you
(1)
Of., however,
the politicians
of tir
city)
9aleehon
'English
is used by the great majority
(of this country).
See also below.
of
(1)
"y
-
'.
..
Sandi ?axbaar San ?axuuk
(I
have news about your brother)
Adiunatn
When countable©
'a'
and
'the'
head-word
to distinguish
in Arabic,
are otherwise
ghat
i. e.
structures
with
assciated
comparable
article
structures
belong
to
the colligation
we consider
Adjective
obtain
conatructiona
dit-
we have a radical
whose constituents
Thus if
T oun ---
is
the
with
of the definite
distribution
cord-classes.
different
not
na a Clod any more.
recognized
the fire.
contexts
as the different
identical
the whole phrase,,
with
is not
dreads
In comparable
(see pp"4 f"),
the articles
e. g.
The great Ian
A burnt child
serves
by an adjunct,
are modified
colligate
only,
ference,
Countnbleo_
with
according
the noun or with
both
to whether
the article
the noun and the
Of.
adjective.
1. lvalad
uhazzab
(The boy
is
polite)
2. ly. ad lumhazzab
(the polite
boy)
The first
example
is
the
second,
a noun phrase
the
article
appears
with
(a
a senteze e
nominal
which
both
differs
from
senterc e);
Englich
the head and with
the
in
that
adjunct
go 0- 1
of
there is
type,
is
which
concord
a major
Adjuncts
As is
in English
tables
to
the case with
the whole
governed
same rules
here,
nized
there
from
appearing
ric,
as opposed
modified
adjunct
the article
is
uncoun-
simple
above are recog-
in
zero-form
by
this
This
form.
to the particular
differs
an adjunct
a determining
is
Cast iron
contains
influence
Foreign
Arabic
distinguished
in
+ uncountable
The countablea
.
of
the case of
as in
belongs
article
too.
Adlunct
form unless
adjuncts,
The types
and plurals.
tables
the
and the distribution
phrase,
by the
with
when uncoun-
countablea,
singular
appear
'lurnlo
nrd
otmtabloa
im
with
adjective,
Arabic.
and
English
between
no number
categories
the noun and the
between
difference
the noun-adjjative
of
(among such other
) in definiteness
and gender
then,
In phrneea,
the noun phrase.
more
finds
factor
1hich
in
muht be definite
terra,
in notional
this
this
stun tnrbiyet
than school
both
context,
biHa?? e? ulmu9jizaat
tta9aawan u1iuxleS
(Sincere
co-operation
achieves miracles)
lbeetiyye
ttarbiye
?aha=
(Home education
is better
e. g.
iron.
case since
in
them
to the gene-
use correoponda
sense,
zero-
prevents
than rallenble
carbon
its
wny peacefully.
diametrically
and uncountable
in
appear
u1zmdrase
education)
e. g.
ýý
i
Thin
difference
giveß
to iniatnkeo
rioo
0 The great poverty
made him work very
love.
8 She wants the eternal
Adjunct
Uncountablea
known to the
the uncountable)
thing
the
the-form
quantity
and hearer
speaker
implicitly,
explicitly,
in
appear
oanple,
( i. e.
of the uncountable
illustration
Examples
by an adjunct
modified
(aio)
hardly
the-fornt
is made to a particular
when reference
reader)
in
+ uncountable
tho typo:
of
or
denoted
by
(writer
and
(coo pp. wi. (r)
or aituationally
are:
but
We found sorge chocolate,
the
the
dog
stale
so we gave
(contextually
ourselves
rest
further
mention)
moot of
chocolate
explicit
it
was stale;
and ate the
; context
of
swells talking
Mexico):
in Ancient
of human sacrifices
the natt ol
life,
festivities,
The public
all turned
(contextually
horrible
implicit)
this
fantastically
act'
on
The only
is
its
that
the article
adjunct.
appears
The first
la? eena cwayyet
manzuu9.
lbaa? i.
in comparable
conflict
to
both
with
example
cukalaaTa
contexts
in Arabic
the uncountable
tansy be translated
laaken
9aTeena ifukalaaTa
(...
in
thus
tau9Zamha kann
awa++
31
lkalb
u ?akalna
and
:
a
9.
ýý
following
Uncountnblen
with
What applied
to uncountablc%
when they
equally
applies
io uncountablen
in
of
in
the-form
zero-form
nouns
in general
by adjectives
in post-nominal
lowing
The resulting
or
indefinite
exhibits
in
according
terms
eaten be modified
but
can be definite
construction
to the concordial
behaviour
of definiteness-indefiniteness.
2. Lajaa9et
uljundi
/
Lcajna9a
taba9 uljundi
3. Zajan9et
jundi
flanking
definite.
it
Or.
taba9
and are all
only
by, a fol.
also
Ur1jan9a
variation,
on
not
/
free
I
for
us is,
reached
position,
In 1 and 2 the constructions
in
are:
9antar
1. Eajaa9at
when
in the pot.
tea left
and she made coffee
literature
The Anglo-Saxon
which
the whole, the work of clerka.
noun.
and the-form
are:
There was only one cup of
took the tea that
was loft,
herself.
In Arabic,
That
?
tea with milk
Do you like
She has power of persuation.
Examples
by adjunoto.
zero-form
Exaiaplea
by aajuno*a
when preoeded
are follovrod
can appear
by ad junta.
followed
nd1unoto
9antar
the
/
symbol
The first
are
conotruction
^r
I
.iJ
1 is
in
definite
because
noun.
The firnt
a proper
is
the
whole
It
construction
will
be noticed
(the
definite
be
can
which
Thus although
yet
the construction
subject
the
position.
noun md
'indefinite'.
the modified
that
also
second constructions
'taba9'
form
the
case
definite
also
by an indefinite
is modified
in
2 is
noun.
i. e. can occupy
definite,
3 the uncountable
In
indefinite,
1 and 2 in
uncountablcjin
as a whole
a definite
by
in modified
in
construction
is
the modifier
because
the uncountable
uncountable
in 1 and 2),
moat be used between
in
the noun
the
modifier.
and
The first
occur
with
in which
I's}
Since
noun in
either
.
either
to the
is
the modifier
the
article
does
h ngungo no problem
here.
arises
So far,
post
to correspond
However,
nominal
a post-nominal
of
a noun modified
adjuncts
to pre-nominal
a post-nominal
to
1A
in English
with
noun suffixed
a proper
found
of construction
construction
genitive
not
part
1 corresponds
adjunct
in English
by a clause
in Arabic
adjuncts
in Arabic
in exemplified
or a relative
have been
in English.
that
corresponds
by the case
(1)
both
piece,
to a sentern e reduced
clause in this sense in equivalent
to the status
of a sentcme
A relative
element.
in
piece
distinguished
by the fact
that it is introduced
by the
relative
tyallit,
ATP.
I
vi
of which
to a relntivo
correspond
it
indefinite
the noun is
without
in modified
'yalli',
the relntive
clnuac
What
in Englith.
by a clauco
juxtaposed
e. g.
kul 1umHaTTaat
buddi raa&yo yjiib
(I want a radio that reaeiv©o all otationa)
Englith
clause
requiroS
pronoun
a relative
to the noun in
auch context
for
the following
accounts
vergence
to link
the relative
).
(oee pp. %iytt.
mistaken
This
di.
where no relative©
have been used:
e Language
tý .. or if
® We have
is
a link
I met foreignerrs
have
inn y poets
Mien the antecedent
tine
pronoun
antecedent
the
This
foam of the relative
against
the
personal
Illy-See
definite,
the modifying
in comparable
which
in
hoirver,
in En ich
piece
to Fhglish
invariable
the rolnto
except
for
in Arabic
no
the
(©eo p. %ii )
Determiners
Thq'tozms MY, your,
to
noun is
of forms
a variety
Genitive
can't
speak Arabic.
the Baure taste.
acust be used to link
noun.
people.
associates
definite
in
article
pronouns
Pronouns
in
hin,
formlý
pooc
her,
ito,
distribution
fey
have
our, thoir,
and are
been
given
are parallel
clone
to
different
the
names
doO>Si
each of
'Genitive
term
one aide
emphasized
which
of
their
in a terminological
Determiners'
'Possessive
Pronouns (conjoint
(3)
(2)
'Genitive
Articles'.
Determiners',
and
between
'Genitive'
The term
like
pattern
which
they
/
my
your
determiners,
form
(1)
form)',
'Possessive
the fact
stressec
like
more specifically
a mutually
compromise
them to the personal
'Determiners'
The tern
pronouns.
relates
The
properties.
they
urticloo,
with
Of.
system.
exclusive
that
the apple
/ an apple
the my apple
0a his friend.
has a comparable
Arabic
in
They are comparable
the
the definite
with
sive
between
relations
the
taining
within
These
pronominal
mentioned
forms
of
the
there,
the
terms
is
they
exactly
the
pronouns
with
a preceding
verb
or
tive
determiners
with
a preceding
particle,
range
(met
a system
of
him,
as well
noun.
Grammar,
'A
New-English
Sweet,
Henry
75.
P.
Press,
uxford,
Clarendon
68.
(Palmer,
p.
op. cit.,
112
p.
cit.,
op.
Strang,
exclu-
with
which
those
to
on pageutt
the
nominal
etc.
),
in
as that
Exzu plop
Logical
ob-
pronouns.
personal
tabulated
been
cutfixec.
are mutually
parallel
independent
have
cover
of pronominal
and form
of
suffixes
personal
sense that
article,
system
they
closed-class
An
"
ebcplütt
association
of
the
geni-
are:
kntorical',
and1ii:
.40. !1
i ýý
talifooni
( my tolphono)
zaarni
(he vioited
suutak
buddi
(I
to
ace you)
grant
the3e
Since
the
whereas
of
Eaglinh
arises
at
(ao well
no verbs
with
a following
ktaab-i
book ti
in
but
that
the noun-phrase.
also
nouns'
(1)
and the genitive
by the fact
the previous
learning
ease
problem,
0
The articles
torized
a pimple
Of.
level.
an elementary
dotorminero'
noun,
a minor
and constitutes
and
and partioleo)
'Genitive
corresponding
colligate
conflict
though
partially
are bound forma
auttixeo
pronominal
to nouns,
are pootfixed
of
me)
ones in
they
can function
The remaining
that
as head-trordc.
and can be divided
they
determiners
only
determiners
function
not
They may be called
into
three
are eharae-
mutually
no ndjuneto
differ
only
from
an adjuneta
'determiner-proexoluoive
groups.
'buddak',
like
The forms 'buddi'
pattern
verbs
etc.
,
from theca in that they do not appear with
but differ
that charateri:
the affixes
1oroovor,
they
o verbs.
raunt always appear with pronominal
suffixes,
and in
'bald-'
this respect
could be abstracted
no a bound for",..
1»v
dotorminor-pronotma
Vnrinblo
This
contains
claaa
rued
(singular
number
in
appearing
'deiatics'
below).
tion
of
these
Z"
AdJuncts
terms
of
the verb
na with
to
nub-oluoo
fora
plural
the
when
labelled
'thin'
(ace
initiators
distribu-
characteristic
are:
This book is interesting
These books are interesting
Heads
2.
Thin
All
is
not
these
enough
are not
A corresponding
with
c6ntraats
though
the
certain
enough
ey3tern of demonstratives
English
general
demonstratives
in Arabic
in Many respects,
chsracteristico
are
shared
between
is
the doublo
two systems.
The most important
role
performed
house
by demonstratives,
in noun-phraaeo,
adjuncts
is
coffin
comfortable),
as in,
chraoterintic
which
can function
haada iboot
or pronominally
nuriiH
as heads,
,
'th ono'.
'thooo',
by noun-phrase
illustrating
forma
tho head in
The two mernbern are
corresponding
Examples
adjunoto
Thio
position.
can be preceded
Both meaberrs
among noun-phraoa
with
'denonatratives'.
their
and
charaota-
as Well
and plural),
subject
or
'that'
alone
behaviour
concordial
oxhibit3
it
that
by the faut
and is
two netibora
only
as
(thlo
as in
I
r r"
-.
haada
(thin
mriiH
denonatrativ©a
In
in
Arabic.
Do onntrativoo
fora
In tho
und,
nuabor
can bo tabulated,
torah
of
which
Tho
variation.
gondor
(Hasculino
haad/haada
(thin;
hadank
cthat j
tFeainino
hayy/haadi
(this);
hadiik
(that)
hatool
(thooo)
The forno
variant
haad thawlaj
with
as adjuncts
atrutivea
oxhibit
syctoin
in Arabic
nouns.
; huüunk
(thooo)
(ha.adi) , und hadool
'ha'
particlo
uro
hhhcn function-
Cf.
oj? aiaan
? cHriatn
is bettor)
of Arabic
A characteristic
by II1gllsh
hayy
,
an invariable
bofore
haada lbarnaai
ha lbarnaamoj
(This
progra=o
shared
tho
moro about
an follower
plural
freely
first,
But
a nyntoi
oingular,
3inSular(
ing
coarortablo),
doaonstrativoo
ctn
precede
doaonutratines
is tho
or follow
fact
which is
that
thoir
all
honda.
not
do=onThue
hzmda 1walad nal9uun
(This boy is naughty)
iB frooly
lwalad
varlunt
hawia
with
na3.9uun.
in
A more important
charactoriatic
definite
domonstrativoo
with a
of Arabic
the co111gability
noun
or indefinite
w rý .4
ýf
so that
two diriorcnt
wh©thor
tho noun. in
tho dofinito
with
tho
tho
constructions
tho
dofinito
od with
a noun aacooiatod
function
is
to
according
aaoooiat
Thus with
thoy
articlo
construction
rosultinS
is
colligation
or not.
articlo
rooult
an adjuncts
a noun-phrano,
and
o. s.
hand a lukt aab
ithi n book)
h, ýiceo 1 lu wlaad
(th©3© boys)
When colligating
nominal
haada
(This
kt aab
is a book)
hadunk
(Thong
Hariir
zero silk)
is
It
of
Arabic
The
first
outstnndin6
demonstratives
the
system
with
former,
the
function
an adjuncts.
toaturos,
it
will
occurs
encounter
when both
to
possiblo
two
typos
do not
form
may follow
of
a deaonstrativo
a
precede,
that
olonontary
and the
conflict
but
Given
predict
very
or
o. S.
the
rolato
article
when they
in
of
to
definite
they
it;
a acntonco,
points
and that
with
can co-occur
contrastive
most
unlike
exclusive
heads
the
in
construction
roculting
and Arabic
latter,
the
that
mutually
their
that
clear
3iglish
between
fact
and tho
heida
noun Choy aro pro-
an indofinite
with
thocp
speakers
nistnkon.
definite
r r""ý
r+. vN
prooodo
articlo
tho
0 Thin
an in,
a noun,
watch in
whon dononntrativoo
Tho noconci occurs
0 Tho
thin
picturo
because they
there
I! oi born
group.
ouch,
come, Buch,
dot orninor
share the
no number variation.
chaructoricsticn,
any,
pronouno
either,
are
and what.
A. Fyn bed is
adjunct
uro mutually
tall,
both,
half).
of those
spite
this
zany,
F,roupod
of
and of
genoral
the
among items
sub-claac
most,
are:
tiuch,
noithor,
Of.
better
function,
oxclusivo
to
ovary,
than
his
Each member brought
method in good.
-Zither
than
is. This ono is bottor
I Savo two to Dach.
liko
1 don't
olthor.
In
noun-phrase
distinctions
finer
am
characteristics
in the
But in
belonging
enough,
pronouns'
genoral
as heads and adjuncts
functioning
the
nice.
' Invariab1o
Forma t oraod
together
In
dot orninor
Invariable
of
aro uuod post-
as in,
nominally,
having
slow.
thooo
with
tho
no bod.
contribution.
nny I'vo
itoaa,
artioloo
Thuc wo can havo
ovor
with
coon.
Como oxcoptionc,
and tho
initiators
e
The good eating
applon.
Some good eating
apples.
Any good eating
applen.
but
not
® The each good eating
apples.
0A Bone good eating
apples.
'such'
'Many',
the
with
indefinite
the
and 'what'
'a'/'an',
article
definite
are not
'any',
with
are
'more',
singular
can aloo
other
'enough',
by heating
distinctions
'cost',
and plural
items.
'such',
and 'what'
Cf.
constructions.
only
with
we take
'either',
non-plural
are
'every',
constructions,
Thus
colligate
the
baby.
B. Any errors
that appear will
be called
to your
Such clothes
as we had were not appropriate.
tripe
'Each',
appear
it.
among these
A. Any mechanic could repair
that.
Suuch an arrangement
was neceaaary.
I don't
know what name they've
given
What
with
Cf.
article.
still
cxclucivo
and 'neither'
Many a good wine has been ruined
house 1
What a pretty
I've never he4rd of such a case.
There
=utually
relatively
'auch',
attention.
uninteresting.
'neither'
e. g.
I spoke to each person separately.
You can take either
book.
He called
at ever -house in the street.
colligate
A
4. ".4 q
' lfany'
colligatoa
tho
isn't
-rhoro
Rnotnor
tno
tot.
O. S.
us.
nia.
itonn
all
'Much'
©xcopt
icn
,%
much wood in tho
kind
oui. y in
poßitivo
'I'vo
Got
'I haven't
-
oolliCato
with
colliSatas
only
with
building,.
is
that
conutructiona,
noGativo
u silo'
'rho two
pattorn.
1 COMO'
affiriativoly
cny'
occurs
in
annworo,
some,
got any
in
function
limitation
of
corrosponding
both
Th11 c ),
and
Group,
oonctruotionc
o. 6.
uncountablon,
occurs
non-plural
countablo
uinGular
plural
to distrust
WILL nice
5ho has min reasons
Uoorgo' c minnt' friends
tiitriin.
with
an hao trial
'Manya
howovor,
only
to
rolution
the
two
q octionn,
'Havo you cot oomo ?'
'Havo you Got any ?'
itoau
Corroapondins
determiner
number
of
pronouns,
rofornco
noun
with
to
the
ti4nich they
Jrabic
diffor
differences
cnd their
items
4th
the
in
different
definite
collignto
trog
being
in
Ea&Usht
article,
und its
the
nunbor
rointivo
to
respect
colligational
ariablo
the
pocaibilitios
of
the
position.
head-
"'U a"
." .ý
7 ay (any/noithor),
Thouo it o=o aro:
(onou&h),
(m=y/
ktttr
twayyot (Goao), j1t
It
in
to
of
thouo
o about
thou.
bchaviour
tho
gonorali:
appoar
in. foiinino
L-tiir©
(many aasazino3)
aro thoso
ba9D
(Como)
%hilo
(Cf.
F'urLhcr=oro,
their
uutub
dl ktiir
lztiir
(I
thoro
itma
that
it
ba9D unman
undorßtood
=oat
' ý.tilr'
hor
najaHu
occur
only
can
ful=
road a=y
(==y
an adjuncts,
9aloana
collisato
nowt of the
-tar
and ? al,
not).
both
dofinito
(ho has
(moat
pooplo
u
in
cmoko)
prooodo
quoution
can procodo
have nnny picturon);
boolm) .
mau
t' ulba9D
2oktar
itona
n
an indofinito
with
with
as hoc
both
uo and como did
unnaaa bidax
Suwur (I
iajal1tut
bu 1full
function,
9aado na,liallaat
c ktiir
can.
(of*
yalli
and ? acct cr colligate
th. ilo
difficult
in
forms
plural
on
"
most of thou
und ? o1tar
Further=oro,
9
ox=)
(Cf.
nouns.
indorinito
snd
(Cý.
; ktilriin
whilo
ba9D, ? ay,
an in
(many/auch)
ft,iisuu (Sono pooplo
Toro placoc;
/, rabio
tho
and Itiir
und as adjuncta.
noun,
out that
as groll
ulio passoll
HHoroovcr,
(uouo),
ba9D
G4omany difforono
most of them aro invariablo,
Thus u iilo
i ranyo
l,
,
(sorio) , lay (that) .
bo pointod
should
(core/zioot),
? iLltur
muoh),
(onoh)
kul
cnd
or
follow
? aroot
M"
ýr
it
Finally,
rroupc
according
plural,
or both
Thus
poaaiblo
to
ithothcr
do) ; kul
min, hulliyyot
bukra
(I
havo
kitaaýyo,
and plural
of
to
twayyot,
faculty
tiilm
of
arto
tox orrow)
Cf.
A. 9undi ? ukul kircayo
(I havo onouEýi food)
guayyot wars?
9uriint
(Givo no soap papor)
? ay Suura buddak
(which
picturo
tt
B.
aroona
(wo bou
has
many aootinSc
constructions.
?
do you
went
kraut ki ra yo
t onou&i oardn)
baa9u gwayyot da va1iib.
(They sold Bono tyros)
7)
a: ino) .
with
firnt
tar
.:
?
Tuilaob
? ujtisiaa9aat
colliSato
on
(cono
9undi
cud lay
book
plural
fullauot
Z11'ikaut
aodicino);
attend
with
colli&ato
lnr
nln
In Como n
it
road
ul? aadaab
(The
uTTubb
faculty
aonctruotiono.
(oaoh ono hnn hin
(I
and ktiir
L-ulliyyot
bankrupt);
ainzlur,
with
ntö only with
.,
byunta9 (cny/otthor
W*11majallo
o. g. ba9D U
conctructiofa,
collignto
wat iod na9o ktuabo
bi
throo
into
than
Ft1
colliF
rnd
lml,
ba9D, ? aktar,
th4. n the
thoy
o. S. ? ay ktaub
book) ; ? arooto
were
to divido
and plural
sinGular
? ay,
constzuotionn,
will
is
more
students
ktiiro
,
singalar
:r
ai.
but ThDDof
? ay n yyuaraut
(1Wr'hichcars do you profor
inplioätiono
Contrastivo
of the
In view
items
Arabic
determiner
the
and
pronouns,
it
find
ktilr
nrlly
to
it csc
'I
hear
haven't
Tho positional
can preeedo
which
to
Fag11sh
thoir
the
the
of
to
possible
BaGlich
learning
prodict
botwocn
conflict
tho
IIi
lieh
M61iah
'I
got any',
chars ctoristics
thoir
ito=n
ucol
of Arabio
prononi.
can Savo you aono'.
of
hozdc,
itoas,
corrosponding
as adjuncts
npoakoru
ziany nativo
or ro-d
or follow
only
cn occur
oxcoptod),
puzzling
in, oay,
behaviour
of the
iteac.
Sino o most Arabic
and
in
from
resulting
Arabic
(ba9D
the
with
it
of behaviour
diversity
groat
compared
difficulties
7
7)
ktiir
and
7c tar,
when trenotorrod
cacao
niutakos
liko:
QI have books many.
0 He has children
more.
Itoroov©r,
is
'auch'
to
both,
dcnco
not
sinco
tho
paralleloll
wo have a conflict
of attoat©d
nistakoß
distinction
in
botwoon
'ktiir'
AArabic,
which
liko
0 He has many money.
01 have seen much countries.
in rofloctod
tho
following:
'many'
and
corrosponding
by on abun-
0-1
.JM.
Wi
Finally,
? aittcr)
co1116ato
can
of
bohaviour
conflicting
O lost the
0 Some the
the
and two of the
thorn directly,
' little'
91
loan'
I leant'
tho
was in the
nintakoo
only
in
initiators,
'loan'
and
dofinito
indofinito
.
'leant'
occur
with
thou&h
rz'ticlo,
articlo;
uncountablon,
indofinito
articlo.
All
conctructionn
nuthora'
colli&atit6
with
such
f'owont' ,
,'
' ordinal
tho
initiatint3
aboonco,
'fewer'
'ono'
DiG1ish
can colligato
colligating
thron
an
'the
'littlo',
thich
ccunot
follow
tho
little
food
houuo was stolen'.
'
tho
and
ono'
nu=oraln
cbovo
,'
ISar&incl bctuoon tho3o
conctructionc.
plural
rouar'
,'
tho
with
in
article
'Fold'
,
and with
oxciusivo
with
'fowl,
enci the
' littlo'
in
noun-phraao
in, their
constructions;
countablos,
dofinito
occur
,'
in. singular
nutuolly
there
loast'
tones,
Of theses,
singular
and,
Hero bolons
noun-phraao.
appoar
articlo,
for
acoounto
no born
its
in that
others
articles
following
'loss',
area
of detorminor-pronouns
group
from tho
differs
only
this
dorinito
)611nh
chono to study Ei&lioh.
difficult
to ro,.
are
students
writers
The third
the
tho
with
Choir
whilo
typo:
tho
with
noun,
oxclunivo
in
(bo. D, ? ay,
itona
Arabio
a dcftalto
with
nutua11y
aro
countorparto
tho
cono of tho
Dino
foucst'
i.
{
r
.
last
and tho
'Sonitivo
is
group
(coo
dot orninorc'
torn
(oxcopt
'both'),
(tho
covoral
houcoc
with
tho
liko
' oovoral'
cinco
tho
along
indofinito
colligatoc
and tho
p. wii)
and raroly
it
with
road
dofinito
all
tho
o initia-
noun-phrao
tho
woro
with
urticlo
clocod)
but
,
novor
artiolo.
Ordinal
numoral s (first,
ci=bora
of this
cocond,
Dub-claDo
but
oto. ) bohavo
third,
can appoar
with
a prooociin
e. 6.
o.rticlo,
Tho
Tile
first
first
(parson)
odit ion
to coo
uau corvod
wan in 1878.
first.
howovor,
Cf.,
First
First
the
and in
Thoro'
come firdt
corvod.
1878.
odition,
plural,
o no
Tho follotrir
functions
and the
in rolation
clans
tino
for
ox=ploz
positional
to tho
socond
chota.
illuotrato
tho
characteristics
articles
and tho
c4 junct
of
and hotsd
the
noun-phrano
tiators.
thoy saw uan uuitablo.
Ono (dross)
Half the Sow (rooms) available
Sacod duo north.
cub-
ini-
fr
+. ýJ J
to tho
Corrooponding
are
the
following
Digl. iah
(row)
71oul
They
nuuoraln.
allil
share
,
their
with
and differ
characteristics
curtain
,7
(little)
in
roopocto.
other
thoir
Lilo
the
und the
counterparts
Group of dotorninor-pronouno
forms:
Arabic
(ono)
waof; od/woHdo
third
definite
which
EaSllah
to
'all'
1iuh
F
cnn colliato
by 'ku11',
und can be procodod
article
correspond
thoy
countorpartu,
'half',
und
with
'nuca'
Exaplou
nro:
lu? laal
1? aSdiqaa?
yal li bu? yu xnanuu
(The few friends
betrayed
hin)
loft
ýrubto
: zaay ul? aliil
cahharni
yalli
(The little
tea I drank kept no awa o)
luktaab
ulwaaHod
yalli
(The only (one) book I
9andi Daa9
have wau lost)
lu? laal yalli
kucubhon nZarafu
ullooraat
the few pounds he earned were spent).
Icull
(All
'? nliil'
und
'waaHod'
like
EaSlish
'little'
and
they
follow
hca%i.
their
occur
'one'
In
but
t3lnGular
differ
constructions
sinoo
positionally,
C f.
9=do wa?t ? aliil
0 He han time little.
.
-tara
ktacb
0 Ho bought
'? laal',
a plural
waaHoci
book ono
which
construction
In Itself
like
a plural
Ito
pliuh
fora,
colligatoo
counterpart
'fowl
with
,
but
.1
W
lino
'? aliil'
r
' warA1od'
und
? aSdigaa?
0 Sriendu
71aa1
row
Ao to the
other
obtaining
ý1
botwoon
dirrors
the
nunoralo,
that
und tho
C f.
pouitionully.
ayntnuatio
hoad-word
rolationc
can bo cun: yurizod
as follows:
' racHod'
in dorinit
and 'tnoon'
moss
follow
or indofinit
tho
noun and aGroo with
©noco, as wolf
an in
Condor,
lta. h zaaHod
(ono book)
luktt anb o en uttnoon
(tho tim book)
madras o waHd o
(ono school)
Fron
noun mat
'tlaato'
'9atra'
to
bo plural,
(thron
to ton)
tho
Pollowinr
o. ß.
tsnt ? la=
(throo pans)
9a Ir
(tea
tuffucHaat
apples)
Fron
'? ida9
'
must b© ainSular,
9i poriin
(twenty
kt aab
books)
(olovon)
o. G.
and on,
tho
following
noninal
it
o. G.
. 1.
tuffaaHa
mist
(a hundred
apploo)
loora
Ulf
(u, thousiand
tho
following
last
pounds)
In in. contrast
This
procodo
-- 1I
noun
'ono'
'tw'o'
from
constitutor
many attootod
mistacoo
the
font
and
a conflict
of
ulioro
nouns
bo plural.
Tho
for
a groat
typo:
ai1o.
or indofinitanon
in
in. Arabic
nunorul
numora1a
and accounts
an to d©finitonoca
noun und the
2,
must
following
tho
all
'tuo';
onwards
© Ho bought sixty
o3.
0 Wo travollod
a hundrod
Aroo
thoro 1.
EaSlinh
including
nunorlan
foaturo
to
oub joat
a botwocn
to1lowin
to the
conditions:
1. Both
kutub
nunorc1
und noun can bo indofinit
books; ) , tlat
(ton
2. Iliion tho
namoral
articlo
colliGatos
woes. u19a&r kutub
v`ui't
..
3.1ý.ion the
very
Suww
(thron
pioturoß)
pros oclo, tho
noun,
tho dofinit
only
nuweral
Sroqucnt,
(I
follows
both
tho
nu moral,
article,
o. G* uoen
the
ton
?)
ton
saw tho twenty
the
numeral
the
pons
with
(Where are the
Doct
u19ugriin
o, o. 6.9atr
iultla
noun,
ul9ztra
o
o. G.
books) ;
Guests) .
which
and noun
.
is
not
uppoar
(whoro
Stith
are
,
aý
a
+.
lion
Fioroin
only
procodo
tine
1rlth
tho
tho
1
a point
of
noun in
ma&linn,
conriiat,
phraoo,
wholo
ainco
and tno
appoars
artivlo,
coilira.
bororo
only
con
nunoralc
tho
nunorol.
Cr1"
lu? 3.caa u19alra
0 tho pons tho ton.
numorals
ordinal.
thoada in
heads
Ordinal
Frog'?
tinG
to
indefinite;
numbers
with
ordinal
the
both
from
occur
article
numerals
red
in
:
are
the
ordinal
foilowing
their
dich,
to'
definite.
9a4ra'
ui
Is
heads,
tho
two
oD. isutory
possibilities,
colliGacorrespond
e. G.
aaojaut)
ui? c.vwal
allzid
the first
voiuaol
lunca naa Tulo9
1r u ja11ad u19uLriin
%Tho twantioth
voluno hasn't
appoarod
'onrlict
(t en j.
nuaor1an,
Itaroot
? awizal L-taab Tu1o9 naYl uluawvuu9
book to. appoar on. tho
(I bought
tho first
ha is
(Thin
tnoir
and their
numerals
&I-mall-10d' (ono)
onwardc
follow
or
both
%tlien following,
(©lovonj
idagl'
procodo
l-tnon procoaing,
Arabic.
are
oun oithor
in
arinins
use
of
tho
chin
Intornationsil.
p Firat
in
tho
yoa.
r
rourth"
connoction
dounito
accounto
with
artiolo
for
tho
yet).
tho
ordina. lc
wnoro
Arauiu
£ollowin6
Fair in Damxicuo bon
is difficult.
univorrsity
conoorno
providon
mißta2: ou:
in
1945.
s
In contexts
'eleven'
Arabic
onwardo,
the
which
ljuz?
nppenred
form
the
a arrnll
enn be called
They
articles.
of determiners
group
initiators'.
'All'
precede
no
miotakeö
mna Tule9.
'helf'
ever,
can precede
appears
therefore
ouch
sentence,
luasa
'both',
'noun-chrase
explains
hne not
from
ordinnla
Initintorn
Noun-Phrnne
which
Arabic
ul9usriin
'All',
otructure
twentieth
the
(3 The pnrt
reflects
to English
correopondinp,
could
the
with
not
precede
es in,
definite,
or
plurnl
uncountable
indefinite
the
'All
the
head-words;
it
but
doer
article,
nice
trim
little
school
girls'.
'Both'
and
has
two
singular
Both
L ry
Both
the crumbling,
'Halt'
can have
can precede
Hilf
Half
heads
or
het d,
a plural
e. g.
and John
the
the people
an hour is
gnarled
singular,
definite
there
plenty
old
plural,
and
elm trees.
or
indefinite
were in evening
long enough.
uncountable
nrticl©s,
dress.
bend-words
e. g.
.0 0»r"
'l: uli'
Arabic
their
Thoy show with
of boing
to
ublo
ucod both
'L-ull'
uncountablo
and 'nu; 313' (all,
dofinito
tho
tho
horo.
charrctorictico
und of boinS
articlos,
and an hoodo.
an adjuncts
colligatoo
only
ho d-words.
.
or uncountablo
plural,
nro rolovont
countorpc. rtc
rlich
procodo
half)
with
'nuSSI
hoad-uordn,
plural
colligaton
countablo
frith
and with
singular,
o. c.
lungallmiiu
tho t oachoro)
lull
(all
1:u11 uddrhah
(all
tho gold)
nuSS ul-; -a?t
(half
the timo)
nuSS ul9uanaal
(half
tho tror:: orn)
nnuSS bii: affi
(half
In onou&h)
'lull'
collißatoQ
©a rith
colliSat
? aroot kull
(I road all
with
a dofinit
u d©torainod
o or
indofinit
noun,
o noun,
%ihoro=
'nu3)
11
0.6.
ulmajallo
tho ua¬azino)
Ito. root Huss HuSSa
(I bought half a oharo)
Itaroot
(I
1
bought
nuSS u34ruSSa
half
tho
uharo)
It should
o point
out that whjilo '1ai11' in invariablo
'nuSS' in variablo
(nuSSoon :t
zo halvoa;
nzaaS : holvon)
In othor words 'nuSS' is a noun, and 'nuS: UUuSSa' in
the oxa iplo Given should be roeardoci un a oonotruot.
4
1"thon tunctionin5
'Lull'
cnd 'c'
othor
pooitionu,
articlo
1kull
(All
nnuS
(Half
jr.
an hoc$u in
aunt
appoar
o=
cub j oot
tho
with
'Lull'
howovor,
'nuSS'
but
d-
dofinit
it,
in
o artiolo;
tsuct oolliCato
without
appoar
both
position
with
tho
o. g.
? uJu
havo coao)
Gaabu
havc boon, abcont)
ataroot
u1Lm11
(I bought all)
hr-root
nuS 3
(I bought a half)
In viow
'all'
'1:-ull',
and Arabic
of the
dirforcnoou
of tho
following
it
in
in tho
behaviour
to
pocniblo
11ah
of
prodict
nictakan
typo:
love the all.
6I
0 The all werd brokcm.
The numeral
article
'tnoon'
to
corresponds
ti ion associated
'both'
tthan it
with
functions
definite
the
an hotel,
o. g.
Itaroot
uttnoon
(I bought both)
ttnoon
=" "I
(Both aro Good)
Corrosponding
of tho
typo
'both
to tho
adjunct
noun', Arabic
use of
has
'1
'both'
in
ctruoturoc
noun " oon ' whoro
...
the
definite
article
i "
precede©
a noun in
the dual,
connection
relates
e. g.
la ikur©iyyocn
rail tuHtaaj
(You'll
need both ohairo)
lbadultenn
dayy? iin
(Both suits
are tight)
Conflict
use of
absence
with
the definite
with
in
arising
article
'both'
'two'.
Of.
You'll
You'll
need
need
in
this
in Arabic
English,
both hands.
the two hando.
no opposed
and to equating
to
the
to ito
'both'
,V
0- e
ýi
(0...
)
Adjunot3
Be Adieetiven
In the previouo
the noun-phrase
in
occurring
In both
of
a word-class
both
into
thý
English,
of
quality
in
adjectives
the
ing
to the closed
the
frame
(1)
morphological
and
exclusive
left
rann Deems very
---
the
fr=e:
nub-clash
'atative'
following
of
as adjectives
all
to avoid
the verb
and by replacing
and certain
to fit
ability
in
'looks'
identifies
the
identifying
or
the noun and the noun determiner
'becomes',
'is',
words
the open
to sot up
possible
blank
incompatibility,
in
is
it
defining
their
environments
By varying
by
adjuncts,
of
on comparable
primary
1)
the ---
lexical
part
the
criteria.
syntactical
In
In
with.
and Arabia,
adjectives
adjuncto
be conoidored.
will
Englidh
of
has been dealt
second major
adjectives
called
class
the
section,
present
the closed-alaoo
section
similar
verbs
of
'aeons'
verbs
belong-
(see p. Zs),
the underlined
sentences:
In the discussion
of English
adjectives
tt
A
&:
Francis,
pp.
op. , cit,
on
I have drown mainly
i
wý
an is
The strong
very
strong.
in very uncomfortable.
The uncomfortable
position
looks
The relaxed
spectator
very
relaxed.
The se
girl
seems very
seif-eontrod.
-centred
`
Any interesting
counde into roa
story
ng.
are 1.
The two positions
),
'fairly'
'exceedingly',
or
homophonous
are
'present
and
from
frame,
in
is
very
running';
' the
we cannot
say
'0 a girl
to
set
murdered
).
or
'a
man'
charming'
of a comparable
up a corresponding
the
'© the
position
and 'the
Thus
second.
man' but
man is
rather
a position
running
'the
differ
first
the
almost
immediately
namely,
or
examples
participle'
murdered
occupy
alone,
three
The latter
fit
and 'the
running'
by adjectives
basis
'past
do not
participles
both
(1)
'very',
a copulative
last
the
may fit
they
horse'
Thus we can say both
On the
in
called
nevertheless
Moreover,
occupied
possible
verbale
though
running
horse
murdered'.
a noun.
follows
turn
(see pp. iiiff.
that
they
'the
'0 the
never
the
participle'
we can say
not
in
which
and
(like
an adverbial
as adjectives
with
adjectives
the
noun determiner
verb.
Stative
Forms classified
in
following
and 2. immediately
noun,
between
horse'
after
and ' thorse
man murdered';
(1)
man tired'.
syntactic
word-class
frame,
of
it
but
is
adjectivoo
these forma,
H. E. Palmer calls
together
like
with others
(unchanging,
uncomplaining,
undeserving),
which have no
(0
to
unchange, 0 to unconplain,
verbs
as
4 to unsuch
'Participial
deserve)
Op. cit.
adjectives'.
pp. 72 U.
I
,'
1ý
in Arabic.
lowing
Thug all
two frames
In
list
words
of verbs
1.
lvralad
2.
Lw4lafl ---
f III the blank
is between
that
Saar ---
---
in
the tol-
is
following
a verb
that
(see pp. 333n).
belongs
to the
ctntivo
In
vorba
Examples
Saar Gani ktiir
boy became very
rich)
Tu19ot
n ?n ktiir
turned
tight
out very
SSuura 1n n1nimnne bayyane t trnnD? a ktiir
(the coloured
picture
appeared very clear)
lbunt
(the
2.
ta9biie
Saarat
ulw n?fe
becazie very
otanding
girl
TTa? s bnnred
(the
weather
ktiir
tired)
ktiir
is very
cold)
1buuZa Tnybe ktiir
(the ice-cream
is very
delicious)
lu.: nhande am arrab ktiir
(the architect
iu very
experienced)
1manZar sn aHer ktiir
(the view is very charming)
It
will
be noticed
that
in partial
same
2. the position
'ktiir'.
a noun and the adverbial
lbadle
diide
(the new suit
o noun and the
to English
correspond
1.1%Talad ulnultuhcd
(the industrious
ktiir
ktiir
position
)
and an adverbial
p. ii
between
that
are adjectivea:
1. the first
second position
1)
aorrcupondenco
prei
(oeo
is
^A
to
'Active
termed
nnn? to;
and pant
So far,
adduce comparable
to recognize,
which
'bane
In Englio: i,
in
positions
loving
the
morphological
frame
is
vihilo
English
possible
also
which
it
311
fo.
pp.
mark
in necessary
cub-claaoeo
'derived
fitting
also
exhibit
the
nuf1ixea
adjeetivo©'.
both
the fol.
characteristics:
1. They are asnociated
to fora
and
adjectives'
syntactic
in both
To do no,
ndjectivea'
glide
(nee
two large
languages,
'baue
may be called
to
criteria
two language©.
are
Partioiplan'
It
criteria.
include
which
many respects
morphological
in both
and B.
anaIier)
have been net up,
on synthetical
adjectives
1.
correspond
in
participles
the
both
'Passive
function
adjectives
in
of
mjarrab,
and
and whose
Arabic,
and
examples
Partioiplon'
respectively,
present
two
(nlawwano,
form. n like.
to
last
the
Eriglinh,
the so-called
vrith
comparative
-or
and -ent
degroea,
and superlative
e. g.
war
cold
fast
2. Baas adjectives
that
formed
they
nerve
warmer
colder
faster
Warmest
coldest
fastest
are also
characterized
as stems fron
by the derivational
which
outfixoa
by the
fact
nouns und adverbs
are
-noon
and -1y,
e. g.
erg
,
.1
Adjective
Noun
Adverb
ctrtrge
black
Thlae
3trnrgeneno
otrnngaly
Most base adjectives
3.
two syllables
- un,
A fair
4.
brighten,
g.
e.
'Derived
cheapen,
n derivational
with
inhuman.
-en,
enlnrPe,
form verbs
the prefix
embitter,
as their
Adjectives',
and none have
or both,
-on,
enlighten,
enliven.
narre indicntea,
of adjective-forming
by
nre those
cuffixec
to free
derived
ndjectiven
or
forms.
bound
Some of
'-y',
as in
stete,
the
suffixeß
coon
which
form
following:
the
(a)
(b)
nnturnl,
(c)
adaptable,
1
suffix
by the addition
formed
begin
unco ... on,
(1 }
fnlcely
number of bane adjectives
the derivational
adding
are
e. g.
binckly
are iononyllabio,
a few that
except
like
tauffix
binckncna
fnlncreuo
added to one- and two-syllable
faulty,
leafy,
healthy,
holy.
'-al',
added to nouns and bound stem:
local,
physical.
'-able',
added to verbs
viable,
The above
(of.
good
nouns and bound
fatal,
and bound sterna:
rar. nrknblo,
visible.
for oases of auppletion
provide
atntcr: ent should
goodness
yell)
na well
as for cases where core
/.
0 ..
0.
ý1
_ý'
(d)
hopeleoa;
(e)
to nouns
literary;
ý,
. , ýý
'-loan',
and
'-full
added to nouns:
hopofulp
uaaloaa.
useful,
and bound otana:
climatic,
'-iah',
'-io',
'-ary',
'-ar',
popular,
comic;
'-ouo',
and
legendar,
rogulnr;
lavish;
childish,
added
narvdloua,
pernicious.
(P)
'-ent'
'-ive',
and
convenient;
abhorrent,
added to verbs
active,
(g)
'-en',
added to nouns:
(h)
'-ed',
added to verbs
flowered,
(i)
and bound atoms:
native.
woolen,
wooden,
and noune:
tirad,
paken.
devoted;
booted.
'-ilig',
added
to
verbs:
interesting,
revealing,
pleasing.
(j )'
ly
Derived
cont.
to
bound
added
nouns
and
Horne
oteru::
,
friendly,
homely.
orderly,
tives
i)
not
adjectives
only
in being
are distinguished
from baae adjec-
marked by derivational
outfixeo,
base adjectives
beside
use other derivational
suffixes
(of.
(depth)
fora
to
deep
deepness
deeply).
nouns
-ness
(1) This'sdiatinguished
from the homophonous adverb-forming
by the fact that its stems are nouns and bound
suffix
stems, whereas the sterns from which adverbs nro formed
are adjectives.
i
but
with
-or
'friendly'.
derived
'most'
and
to -er
is older than John
is more devoted than John
Jack
Jack
is
is
also,
the
'moral
forms
Of.
certain
arc
comparable
with
to the
Thus parallel
English
adjectives.
of base
and derived
in English
adjectives
to set up two major
morphologithose
two sub-alaoneo
it
,
in possible
of bane adjectives
sub-classes
of
and
in Arabic.
adjectives
Baae adjectives
belong
to a number of phonological
the most productive
(a) caacec
exhibit
adjectives
which
characteristics
patterns,
of base
the kindest
of all
the most popular
of all.
In Arabic
derived
like
fours
forms
with
constructions.
Jack
Jack
suffixed
never
and -oat
appear
adjectives
in comparable
arc virtually
coma two-syllable
for
Corresponding
adjectives,
cal
except
and -cat
they
that
by the fact
also
i
.j+.
: caaTcr
of which
(skilful),
(charring),
are:
Haa: cn (firm)#
raaker
(thankful)s,
of aKer
Yanlcii
(reaourcctul).
(b)
caccaac
: Tatraan
GalTaan
(pcnnilaaa),
(mistaken),
ankraan
: a9laan
(drunk),
(cad).
1r*
(a)
(d)
aaaiio
cciic
(cow),
: boTii?
(stubborn),
lu
(gentlo).
ilf
(now)
: jdüd
cayyec
(61 cuc©c
(h)
(1)
caacc
(i)
caaci
caci
: Sarin
(attentive),
(empty),
(bad)
(1) 'cc'
indicator
9
a geminated
,
aayy©? (bad).
(naG61nS),
nu%od
br arr
(patorna11y
(coaploto),
ta=
,
(abacnt-zxindod),
shy,
X91
(gancroua),
danl
(Croon,
(, tot).
(da.=aging),
(potconoua)
: taxi
(ugly),
(ploantnS),
conrr
uaa
raaDi
(j)
ruTob
Drarr
? axDar
(hood),
jayyod
buio9
,
(hot),
kind),
( good)
,
(gcnorouc)
xayyor
,
(role=),
(rude),,
: Einarr
ant) ,
? abyaD (whito).
(dolicious)
: **uaex (dirty)
iuuoj
ifio
, =iiH
(bluo),
? a-"re,
(yollow),
hayyob
(bis)
(nn
r? 117 (thin)
: ? c! z1ar (rod),
; Ttiyyob
(Gonorouc),
badii9
kbür
,
(choap),
? a.3far
(f)
tcariia
9untid
rxii3
(o) ? accac
5
(low)
k-ati
(conscious)*
(faithful)
nrd
,
.
consonant.
(wot)
rrdi
g
.
rC
,;.!
Daso
wijoctivoc
of
possibility
of
dictineuiohod
aro
in
appoarinG
Exanplos
comparison.
tho
is
morn
? ana ? aTfar
(I
pattorn
' 7accao'
in
contoxtc
tiro:
uun? of ? aye ar mun cayca
(tlaol
an c udho1o by tho
than
n111ru1
ltalaa)
nunnuk
nm moro broko
than
you aro)
1 citaabo bu 1? iid ?oia?
is clowar
(Hand writing
run ulkitaabo
than typinG)
Salm 1? Lollo
london i akbar nun bam, liz
(London is lare; or th i Paris)
Dcrivod
tho
suffix
adjeotivo-forming
speakers
aro formoll
k1)
zu1 octivon
Examples
only.
fry
9ariali
(practical
-i
from nouno by addition
and are
used
by
oducut4d
cro:
oxa ination)
? uxti6aa31
Tabiib
docttoi
(speciallood
waDu9 Haali
(actual
situation)
huauu? nafet
(inner
poaco)
=a%..uu9 9w tti
(ronantic
subject)
in
this
end
n&
a vowol 'drop
k1j nouns
vuwul bufoco -1 In
auctad, o. g,, tiC.?ii? a (truth)
: 1la?li? i (truo);
wayiiro
(1linctionalj.
s Ainotionj
: waZlifi
of
"y
i'
<< .
manner of their
derived
comparative
adjectives
can appear
comparable
to
those
form.
Cf.
form
'? aktar'
in
waa? el
waa? el
9aaTifi
?aktar
in
adjectives
distribution
of what
two languages
differs
the
from
of which,
the
following
but
'? aocac',
patter
them in
appear
two languages
comparable
contexts
in
the
other
a contrastive
have been
However,
criteria.
deemed to
are
in
in
Arabic
(Waal is more intelligent
than
Samir)
(Vael
is more romantic
Sanir
nun
than Saair)
on more or less
established
behaviour,
base adjectives
which
? azka nun eamiir
So far,
the
appear
the
in
adjectives
and euporlativo
cannot
the
with
'? accac'
derived
to English
Corresponding
be adjectives
the
respects,
point
of view,
general
class
in
the
most important
be discussed
will
below.
Subdivision
is
made on two independent
(whether
the
positional
adjective
belongs).
It
position
should
in
applied
to English
variable
at
or Arabic.
the
or not,
of
morphological
and second,
adjectives,
once that
things
of adjectives
first,
-
a sequence
be stated
mean different
lines
is
adjective
(where,
are
the
within
a particular
variability
according
to whether
Thun in
the
English
and
they
variability
'i
-i
the
to
refers
in
relates
the
to
relation
in
subject
Bub-type
on the
the
number with
has the
adjective
its
position
and relative
phraooo,
(see
of Type II
other
hand,
has two aspects:
adjective
pearance
sentences
as to
no well
nominal
the
of
p. u)
and Typo VI,
in
head-word
nominal
in
in
sentences;
'? accac'
following
that
form).
the
of
concord
noun-phraceo,
and that
Thus the
of
variability
of
in
gender
and with
comparison
adjective
'kbiir'
scatter:
masculine
feminine
plural
comparinon
kbiir
kbiire
kbaar
? akbar
Examples
to
B (see p. 5C).
In Arabic
eubjest
head in
and
and -out,
-or
position
relative
adjectives,
other
its
to
relative
to the
the
with
adjectives
suffixes
and superlative
comparative
position
of
colligability
the
are:
beet kbiir
(a big house)
jneene
(a big
kbiirc
garden)
waa? el kbiir
(Wael is big)
raysa kbiire
(baisa is big)
waa? el w aayaa kbaar
(Wael and Maiaa are big)
the
and
the
(ap-
4'P
r
-fN
vraa? o1 ?akbar saun mayaa
(17ael is older
than 1:aina )
layla
?
rnin
mayaa
akbar
(Uaioa to older
than Laila)
layln
?
run
maysa
akbar
w
waalcl
(Waal and Maiaa are older
The above
examples
than
show that
gender
the
singular,
and that
the
adjective
does not
show any signs
ooncerna
not
then
Laila)
in
appearing
operates
only
lYaoaao'
fotia
in
or number or gender
concord.
Position
the
in
adjective
position
reletive
the
ct
sub
sentences
to
ing
its
(nee pp. C ff.
of
ctive
of
no predicate
ktaab jdiid
(a now book)
luktaab
jdiid
(the book is new)
diid luktaab
the book is new)
in
also
of
its
and to
nominal
)
follows
can follow
cf.
but
noun-phrases,
its
head in noun-phraoes
a noun and an adjective,
as predicate,
position
adjectives,
in
head
when functioning
Thus the uj
consisting
a sequence
the relative
only
or precede
and, when functionthe cubjoct,
(Doc p. 9 )
1)s
The relative
in
sequence
'a
large
'kalb
in
flexible
extremely
in
back
(1)
in
position
a cc que ioo
to
contrast
Iln. J ice.
the
Where English
and white
hunting
iv
adjcativoo
position
of
requiroo
uo to
Arabic
dog'
'kalb
and
?asvrad w ?abyaD'
Seed kbiir
of
adjootivoo
nay
both
nllowo
Good ?aowad
kbiir'.
?
abyaD
tr
i! mlicntiona
Contraative
the light
In
it
adjectives,
is
the native
facing
in
of the
speaker
of forms
behaviour
to predict
possible
The problems
English.
of En.. iah and Arabic
above facts
of Arabic
a number of problems
in connection
from
result
the partially
as adjectives
classified
with
in
adjectives
different
the
two languages.
Variability
Under
relates
terms
to
this
while
English
(uninflected),
Arabic
of
conflict
versus
has a three-term
has a two-term
comparison
(-er
form),
system,
first
in
adjectives
in
of concord
The second refers
adjectives.
comparative
absence
the
arise:
of Arabic
variability
of number and gender
case
(1)
two points
the concordial
of English
form),
term
to the
labelled
fact
that
positive
(. ant
and superlative
an uninflected
the
form
and
'Seed' is not considered
but a noun forming
an adjective
'hunting'
the
in
just
preceding
noun,
with
no
a construct
'hunting
dog' is to be considered
a noun forming
a
noun.
compound with the following
t'J t,
comparetive
one,
'? eccac',
where
English
uses
both
forms.
Cf.
the cornnrntivo
the
comparntive
than
biy con is cleverer
?ubni ? azka tun ?ubnnk
habits
mistakes
of Arabic
The reds
Mistakes
to English
are strongs.
have
flowers
reflecting
superlative
the eines
transfer
reflecting
adjectives
}»y friends
the
and
uood
yours
boy in
Ltq son is the cleverest
?ubni ?azka walad bu SSaff
Attested
being
fore
been
ooncordinl
include:
cut.
in
conflict
of
contexts
of
comparison
ore:
0 The aeroplane
judged
that
QI
is faster
means of travel.
he is better
therefore.
of all
Position
Conflict
distribution
of
the
points:
the
classes
relative
adjectives.
adjectives
first
relates
of
characteristics
other
from
arising
in
the
of
differences
in
languages
involves
in
the
to
to
the
different
of
class
different
position
positional
structures;
the
adjective
the
in
two
distributional
in
adjectives
the
to
relation
second
concerns
a sequence
of
ý'J
in
in
adjective
English
will
bought
® My father
0 Hot the tea
which
the
translate
?abi
Ataraali
following
the
produce
the
subject
characteriatica
to
or precede
ai©takea:
atteoted
new
me a suit
Arabic
in noun
noun-head
of there
Transfer
sentences.
nominal
ito
follow
as predicate,
has been shown
it
point,
follows
in Arabic
and can,
phrases
firnt
the
with
connection
the
that
r9 .J
sentences
jdiide
badle
auxun uksaay
the
Regarding
of
adjectives
of
Syrian
English
in
adjuncts.
fixed
order
as opposed
variant
(cf.
to
old
based
terns
of relative
on the
long
for
problem
is
not
speaker
order
of
to
the
subject
English.
use of adjectives
both
the
case
a red woollen
jumper,
'a long
winter',
winter'),
cold
it
of
etc)
freely
fixed
of adjectives
in
the noun-head.
have been recognised,
as
of
and sub-types
behaviour
to
charactorietice
sequential
recognise
(cf.
contrastive
proximity
the
the
lady,
transposability
order
sequence-classes
to
to
necessary
'a cold
with
a major
in
apply
a dear
positional
one another
operative
Such restrictions
is
constitute
to
relation
of restrictions
It
the
point,
in whose language
Arabic.
adjectives
kind
in
second
is
Once the
possible
to
q.
Pw
set
up a eyetem
the
facto
Part
of
co-occurrence.
of
the
appears
difficulty
to
be a sequence
for
include:
which
'(a)
'(a)
Ives
shown
by
in,
the
marks
(more
charming)
Moreover,
the
'(a)
silly
of
adjectival
old
(not
as 'very',
fool',
house'.
Other
group,
lady
before
the
'extremely'
'dear
old';
the
the
noun
criteria
superlative
cf.
never
second
also
In the discussion
of the facts
of
I have drawn freely
on Mitchell's
Types',
op. cit.
of
I've
is
(1)
type
adjoct-
of
with
form
® older)
young
dirty
these
'rehoval'
and
the
nice
possibilities
comparative
of
of
baby',
'(a)
of
juxtaposition
identity
phrasal
'(a)
collocational
the
of the
boy',
status
the
examples
little
the
sequence
may be called
sweet
old
as to
uninterpolability
such adverbs
big
'compound'
Georgian
inadmissibility
final
fine
as well
little
pretty
'(a)
immediate
from
'(a)
lady',
limited
the
compounds,
the
for
The
to
partly
'a
nan',
etc.
such
say,
include
of
old
adjective
second
er
nasty
relates
old
house',
blighter',
little
dear
little
pretty
ran',
'(a)
which
couapounda,
such
of
some-
what
adjectives
in
what
example,
class
that
separate
compounding,
adjectival
'meliorative-pejorative'
two
of
otato
classification
fact
the
to
which
positional
to
relates
Consider,
determined.
the
of
English
fact
within
oub-typen
in
in
illustrate
is
of phrasal
of
adjectives
times
U
.,
'a
sweet-
mat'.
adjective
relevant
to
contrast,
sequence of adjectives
'Some English
Phrasal
(4 'I
for
example,
a very
'he'n
nay,
with,
the
'it's
tively,
Examples
like
'an
with
the
type
tain
of
an adjective
position
immediately
however,
that
to
relates
the
contrastive
noun.
ordor
of
type
'as
of
is
which
It
that
is
they
Africa'
illustrate
the
conthe
occupy
noteworthy.
be compared
to
sun'
'an African-hot
(in)
as
hot
African
in
lady'
the
preceding
or,
must generally
which
origin,
)
etc.
'a hot
old
prodica-
occur
sun'
the
with
to
appropriate
contexts.
other
The following
a class
of
brown
'coarse
to adjectives
examples
'silk
origin,
of the
'stone
scarf',
finement
in
porating
in
the
usually
'heavy
sacking',
of
cf.
regarded
class
red
'the
'glass
of
the
need to recognise
little
curtains'.
English
green
extensibility
wall',
statement
a special
'(a)
adjectives:
colour
Consideration
plex
'a dear
of
a phrasal
but,
Roman coin',
old
type
periphrastic
(and,
Fi-
invertible.
do not
sequences
a co-ordinator
face',
bad-tempered
freely
are
house'
little
vary)
very
of which
elements
even with
contrast
also
ugly,
moat ouch adjectival
nally,
(®
pretty
a very
got
adjectival
1
of
beads'
facts
(silk,
These
'give
stone,
way'
countryside'.
to
further
sequence.
as an adjective-noun
of forma
hat',
such complexes
leads
of
black
re-
The com-
sequence
glass,
an
incor)
etc.
n'
the
Such a
to material©.
relating
ciated.
does not
behave wholly
should
The examples
as a means of
the
illustrate
of
often
are
summer',
'a large
black
the
and are
type
distinguish
1.
(a)
2.
(an)
3.
(a)
4.
(an)
6.
(a)
See
, all
of
freely
dear
old
old
little
black
English
Indian
long
silk
jagged
forma,
the
hat
old
('neutral'
little
acarf(ad
(adj.
j.
matter
is
necessary
we may differentiate
thus
('neutral'
fields
of
but
(water):
(iiellorativo-pojorative
Roman coin
which
as 'hot-and-cold
it
such.
'a dry
in
least
not
sub-types;
lady
examples
cf.
determination,
sequential
relation-
adjectival
co-ordinators,
distinguished,
doter-
winter'
cold
transposable
with
ocarf'.
sequences
with
and 'a long
face'
a number of
within
positional
mutual
pro-
silk
oequcutial
'places'
In
take
Indian
exhibit
such compound forms
green
5.
the
oboe
adjectives.
forma
They contract
associated
from
juncture,
within
to
material
elements.
case of
other
noun,
no fur
for
accounting
bad-tempered
as 'an ugly
cold
of.
considered
of adjectival
which
the
acco-
are
the material
that
manner of
and the need to recognise
mination
ship
the
on
principally
ouch conp1oxoo
however,
to
othere,
all
over
cedence
in
of proximity
matter
which
be noted,
lt
the
with
streou
of
patterns
(1)
view relieo
type)
+ adj.
+ uda.
colour
of origin
of
+ adj.
+ material
origin)
of
colour)'
of
or
forts)
(which illuatatea
a strongly
to place shorter
uarkkd tendency
(unually
forma first'
monooyllabic)
in adjectival
oequencen)
op.
ti.
t.
c
pp.
and cf. his example
,
the ten fine old atone houses.
scarf
fn!
I:
n
n"
u
F. '.1
If
we take
and coLipare
? ea'aarb
? eAaarb
? e9aarb
? esaaru
? eiaarb
in
as in
adjectival
nector
'w'
'a large
example
followi..
the
in
with
English.
colloquial
forms
in Arabic
(and)
normally
facing
the
lassen
..
It
should
S glish,
is
Indian
ocarf'
silk
in Arabic
iiariir
Hariir
hindi
?aswad
? aswtd
difficulties
enormous
black
g pocnibilitioo
kuiir
? aawad hindi
? aswaa kbiir
riin. di
?aswad kbiir
Liariir
kblir
Hariir
uindi
hindi
kbiir
Hariir
connection
determination
that,
with
the
we realize
Ar.. uic
it
the
exuibiting
perhaps
a sequence
comparatively
separating
speakers
of
sequential
be nentiuned
of more than
rare,
the
ouch sequences.
two
con-
(. ' rJ
ýý V
Chapter
Two
Phrasen
Verbal
(1)
Simple
in
oentenceo
of
essentially
En,glich
a noun phraae'and
one,
noun phrases
in English
with
noun phrases
in Arabic.
in
English
their
considered
Arabic
In
tense,
and voice,
possible
ly
am, are,
is,
in
chapter
phrase.
and contracted
following,
verb
phrases
what may be
with
English
in
of which
be'
'to
verb
is
being,
were,
terms
of
are
still
number,
por©on,
The formal
cumulate.
differentiated
raxinally
was,
In
the
variable
exponents
(the
forms
a verb
counterparts.
is
of a typical
scatter
be,
form
conoint
and contrasted
A. Verb phrneen
The verbal
to
were discussed
be examined
will
have been found
verb
further
been).
five
given
differentiated:
These are
traditional-,
named as follows:
Simple
Third
zero,
form
Past
tense
Past
participle
-a,
fora
participle
easier
-ing,
drives,
: driving,
: drove,
form
reference
-ed,
: drive,
fora:
singular
person
Present
For
form
or unmodified
-on
: driven,
the
fora
forma
will
respectively.
©ing,
go,
goes,
singe,
singing,
ate,
sung,
©peak;
going,
wont,
gone,
be referred
speaks;
apeaking;
spoke;
spoken.
to ass
'x
11 /v
Verb phrases
to what
'full
verbal,
terms
general
of periphrastic
logy
not
the
one of
in
statable
in
auxiliaries)
a system
termino-
of which
classification
used
conveniently
in
(see
table
on
page).
in
It
'primary',
forms),
and -ea
liaries
have
did).
which
be (on,
had),
to,
used to,
of
have no -s,
forms.
are,
dare,
auxi-ed,
-ing,
-s,
or -ing
-en,
The primary
is,
auxi-
were),
was,
include:
The modal auxiliaries
ought
(zero,
scatter
have no -ed
(has,
need,
must,
'modal'
and the
and most of which
do (does,
full
with
forms,
are:
two sub-classes
to distinguish
poosible
the
liaries:
Auxiliarien
and 'Modal'
'Primary'
might,
the
is
and voice
of aspect
following
in
forms,
a cloned
(othorwico
i. e.
verbal,
of the
that
reference
verbs'
whose distribution
than
with
only
'lexical
'true
verbs',
lexicon,
the
in
thousands
less
'free
describable
with
combined
are
which
are
known as auxiliarioo,
traditionally
are
of verbs
English
in
can,
could,
should,
shall,
and
may,
will,
and would.
Have and be enter
(have
voice
-en:
+ -en:
passive).
simple
caking).
(to
ask),
into
verbal
The infinitive
and passive
forces
of
be + -ing:
continuative;
(to + zero fora)
fora
perfective;
perfective
conotructionn
(to
(to
have asked),
be asked).
aupoct
be +
occurn
continuative
Loroover,
and
in
(to
perfective,
be
j
«ý.
1'VZJ-CC1i
ASPECT
V: ::
NON-FI1aTr. S
17L
(J SS:)ed
(ASK)
AAK)ed
been
(Af'K)aI
(I
i2
PH
I'A
Pit
lexical
verb
flections
--ero/
-c
-ed,
etc.
Xx
xxxxxx
'general'
do/
did
xx
xxxxxx
auxiliary
rtoes
}'A
PA
#i
Mi\it
1Vfs
S'ký3i,:
i; Gii-P'rýtFi: CTIý'i:
ý"ä Vý:
be
iý}: iýTSV'i:
N
IVi:
hoTIY};
have
PA
FO!
PR
r,
rr
PR
Tc3; SE
F'I?
111
2ºWJ-Piir7CTIYF
PA IV}:
ACTIVE
be
zero
AUD
VOICE
ItIFINITIVAL
I2ºFINITIVt1.
1;ß'J-FI? tITE
EL,U-"t. I`S
1ý;
cc.
TY.
(have)
being
(A: )ed
+`S':
K)ine
Won
(w:
Phi
been taro,
(A)#
)tn
!
! 'A
i`:
xX
X
Y.
xk
XX
X
t
ct
PR
PA
iJý
VA
Y'SS
(a)
(i)
(ii)
(b)
xx
and
aspectival
voice auxiliaries
" ............................
3: OMI,
......
.....
AUXI
chat
LIARIt
"
e: 06
PR
PA
present
past
am/
in/
are
".......
. "...
".......
(could/
chou1d/viil/would/ca
(/needfdare/uued
had hzve/ had
hat;
was/ hav
bat
wer
to)
Cf
infinitival
...
"
"""
"....
art/
in
are
/might/cUnt/OUrht
periphrasin)
Vag./
war, *
=1
ir, /
are
0060900000
".....
to
have/
Van/
Geore had
"..
"".
hav
hza
had
""...
"
"""...
ha4
..
""""
ný ý
aýý
and passive
continuative,
being
When they
naked).
(have
mark
perfective
they
In
other
to
the
the
words
first
a discontinuous
discontinuous
be;
after
morpheme;
complex
-en
of
have
the
the
order:
then
comes the
in
the
to
of
the
con-
on).
constitute
a continuative
element
characterized
following
the
attachoo
have -an
attaches
to
(be +-
perfective
component
-LE
paenive
suffixed
the
have boon
a fixed
passive
no that
similarly
and finally
and a component
by the
component
-en
element
follow
comes firnt;
+ -en)
(be +
followed
g)
-in,
tinuative
lowing
do,
(to
no in
can co-occur,
fol.
by be
element.
Thun
have
can
we
V-3
V-2
V-1
have
been
being
(ASK)ed
be
beim,
(ASK)ed
I
have
x
been
x
(ASE)ing
be
x
(ASK)ing
to
where
verb,
lexical
V,
....,
have
X
have
x
I
I
%
I
been
respectively.
(ASK)ed
(ASK)ed
X
be
unaarkea,
,
_____
continuative,
perfective,
verb
v
(ASK)ed
X
(ASK)
and cape represent
passive,
and instances
lexical
of
#.
total
sub j oct
and Is
'have'
'thoy
the
or
in,
'han John Sono ?'
'they
e-&
in
(a)
finit
the
A loxicol
auxiliary.
o forms
(b) non-tinito
vorb
torus
of
in
: ask,
but
(a)
of
ouxiliarioo
finito
formst
havo,
do,
(b)
4vo)
tho
In. addition
aunt
bo recosnizod,
follows:
an
too,
to
In.
anyp
form of
coapriooc:
has,
does,
catogoM.
oa of
so that
16 for
(continua-
anking
(pcrfootivo)
askod
.
vorb
boing,
to
'John,
co,
infinitival
aukod
,
for. -.,a : havo,
non-finite
'have'
(infinitivo),
s aok
foray
catogory
aakod
asks,
(pa
Tho
Sore;
the
'ASK'
ao
tivo)
'primary'
a ooabincl
a finite
different
vorb
by pot onti al or
corm Iliac, , co. , in
have Bono',
must have Bono'
a noun or
with
tho
Thun tho
t
onu o--porson-nunbor.
of
han cono'
to
in
oxproaciblo
agrooaont
actual
colligatos
linkod
Ltd
forsxa in
and non-tinito
form
A finito
scattor.
pronoun
flnito
inoludoa
A vorb
,1
phrano
had,
tja,
oo=prißo:
aro,
ýUa,
in,
woro,
did.
ho (continuativo)
bo (panoivo)
.
bam.
anpoct
and voloo,
zit typos
aro
two
d.tatiu.
tcncon
sulchablo
^'1
Present
Pnnt 'renne
Tenne
Sim
I ask
I naked
Perfective
I have asked
I had naked
Continuative
I am asking
I wan asking
Passive
I am asked
I wan naked
&Cont.
I have been asking
I had boon asking
&Pas.
I have been asked
I had been naked
Cont. &Pas.
I am being
I wan being
perf. &Cont.
as.
I have been being
perf.
perf.
In
the
that
liary,
Having
English
cues the
of verb
foam of
verbal
carries
outlined
(modal
the
all
in Arabic
phrase,
marks
the
of
possible
of these
is
types
foraa.
appropriate
it
above,
lexical
whether
tense
excepted),
auxiliaries
distribution
forms
the
naked
I had been being asked
asked
16 formal
or any of the
all
firmt
asked
io
always
or auxi-
and person.
forma
of verbs
it
necessary
is
But first
at
this
in
to
a oketch
stage.
din-
4'..
S.
r
..
.I
C.
B.
Verb
to English
Corresponding
up a word-class
in terms
bility
in Arabic
leads
Arabic
is
number,
a typical
to the recognition
3Sg.
person
p1ura1
ý
p2rd
ersoa
1st
'ers.
Ste'
P1ura1
Lase.
Fez.
(S ingu1
(P 1ura1
ar
The
these
(1)
-u
katabt
katabti
katabtu
-t
-
katabt
katabna
(Pr.,
Suf.
above
tabulated
may be of
possible'to
set
characterized
by varia-
tense,
and aspect.
voice,
of related
of three
systems
verbal
of affixes.
(2)
Affixes
Pr. SSU.
4Masc. katab.
katbet
(Pea.
katabu
is
scatter
(1)
Scatter
it
verbs,
which
of person,
An examination-of
forms
in
phrases
JS
et
(3)
Pr.
yuktob
tuktob
yuuktbu
ytyu
ti
tu
tuktob
tuktbi
tuktbu
tti
tu
t
na
?uktob
nuktob
?n0_
prefix,
affixes
dif. ferent
suffix;
are
radical
Scatter
Affixes
Scatter
coon
Affixes
Su
r.
S.
Il
ktoob
ktubi
ktubu
zero
to all
(1)
patterns;
-`
-i
-u
suffix)
verbs,
cS. katab
though
(he wrote;
A
It is characteristic
forms
the great
that
of all
of Arabic
majority
of words are built
of three
consoon a framework
By ringing
the changes with
nants.
affixes,
and vowel differences
is possible
to obtain
on a given base it
a great
forms.
variety
of related
Thus the base k-t-b
gives us the
tabulated
(clerk,
series
above as well
I
as: kaateb
writer),
(letter),
(library),
maktuub
maktabe
maktab (office),
etc.
The base k-t-b
in the examples
is called
the root,
and each
consonant
See T. F. Mitchell,
of the root
'Col-'
a radical.
loquial
Arabic',
The English
Universities
Press Ltd.,
London, 1962, p. 36.
nAin
+... .
has the
which
and mii
of
the
of
loved)
in
affixes,
threw)
,
{herd
a rýeeond
of
has the
(1)
with
aamo con-
,
(2)
, and
(3)
may be divided
forms
and imperative
imperfect,
thou.
botwoon
and
no
vowels
.a
verbal
(he
rama
place
which
,
colligability
perfect,
groups:
g and i
radI0
their
systems
above
three
into
and third
bass a of
On_ the
(ho
änd ffabb
as second
sonant
have
which
walked),
aonnonant,
radical
throe-radical
favourite
(he
(1)
pattern,
r©spee-
tivo1y:
is
It
noticeable
discontinuous
other
not
only
of
forms
relates
is
(1)
the
the
}ioreover,
three
affixation
hand,
in
to
imperative
of
constitute
differa
the
persons
operative
in. the
second
from
formal
its
for
contain
both
but
shape
affixal
also
it
is
and the
person.
by
On the
suffixes
the
number
The imperative
to
necessary
all
recognize
Qendor
imperfect.
of
singular
in
only.
and imperfect
perfect
scatter,
whereas
perfect
distinguished
and suffixes.
prefixes
and imperative
only,
both
is
imperfect
with
one person
throe
groups
forum,
is
which
not
Arabic
verbal
A morphological
account of
description,
this
should
in
primarily
syntactic
concern
our
different
the
description
detailed
vowollings
of
envisage a
forma.
the
different
the
in
verbal
of
scatters
obtaining
See also
(2)
perfect
respect
that
the
that
2-iitchell,
opo
cit.,
to voice
Affixes
relating
for
presentation.
easier
pp.
have
They
28 ff.
been
will
left
out
be taken
for the moment
up below,
p. zcs
n!
F.
and additionally
groups;
all
nuaber,
b,
2,
below.
of
numbor,
.. 1
person
of the
singular
no distinction.
exhibit
und plural,
singular
firnt
two
of gender;
are
distinguishod
persons.
Imperfect
both
third
persons forms
first
t, ro categories
for
the
in
4
of
verbs
which
and thud.
and zero,
colligate
precede
contribute
the
with
the
to
contrastive
two other
prefixes
=other
of
person,
system
distribution
prefixes,
which
of
b and
gender,
conciats
which is
und
of
givon
C'i r'
E. .
)
(2
Distribution
discussion
the
in
English
and Arabic,
English
are
equated
in. Arabic.
forms
distribution
which
rable,
Thus
uages.
sent
when
associated
verbs
the
is
what
yet
and to
speakers
of
the
attested
assumed English
together
with
with.
a view
as well
following,
to
what
revealing
as contrastive
the
mistakes
simple
Arabic
past
of
English
there
forms.
equated
between
the
are
The
two lang-
reflected
in
generalized
of Arabic
characteristics
is
and Arabic
by the
explainable
pre-
of
since
which
compa-
among lang-
of English
problems,
the
forms
simple
the
roughly
the
etc.,
a conflict
forms
counterparts.
English
are
b,
distribution
distributional
to
imperfect
in
verb
since
true
equate
the
Arabic,
only
hold
to
to
certain
problems,
best
at
between
teaching
of
In. the
in
constitute
transfer
their
prefix
forms
is
in
forms
verb
with
Arabic
tend
with
the
certain
expect
Arabic
contrastive
create
an aoundance
forms
one would
of
that
of
forms
of verb
many learning
comparability
bound to
uages
by
perfect
of
comparable,
is
assumed
verbs
with
the
forms
is
equated
English
of
range
a wide
it
speakers
form
with
the
lie
r'orms
distribution
of
Herein
of
Finite
Comparable
of
verbal
deemed to
This
will
of
be considered
will
be comparable
features
similar
ones.
forms
forms
in Aracic,
distribution
be followed
by a con-
"a
h.
the
of
sld©ration.
problems
involved
mistakes
reflecting
betweento
be take
will
the
contrastive
Is
It
to
convenient
be quoted
feature
concerned.
in
and related
The
prooedum
than
with
Arabic.
take
the
first
(present
forms
simple
subcoquontly.
constructions
und voice
and
aspectival
.
ahd past)
1.
form
comparable
nearest
distribution,
ono by ono and conparo
forms
Eaglich
Attested
of
will
forms
and Arabic
particular
features
contrastive
teaching
and the
dicout3eod.
form
verbal
each
the
Elish
the
implications
contrastive
in.
.:
forms
simple
a) pros ent
The distribution.
in
considered
is
least
the
situation;
a, story
(1)
if
plot,
including
two
to
quote
signalled
from
elsewhere
eternal
the
with
in
the
and the
simple
in
present
o 'The
any chronolo.
sentence
elements,
directions
in, stage
and
past,
Twaddell'
by adverbial
repeated
headlines.
forms
best
is
simple
compatible
no signalled
immutable
the
three
is
form
present
forms:
"It
indefinitely
instructions;
ritual
since,
1
overtly
future
simple
Of the
forms.
marked,
meaning
situation:
or
to
relation.
Verb) Auxiliaries',
English
gical
of
continuous
present
the
summaries
"
'The F22glish Verb Auxiliaries',
Brown
W. F. Twaddell,
(Providence.
Rhode
196o
Island)
Press,
University
or
context
and
of
''a
the
Within
is
usually
not
(e. g.
ration.
not the
is
simple
present
ration.
Cf.
The
to
of
sentences.
simple
He dies
in
with
He goes
?
Thus
we cannot
present
tion.
or
yesterday,
distributional
its
statements
(1)
op.
last
'0I
does
the
than
p. 104.
the
otc. ) in
true,
does
of
the
of
weekly,
orten,
always).
simple
present
fact
basis
implies
gone.
simple
repoti.
adverbiale
formal
in
have
with
the
howe-
you believe
he should
distribution
constitutes
that
not
forms
yeaterdo
hold
'Would
later
day,
negativ©
year,
present
days
overy
c
simple
present
simple
two
the
the
go there
Cf.
grammarians
cit.,
yesterday,
time.
characteflytic
by
simple
past
of
whoro tho
A further
of
associability
(e. g.
of
of
statement
statement
'
now.
problem
of contemporary
one.
have
where
adverbials
permanence
Sweet,
This
context,
to
(e, &
time
A more positive
relates
a negative
past
it
succeed. '
unassociability
yesterday'.
a narrative
associate
the
du.
have
we cannot
distribution
the
present
respect
sentences,
adverbials
shan't
as to
some measure
adverbials
with.
with
this
a difficult
solve
In. complex
now, I
statement
relates
statement
it
in
however,
I try
Thus
simple
contemporary
of
and in
moment),
to
can associate
'If
forms
continuous.
me. I try
the
sentences,
adverbial
present
present
case,
above
is
present
ver
the
disturb
® Don't
with
at the
now,
simple
of
associated
with
contrasts.
This
framework
-j
This
for
thst
'
C-4 f7
ýy
is
a statement
(the
time
(he gets
It
in
usually
as well,
I
could
when
cigars
continuous
Cf.
'He's
is
getting
Examples
associate
the
I smoke twenty
He travels
6 every
in
forms.
Further
present
be
seen within
can
Thus the
which
etc.
week,
may be called
) can associate
to=morrow,
and
the
the
present
with
the
past
get
up early.
be looked
of
year,
the
of the
simple
simple
present
mostly
come, travel,
of
upon as a
contexts.
verbs,
(go,
adverbiale
following
are:
cannot
certain
verbs
type.
summer.
defined
of
above
nowadays'.
characteristics
motive
the
simple
of the
establishment
more narrowly
simple
of
day.
facts
for
criterion
the
with
forms
every
early
often
of master
associability
property
adverbiale
present
The above distributional
kind
the
sole
morning
cigarettes
go to sleep
him weekly.
that
the
not
with
simple
very
or recurrent
Cf. 'I always smoked
sentences.
to buy them. ' Moreover,
the precent
afford
up at
of
morning),
can associate
complex
can also
I always
They pay
these
since
or phenome-
an action
every
however,
out,
of permanence
present,
six
all
a year).
be pointed
should
adverbiale
simple
up at
Germany twice
(he goes to
or that
east),
good for
and holds
application,,
the
in
sun rises
habitual
is
non
of
of general
V
wr
future
),
etc.
time
e. g.
those
arrive,
(e. g. next
fly,
C'.0
to-morrow.
to Paria
He flies
to London
The Prime Minister
returns
takes
The airplane
off in on hour.
C f.
also,
his
He roads
paper
week.
next
The committees meet to-morrow
begin. next month.
Elootions
The simple
form of all
of future
adverbiale
clauses.
adverbial
time
to
verbs
Examples
the
study
can also
in. complex
all
will
be over.
simple
present
Further
characteristics
where
Some of the
forl3s"
ore those
connected
it
of
is
with
the
freely
to
verbs
the
mostly
sentences,
talk
before
I'll
I leav,
arrive
he
talk
to him until
-apologizes.
cases.
with
associate
f they
I won't
those
pro jagt.
in
are:
When you wake up to-morrow,
j.
to-night.
variant
with
which this
senses
to
thoa.
can be noon
the
present
characteristic
(see,
hear,
perfect
applies
).
etc.
DUMPles
a©:
(I've
have gone up lately.
heard) prices
hear
i
(has
told
tells
friend
no) ...
stories
me
My
who
writes
_
(I've
found) the film you told no about vary amusing.
find
I
The
the
simple
simple
prßaeat'
past
g.
e.
,
present
form
in. narrative
occurs
contexts,
also
in
tho
Sroo
variation,
so-called
'historic
with
so
They
dien,
When behold,
men coming.
the
English
thron
of
one
Boas
on
...
Away runs the Biglish
sen....
the
in
Walking
and fires.
of
the
with
forest,
he sees
a tiger,
of demonstration,
In. situations
freely
But marls the and.
offers.
The nothor
is married
again,
and has a Pont uto.
rorused
all
the father
present
the
staple
fora,
continuative
on television,
an eye operation.
he taken
aim,
present
oun vary
Thus in. a deaonstxutioa
(an
romove
:I
strange,
tho
ronoving)
Cornea.
Moreover,
hate,
love,
(©. s.
fora
where
verbs
associated
believe,
öther
with
connected
verbs
fear)
in
appear
ndverbials
of
states
with
may appear
the
First
likes
1.
she likes
nobody.
al )Distribution
b-
Imperfect
in. the
simple
or
(in
SSubuH
latl
events
the
(every
yoom
form.
present
with
like:
day),
Thus
9aadatan
bu heel
etc.
that;
on
procent
i. o.
when
Exai pleo
aro:
out to be rigIt
turn
us.
right
now oh©
b+imnerfect
Arabic
in
of
Exaaples
night),
are:
l
or
vorbs
they
sentences
recurrent
(habitually)
(at
to Dngliah
genoral
im simple
advorbials
horning),
duration.
she likes
correspond'
verbß
associated
regularly
states
of
aiaplo
form,
He'd better
he-may hate
and them
this
in the
continuative
contemporary
him.
For the moment I believe
He loves us now, but to-morrow
of mind or dispociti
are
habitual
daaytnon
? allyaanan
(always)
9
(soa©tiaos),
cý +`,
,ý
tiýý
w
bidallilu
9aadatan
SSabi ? aktar
nun ulbunt
(They usually
boy more than the
spoil_tho
ana.
daa? laan.
7
(i
always
bnaam bakki. ir
sleep
early)
? akle
nnaas byaaklu
(People
eat a light
xafiifo
meal in
bu SSeef ljaww byubrod
(In. the summer it Seta
waa? ei byuktob.
(Waal writes
They also
both
time,
includo:
höurj
an
S eut
his
occur
kul
with
a4verbials
and complex
(to-morrow)
(next
(later)
with
tutur©
The advorbials
v
ba9d
Exsýploa
saa9a
(in
Of sinplo
byutxarra
letter)
lj aaye
j us suno
graduate
will
neat
ba9d saa9&- byu9111nu nnataa? oj
(They will
announce the results
Moreover-;
parallel.
inporfect
I. n Eiglish,
E%amples
assoclatod
are:
(My brother
'historic
day)
yoaý) , etc.
bukra. bub9at
ulasktuub.
(To-morrow
I'll
send the
y axi
night)
sentences.
ba9deen
l
the
yoom
homework every
l jaaye
ssuno
,
enC öS
SSubuH
the morning)
bu lleel
cold during
waZiifto
in. simple
bukra
girl)
present',
are:
to
the
b-verbs
and in
year)
in. an hour)
use of the
can be used
situations
of
simplo
in
the
present
so-ca11©d
"demonstration".
form
n0f-,
7
1.,
bu iHaara
kann 9alaayuddiin
yul9ab
yoom
mag rufa? aato.
b ýs? nlo 9an ? uamo
bi; uufo waaHed sacHer,
....
Used to play in the ctroot
Aladin
One
with his frionda.
day a magician
He asko him about his name,,, )
sees him.
tr San. sutt
b
bi5cmmom
?
saa
u1?
ulHusun.
ami
w
anno
...
yu C ubha.
(The pribe
hears of Sit Aihuen and dooides
to aak for
her hand. )
In. a doaonätration
(l)
of
theorem:
a.. gooaetry
boo
daal
DDulu9
jiin
9anuud
9a
uzzaawyo
mum
mýunnazzol
(wo draw a perpendicular
from cnglo (b) to tho baßo (a-c)
In the
is
variation
however,
1.1i)
imperfect
verbs
extend
learning
(1)
clear
with
to
simple
all
d©monotration
of
adverbials
forma.
by
tho
alias
lank
the
(©. g,
forma
perfect
with
inter
context,
Bath
c
typ©.
earlier
Implications
from
b-verbs
in. the
and not
are characterized
Contrastiy©
is
It
draw)
are frooly
' periphrastic
may be called
what
association.
potential
not
with
But in. the
forms.
b-verba
imperfect
examples,
: we shall
unnazzel
types,
two
perfect
with
variant
rail
first
different
the
in. Arabi
present
cases,
examples
generally
fora.
and this
above
given
conparablo
with
is
bound
to
Eilich
howovor,
Comparability,
bring
that
does
about
problems.
Morphophonemic al. t ©rnunt s of b include
first
the
person plural
prefix
contains
/ni/ loon
/n/.
the
verb
)
n 0- ;.)
J
1. ß"I
Thus
f©ot
forms
time,
the
in
Arabic
of
verbs
are
return,
set
Arabic,
however,
verbs
giglich
future
or
simple
in the
reports,
we cannot
in
only
is
have
sail,
form
such
to
in. Eagli
arrive,
the
Cr.,
or
only
'Frog
'he takes
now on:-ho
2 hours
can associate
contextual
distribution:
of
with
future
when. associated
of
a comparable
a conflict
on_ his
imposed
The restriction
restriction.
between
the
two
with
e. g. in. nowepapor
imporfect
with
adverbials
style.
any particular
exam to-morrow',
(father's
a night'
future
ah:
his
sloops
case of
of
0 The police
are much stricter
with bad drivers
bout your money.
® Don't
I pay you next
worry
however,
time
MSor©over, while
styles,
restricted
not
future
In
two
a small
advorbials
sentoncos.
certain
of
with
the
in
only
of
otc.
futuro
of
come, go, leave,
present
association
in_ Arabic
b-verbs
simple
English,
of
can appear
and complex
advorbials
adverbiale
embark,
verbs
all
cdverbials
rrdio
Thus
in
case
These include:
off,
and b+inpor-
Dhglich
so acsooiabio
with
associated
take
off,
the
in
with
verb-class
In
sentences.
both
the
of
forms
present
compatible
are
different.
is
in. simple
time
simple
membership
languages
number
both
while
'
oi",n,
in
'In
in future.
week.
a roportaso;
rutur©
ho studios
©dict).
on. the
verbs
membership
in. the
adverblals,
on imperfect
languages.
simple
and on. the
present
as. opposed
b-verbs,
The
ignoring
to
fora
absence
constitutes
of
such
R
i..
by speakoru
rostrictionts
Jý
of Arabic
in. tho
rosultc
following
ii at ckeG:
later.
®I
explain. everything
0 Thero' a no time;
we diccuas
b-verbs
Imp©rfect
The behaviour
quenc©
under
ac3itencoa
b-verbs
in
complex
forces in
present
of Arabic
two hoadinga:
oomparabl©
und English
1. Conditional
contoncos
forma
contoxts
may be
2. So-
Sontcncos;
Sentences
conditional
main- clause
whether
the
or
perfect
2. ?iza
(If
the
verb
in the
form,
conditional
this
pencil,
appear
in
the
clauco
is
in
e. g.
ha 1? olt
aaa buttriilak
this
I. wouldn t
pencil,
buDDat rag ha 1? alas
you_loso
b-verbs
imperfect
sentences
b+inperfect
? iza Dawwa9t
(If
you-lost
(1)
siapl©
next
of Tenses.
Conditional
In
of
The behaviour
in- English.
contrasted
in_ complex
of imperfect
from that
differs
the details)
(1)
week.
Gooro
buy you
another
aaa buhriilak
Gooro
won't
you onothor
I
buy
ono)
ono)
far
that
this
is
be
as the
mistake
as
It
pointed
out
a
should
(of
'Wo
details
discuss
the
But
our aortgago)
goes.
Context
Perhaps
is
sentence
perfectly
good
olsowhoro.
a.
next week'
"now"
but
between
the
is
week",
the reason
and "next
contrast
bo
before
is
can.
a-dofinit©
anowor
necessary
more research
given.
n 0- f"
IAV
It
in
will
two
the
cases
the
the
the
main
situation,
English
requires
and the
which
the
is
in
simple
the
past
forms
appears
in
form
respectively
of
the
English
to be expected
in
the
learning
following
mistakes:
? iza telfant
ulmasa maa butlnn? iini
?awa9iik
? iza wassaxt
? atle
btaakol
lxayaar
buxtanr
? iza 9aTuuni
ulHumur
btu? der tuHjez
? iza ruHut bakkiir
rzaHallnat
Sequence
obtaining
the
of
verb
verbs
iiHa
them
noun
is
necessary
and the
clauses
and the
to
verbs
in
the
the
describe
relationships
main
clause,
and Arabic.
English
it
English,
operating
yield
in
verbs
between
In
it
heading,
this
of
both
me
Tenses
of
behaviour
in
English
Arabic,
reflect
Under
of
majority
in the evening
If you telephoned
you do-not-find
be smacked if you dirtied
" You will
your clothes
I choose the red oneo.
" If they gave the choice,
@ If you went early,
you can book good seats.
which
the
before
equation
generalized
forms.,
b-form
a modal
Now since
and to perfect
imperfect
explains
same imperfect
form
a mechanically
Arabic
the
clause.
present
to b+
Arabic,
with
in
simple
correspond
in
where
sentences,
verb
primary
that
be noticed
is
in
different
necessary
the
main
to
clause,
relationships.
redivide
since
also
according
different
typos
to
ný
n
FJ .iJ
Genorally
speaking
by a present
can. be followed
fora
a pros ont
in
tho
o laus o
main
form in. tho noun clause,
or paßt
©" 6O
to-morrow.
He ea ye he cam go to school
He nays he went to school y©ct©rday
On. the
usually,
tho
other
though
form in. the
hand a past
not uniformly,
noun. clause,
by a past
followod
in the
especially
in
main clause
fora
in.
'Reported
so-called
Speech',
e. g.
He said he had often, done it
said
to see
He
quite
went
-them
-ho
to this
behaviour
different
the
only
I
the
verb
although
(1)
appears
had my lunch
verbs.
verb in
(think,
the
example,
a noun clause
whether
case the
latter
in past
about
in_ the noun- clause
the
the
for
verb
the
Cf.
fora).
perfect
in
at school.
I. had. known
other
can occur
(in
'wish',
With
in
the
to consider
necessary
verbs.
certain
of a verb
no=ally
d
wish
With
of
or pant
present
noun. clause
I`I
fora
past
is
'wish'
statement
general
is
it
often.
it
thou.
say,
to
appear
malm clause
in
is
is
it
believe)
the
po.Bnibl©
simple
in. the
past
for
present,
(1)
corm, o. g.
"This
torus
follows:
in
notional
as
This -is often
oxprossed
do-is
it
if
is
howev©r,
not obsorvod
often
fixed
sequence,
.
habitual,
to repreaont
conething
as customary,
characsired
",
Curao,
true.
PP-354-5o;
Olt,
op.
univorsally
as
teristics
or
fl
He ask©d the
.r
guard
what
He told me that Mary is
pings -boautii idly.
on, the
In- Arabic,
in
can. appear
is
clause
? ultullo
told
.I
? ultullo
told
.I
which
starts.
whether
verb, in. the
noun olauao
the
the
main.
ocot&ing
in
form,
or perfect
in
verb
e. 6.
biikra
bruu
him i.
o to-morrow)
ruHut nbaareH
him,
yesterday)
went
.I
sentences
of
possibilitieo
in
Arabic
for
is
terns
verb,
and Fhglish
by an abundance
reflected
can be accounted
of
forma
constitutes
Of attested
a hhis
difforence,
him
from
that
I
I
® ...
can
profit
saw
and
QI hoped that I Mini Sh b ofor© ho c_.
which
reflect
and
at ing.
nettles
the
worko hard,
§uu ba
mel kul yoon
dray)
does
every
what _he .
Auu ba
mel kul yoom
day)
did
he
every
what
The different
is
train
diligont,
head,
form
b-imperfect
in: the b-imperfect
ba9ref
know
.
-I
grufut
knew
-I.
complex
other
the
quite
know that
seem to
Ho . didn't
time
Arabic,
W tuft
? anno bu? der ? uatfiiid
aunno
L
byul!
buxlo
t,?
?
. cLmmajt unno
,?. abulma
a conflict,
rzi at ak©a which
e. g.
C 1'". 1
17
i. j ,
The
1.1
Contrasted
simple
past.
(except
in
in
ways
sounds,
lar
the
case
the
after
the
other
different
widely
a closed
class
every
--
(1)
an. open
class
other
(1)
verbs,
of
voiceless
which
past
week,
once,
day,
often.
is
or
volood
This
is
the
r©gu.
have
clasp,
and as they
bringt
think;
catch;
t©ach;
oreop: oropt
sloep; slept
leap ; leapt
moan : meant
indefinite
Ecnaples
a norphomo'
form
e. g.
compatible
previously;
and the
adds
after
a closed
formation,
past
vorbo
sounds.
form
principal
prosent
/d/
plosivos,
two
are
tho
or nuabor
pornon.
wimple
of
is
vorbo
of
for
There
tho
burl
: burnt
learnt
learn;
dwoll; dwolt
send : sent
(a),
(definite
bo').
b©twoen
can. be listod,
The simple
last
'to
alveolar
kinds
say : said
fled
flee;
heard
hear;
sold
sell!
time
verb
of
can be ctat©d:
after
form
proaont
shows no variation
relation
/t/
and
type;
English
simplo
fora
This
/id/
as
realized
tho
with
which
past
simple
Past in
Simple
and
1v©rbials
c
with
(b)
(2)
) such
of
an:
rop©titl.
of
brought
thought
o uu ht
muht
(1) pant
yoat orday,
on such
nn:
are:
6
'strong'
inj
verbs is troatod
Verh inflection
of the co-called
two major works :
' MFli sh Verb Inflection'
Lunguago,
1. Bernard Bloch,
,
V. 23 (1947)9 pp"399-118
'Tho EißUch
2. Alphonse Juillsrd
and James t,;uerio,
Verb System' , (Janu a Lingua rum XXI V) ;' c-Gravenhago:
1962*,
A..
(1)
('a) He played
Columbus
(h)
(2)
in.
discovered
faro,
I have
angry
pnoriaz
40o yoara
than
more
but I cannot
remember
)
faro...
coon, this
in. &on©ral,
past,
compatibility
of
with
the
with
indicators
present
whoro
ago.
and
money.
of
sinplo
below)
In
the
with
prosont
time;
past
matter
and indefinite
that
clear
ample
of
in, the
forms
past
it
giv©=
adverbials
definite
both.
use
contrasts
(see
for
exaaplec
with
perfect
of
asked
the
covor
From the
sentences.
in: matters
I
whenever
statements
above
simple
of
und
ansociation
time.
past
Cf.
saw him recently
I
I
have
I
saw him
8I
him recently
seen
yesterday
have seen. him yesterday.
distributional
For further
form,
Tuesday
fly mother always vent to Switzerland
for hor holidaya.
Last year I walked to my office
every day.
simple
the
last
golf
I saw this
whon. (cf.
He got
The
,r
it
is
to
necessary
of tho
statements
g9 beyond
simple
cinp10
past
to
soantencea,
complex
sentences.
past
To the
general
clause
subordinate
form
past
added
if
forms
Simple
that
only,
if
the
with
in
_complex
descriptive
statement
of
a complex
verb, in
certain-
supposing,
sentences
I'd
the
sentence
main
clause
verbs
(wish)
rather,
it'
that
tends
is
and with
c (hi8h)
in
a verb,
to
it
other
time
in
appear
past,
the
should
forms
) the
verb
the
be
(as
in
if,
hJ
tho
clause
subordinate
in the
verb
in
must appoar
to
main- clause
in the
tho
form.
present
that
I was so tired
I could not move.
fie wrote clearly
so that I might
got his
They asked him if
he know. anything
about
I wish I had another.
Supposing
you lost,
what would
(high)
time I went home.
It's
From the
equate
the
the
time.
the
past
as well
simple
This
form
past
is
The fat
that
with
,
conpatibl4-
the
vorh, with
appear
with
we cannot
past
time
clauses
all
whore
of
advorbials
present
e. g.
the letter
your seats
with
clauses
conditional
can
letter.
the matter.
that
seems clear
of the
Examploo are:
you do 7
shown. In conditional
verb
time,
if
you posted
If you booked
Show.
fora
also
the
of
as future
C
it
above examples
ovon whoa tho
past
now, it
would get there
to-morrow,
you wouldn't
past
adv©rbiccls
(wish,
forma
certain-
form
of
does
past
as ir,
not
timo
associate,
has
by Tuosday.
miss the
©to. ) and in
or
is
not
an intorocting
co.
C.
rollary.
A. If only I knew the result
now.
I wish I. had some cash on ne.
it now, I would have to
If I bought
B.
If
only
I
had known
I wish (wished)
If I had bought
in. cash.
the
result
pay
in
each.
then.
I hbd had some cash on no then.
it yesterday,
I would have had to
pay
4
'-I ".
of
A comparison
the
texts
rary
duration
only
the
past
time.
but
verbs
the
past,
with
form
is
of
syntagmatic
it
would
in
of
compatible
to
& 'would',
related
present
in
wherein
present
and past
forms
are mutually
I wish
I could
go.
Perfect
Verbs
bl)
1.
Verbs
to
though
in
not
the
the
is
verbs
can
of past
terday),
xamples
.
simple
in
treat
'can'
'may'
& 'sight'
&
structures
cf.
go
he could
in. Arabic
in. English,
mun saa9teen
form
perfect
definite
as
come.
Arabic
form
past
between
exclusive;
could
of
correspond,
and are
in
general,
deemed comparable,
in. distribution.
in. the
time,
I
He thought
perfect
identical,
Thus verbs
tore
go
certain
I' d hoped
and that
adverbiale
limited
forms
I
contempo-
obtaining
and past
I hope
of
with
relations
'will'
above con-
time,
past
be justifiable
& 'should',
the
adverbiale
adverbiale
with
not
kind
'shall'
'could',
compatible
perfective
past
From the
in
is
form
past
B shows that
set A and set
are
or indefinite,
(two hours
ago),
with
associated
like:
marra
mbaareH
(once),
are:
badii9a
gala
jum9a
Hafle
mun
n9azamt
(I was invited
to a smashing party
a week ago)
etc.
indica.
(yes-
"9fN
ýJ
mbaaro} bu ttalifoon:
to him on tho phono
Haakooto
(I talked
yor-t orday)
911d miilaad
gurnroma Hada 9uraulli Haflot
(Nobody has over gWcn mo a birthday
party)
is
This
of
the
of
Arabic
below
be discussed
1.
.
While
bj
perfect
sentences)
to
(unlike
E)iglish
that
indicators
with
Say in
of
form
perfect
in
past
of
Ehglich
was touchod
which,
tho
of
aspects
'Contrastive
cimplo
divorgonoo
will
inplications'.
implications
Contrastivo
forms
simple
some of
Other
comparability
tho
distribution..
the
with
tho
with
the
divergence,
forms.
under
verbs
rosp©cts,
distributional
and b-inporfect
present
English
of
other
in. connection
on_ earlier
in
In
verbs.
a vast
simple
form
past
simple
shows
as ono can go in. showing
as far
in
simple
Arabic
past
forms)
repetition.
in
correspond
forces
they
in
do not
Thus
while
genoral.
they
lish,
ii
is
differ
associate
nor=ally
it
(in
possible
to
01ß1i13h,
In the past men. frequently
When I was young,
my father
on Sunday.
Arabic
requires
the
auxiliary
in. comparable
the
verb
ted
in. Arabic
follows:
as
contexts.
duels.
fought
gave me my pocket
always
'kann'
The
+ the
above
inporroat
examples
fora
are
money
of
troncla-
q%4- Pl
w')3
ktiir.
utbaarazu
yaVH-lnl
xarjiyyti
kaanu
nnaas
mun zamaan
lamma kunt zGiir Haan
Thus in
i. e.
in English,
'kaan'
repetition
he considers
to use what
tend
would
of past
a context
'was'
of Arabic
a speaker
be an equivalent
of
and say or write:
® She was take her dog for
®I was play football
very
which
to
yoom ul? aiiad
he died.
a walk every day before
well when I was at school.
Arabic
reflect
kaanet taaxod kalbha mulwaar kul yoom ?abulma mast.
kunt ?ul9ab futbool
mniiH lemma kunt bu lmadraoe.
seems then
It
cult
bials
with
to
since
fect.
the
associate
of repetition,
the
it.
is
in
in
form
the
will
in
i. e. the
comparable
is
'used
form,
to',
more readily
with
'kaan'
diffi-
with
readily
perfect
The form
above context,
English
they
which
it
find
adverassociate
is
not
which
is
learned,
+ the
inper-
Cf.
buddo
lay)
(23
to play)
yul9ab
(he wants
(2)
the
in Arabic,
some respect
(1)
kaan yul9ab
(he used to
(1)
forms
past
simple
such adverbiale.
with
variant
of Arabic
speakers
since
past
simple
compatible
freely
that
to the past continuous
This form also corresponds
form in
though 'kaan San yul9ab'
is far more common in this
English,
tu
below
See
27a
pp.
case.
See pp. Z$7(infinitive
vs. zero + imperfect)
V. S
Contrastive
implications
The distribution
as regards
and other
verbs
the
the
simple
In, the
perfect
the
time,
in
in
verb
the
of
main
points
of
thou
conflict
verbs
d©pondont
clauses
in
complex
oont©nc©s,
tho
with
clause
time
in
Mglinh.
and,
in
(if)
1©aa oi'ton,
b+
in
vorbu
'tiza'
partialo
appearing
Saar li
butfii?
to-night
9aa? el ba9Tiik
you behaved
? iza
botwocn
past
imperfect
are:
? a9adut
(if
complex
botwocn
future
? iza num.it bakkiir
ulleolo
(If
you went to bed early
in the corning)
? iza
offers
of
associating
indicators
Examples
form.
in
obtaining
in
clauses
Arabic
with
can. appear
form
Sentences
conditional
form
in. porfoct
obtainiZjing
forms
and other
Conditional
nentonooo
clauses
relationships
past
complex
relationships
dependent
in
corresponding
with
vorbs
of
aantencea
in
furSa
buaro?
jdiid.
? alas
I
youralof
uSSubuH
nazliT
you would got. up fresh
would
give
you a now Pon)
9aleekon.
(Svhen.
have the opportunity
I sha11 call
on you)
_I
1aaaDye byunjcH
? iza daras Tuul uSSeoriyyo
(If
last
he studied
he will
runner
patio)
all
In
comparable
conditional
clause
in. the
clause,
with
fora.
main
the
zero
This
fora
contexts
is
associated
the
of
divergence
in. II18liah
modal
the
nodal
botwo©n
with
the
in
a verb
F2iglish
-od
in
past
in. the
and ca infinitive
a modal
appearing
or
simple
fora,
the
und Arabic
and not
simple
present
accounts
for
cý (% r
the
following
mistakes:
reflect
which
saafart
la
raaH
With
indicators
conditional
clause
In
'kaan'..
appear
of past
mayor
time,
may not
the
'? iza',
and the
form
perfect
the
perfect
by the
conditional
in
verb
the
in
verb
be preceded
the
such constructions,
used and not
in
?a6ya ktiire
bu? der ?ut9allam
?ungliizi
?awaam
byut9allam
la Barra
?ungeltra
? iza
?iza
is
I can learn many things.
he learns
English
very quickly.
I travelled
abroad
he went to England
" If
® If
the
auxiliary
'law'
particle
main clause
and. must be preceded
must
by 'kaan'.
are:
Examples
law kaan sume9 kalaami bi wa? tha
ta9ab ktiir.
(If he had listened
to me at the
himself
a lot of trouble)
kaan waffar
time
gala
he would
nafoo
have
spared
law (kurt)
smu9t lumnabbeh lamina da?? kunt maa t? axxcart
(If I had heard the alarm-clock
when it rang I wouldn't
have been late)
law (kunna)
(If
we had
the match)
This
type
of
clause
appears
modal,
the
verb
perfective
ttalivizyoon
lmubaaraa.
kunna äufna
have
on. the television
would
we
seen
construction
condition'
'rejected
past
fataHna
switched
in
in. the
in. the
form,
corresponds
English,
perfect
in
infinitive
conditional
e. g.
which
clause
to the
the
verb
preceded
appearing
so-called
in
the
main
by a past
in
the
ýý
"'s
letter
if
you had posted the
them by now.
reached
is
It
tional
sentences
'koren'
corresponds
'kamt
since
of
to
I'-f
were told
that
in
form
preceded
for
kind
of
transfer
worn
ploaaod
Now
and use
should
of
by
speakers
word)
they
condi-
Englich.
'wore'
or
(word
where
in
sentcacos
this
with
form
'was'
by
form
past
wont
above
perfective
havo
would
perfect
literally
Baglish
the
use
the
typo.
above
Arabic
of
arc:
us you
us earlier
literal
may be considered
which
the
im conditional
to
you were
® If they
lion.
past
reflecting
compounding
givon
typo
equated
simple
form
mistakes
verbal
the
translate
to
perfective
Attested
above
it
y©ct ©rdtty
examples
generally
the
+
'was'/'were'
past
the
of
is
tend
Arabic
the
from
clear
"ýJ
ý
{,
tho
wo were accepted
translations
of
the
invita-
Arabic
sentences:
law kunt ruHut neu
law ka,anu sa? aluuna
ii)
In
main. clause
inperfOct
b4
or
past
the
in. the
in the
sentences
verb
containing
in. the
fora,
in
clause..
a verb
dependent
contrast
anin_ c1c oo tends
dependent
19azlimo
Clauses
Noun cnd Adverb
.
coaplox
kunt nbasaTut
bakklir
kann
? bulna
to
clause
giglish
to be followed
Examples
are:
perfect
form
may upper
in
in
where a vorb
by a verb
in
in
the
perfect
in
the
the
past
C0- W)
ca? alto
(I
him iY. ho would
asked
? iza
oa? alto
(I
biHubb. yuirab
? iza
if
The divorgcnco
botwoen. simple
perfect
forms
lowing
att®stocl
past
he Liked
botwocn
forms
doomed to
in
Eag11sh
Arabic.
the
ootfoo)
of
coffoo)
difforont
the
forma
and other
in
rolationahipa
forma
Arabic
is
in
English
roflect
obtaining
and botwocn
ed in
the
fol-
miatakos;
discussed
he comparable
will
a cup
and other
can litt
in_ time,
difficult
I saw that
and
...
hoped. he finishes
ßI
that
it is
I felt
Having
liko
? uhwo
Habtx ul? tLhwe
hin
asked
runjaan
I
tho
simple
forma
be discussed
it
to
forris
in. Arabic,
with
thoir
by myself
understand.
in
F glich
the
und what aro
porfcctivo
nearest
foram
oqUiValcnt'3
in
ý'
''
1
r. ý
2. Porfectiyo
a) Pros ont
The distribution
be described
oon. bust
are
Is
definite
indefinite
yet),
I
react
but
fora
time
Thus
we can
that
book
past
fora.
simple
time,
Both
G. S.
book boforo.
book boforo.
road that
coapatible
indicators
with
(yont orday,
before),
indicators;
with
compatible
recently,
once,
already,
mglioh
of
only
never,
have:
befor©
book last
that
read
in
(before,
past
the
pant time
and indefinite
I read that
I've
pant
simple
perfective
present
in
I road that
the
while
form
pact
of
I've
of both
not
to
I have necn. him rocently.
But
the
indicators
aaw lain rocontly.
I
perfective
presort
in. rolation
with
compatible
the
of
wook
before
book
not
I've
road that
The prcaont
(tor
duration
of
these
can
when_thoy
different
occur
do,
book last
is
perfective
a week,
with
difforc
oxtenßibilities
the
week.
since
also
Jcnuary,
simple
'rith
associated
proseat
for
ton
and pact
cdv©rbiala
days),
forms*
though
But
0
it
implications
of
tho
obtain,
following
an shown. by tho
oxcmploß:
Cl. - $
4.
Jack
to
Jack
was in
Jack
has been
he is
town
in
let
I'll
The
in.
and,
that
of
other
use
have
for
ture
of
forms,
to
tended
speakers
how it
no longer
(the
In
stook Is
to anaociatad
I'll
statements
call
tom)
ovor
cind
indioatoro
with
arc
hoard
the
of
stands
thou.
a fairly
from
present
it
with
granxi
offers
seems appropriate
contra-
serious
prob-
to
a pie-
givo
Diropoan,
British,
rians,
with
its
concerning
und partly
perfective
Arabic,
sub joct.
overlaps
perfective
complementary
present
extcnsivo
on the
by granmariono
be partly
the
fron
literature
controversial
of
on you.
derived
statments
Now since
lens
in
a week
it
had dinnor,
distribution
the
(ho
torainatod)
not
e. g.
some measure,
Because
for
you know when I'vo
above
dictory.
torn
clauses,
tines
Whoa I've
a wool
wook to
torn)
in
In. adverbial
of
in
(the
a wook
town. for
still
ruturo
for
and
American.
Sweet
apeake
of
the
present
that
began
in
the
past
action
either
by continuation.
(1)
opealung.
(1)
pp.
cit.,
p. 98.
aster,
perfect
and in
or
boing
as
related
termination
to
at,
used
the
the
of
present
aoacnt
on
time
of
p.
p.
(1)
Jesporsen has
this
to
-
"_
say of tho
proaont
porfoot:
"The preterite
to homo time in the pact without
refers
tolling
the connection
the procont
about
anything
with
.
is a rotrocpoctivo
moment, while the Perfect
procont,
time,
which connects
a past occurrenco
with the procont
up to the present
either
as continued
monont (inclucivo
time)
bearing
results
or as having
or conooquencoo
on the
"
moment.
present
Twaddell
calls
discusses
'Modification
9 odification
II
II,
tho
prosent
perfective
(have + pact
participle)
Have f participle,
undor
what
ho
as follows,
explicitly
links
th
the
ti
It
situation.
current
signals
wl.
oa;
er
event,
cn
a significant
of results,
roporsistenco
a oontilu©d
based
behaviour
liability
on
conclusions
earlier
of
(My family
town. since
1638).
has lived
in this
Put nogathere
has, not boon
that
have
tivoly,
asserts
participle
the
to
importantly
intervening
changes
affect
results
any
(or the inference
fron the report)
event or
of an earlier
'Four
have come out'
condition.
students
und app still
)
three
have
or
since
rocntor©dl
one,
out,
or
-two,
it
He contraato
for
which
currcnt
with
relevance
Modification
is
I
(the
simple
pant)
irrelevant,
the Past jiodif'ication
by no means denies euch
?iodificati
on I neither
affirms
relevance;
per
no
-current
linked
in
denies
that
the
state
earlier
ýrcnt or
nor
"
the
situation.
current
with
tt Iote
1
that
Otto Jespersen,
Allen. and Unwin,
(2)
Op. cit.
(3)
ibid,
...
..
Essentials
of
London,
-Ltd.,
E i611sh Grau u ar' , Goorgo
1948, p. 243.
n
A.
A. Hill
(tho
(1)contraots
prosont
the
simplo
pact
Following
perfoctivo).
and the
is
phrase
a cut
ary
have
with
of
hin
cnalycic:
The simple
past indicates
complotenocc,
Tho havo of
have + -od indicates
non-pant,
and tho -ad indicator
That those two forms
complet©noaa.
shuro a componont
for Choir
intorchaneonbility
of completenese.
accounts
in certain
frames:
I Lell/havo
fallen
twico
today.
That
have indicates
time accounts
for both its
non-past
inindicators
(thus
compatibility
with past-timo
wo cannot
have ' ©1 have -fallen
twico
yesterday')
and for its
ooto future
currenco
with
timo in advorb clauooa
reference
introduced
by when (when I have finished
this
book to)II
morrow...
disagrees
Hill
the
meaning
'action
Cf.
"I
read
have
now"
i-rhich,
Hill's
rule
that
certain.
does
continue
while
that
with
continuing
that
book
showing
the
to
the
into
twenty
the
timers
arise
non-past.
in those
in
to
present'
but
I
non-continuation,
form nears
complexities
und Josp©rson
Twaddell
am not
also
thoir
giving
have + --od.
roadfng
contradicts
But he rooo6i1zos
cases
where the
action
present,
have been hungry
In. 'I
days there
is the sago
all
boon
has
component
of coapletenoss,
since
shad, the
an
in still
howovor,
Completeness,
in
action.
going on.
here,
though
it
fron the action
is now translated
still
to the period
That in,
of time.
whcnevoraliavo
phraso
with a -tine indicator
occurs
which indicates
period,
like
tv nt
it
all day, two hours,
arq, or the like,
lý
is the period
is
which.
conploto.
In. his
(1)Op.
(2)Ibid,
cit.
'The Chronological
pp. 211-214.
p. 213.
it
System of the
Dnglich
Vorb',
v:
Willicn
k1)
diacuaaoe
Diver
perfect
and emerges
The
exception.
the
verb
took
with
fora
plaoo
the
have
difforont
a rule
T -od
in" tho-punt
.4
cnnlyooc
which,
indicates
at
of
as he Gaya,
that
on indofinite
the
the
in
pronont
without
of
action
time.
To
length:
at
quot©
"The
that
the signal
31, have f -od,
proof
of the hypothesis
'past,
be the lack
the meaning
indefinite'
will
of
_has
the fact that
counter
every time the signal
examples,
lioro apecifio
support
also.
appears the meaning appoars
instances
of a peculiar
can be either
positive,
affinity
'paßt'
the
the
to
donning
signal
signals
with
of
other
instances
of incompatibility
or 'indefinite',
or nogativo,
having
with other
opposed noaninso:
signals
of the signal
"
'present',
'future',
'definite.
or
"Positive
support
comes from words that
are indefinite
'No
has over askod such a quocti on
Ex:
meaning.
one
-in
before.
' 'Wherever
he has Sono, ho he has boon well
ro'
' It is to
'_Io has always boon a loyal
ceivod.
subject.
(--©d)
torn
be noted that
in those
examples the unnarkod
,L
(i. e. the simple
fora)
to which the dofinito-indo..
past
,
is irrelevant
finite
opposition.
well:
can appear
equally
To one over asked such a question
'Wherever
before'.
ho
' 'He was always
went he was well received.
subsoot;
a-loyal
dates,
those
times
I.Inny words,
especially
or
_indicating
definitely
With thoso
may be used either
or indefinitely.
the indefinite
forces
is found that
it
sigial
an, intorpro'He has played
tation
golf
on Tuesday'
of indefiniteness.
'I have Bono okatinc
Tuesday;
cannot
moan on a specific
on
day ;
day'
is an equivalent
to '_On a Christmas
Christmas
'I have played
tennis
first'
nouns on coneon Notienbor
ÜQvenber first,
the specific
November
not, for
example,
(-od)
is
hero
torn
this
The
A
unmarked
ambiyear.
of
guous,
it
to this
opposition,
since being irrelevant
intorprotation:
a definite
or indofinite
can have either
horse on WWodnesday,
'He played
rodo
a
on Tuesday'
golf
,
be
the
Thursday'
can
either
of
an
account
on
rested
and
(1) ltord,
V. 19,
Number
2,
pp. 141-1&
.
npr
days or
an indofinito
particular
of three
that
was repeated
activities
programme
a statement
of a
nutabor of times,
"
"When. the
is made definite
thoro
is negative
occasionfor the hypothesis,
the indefinite
since
signal
-support
'CI have playod
then occur.
Ono cannot
cannot
a
'
'©I
last
huv
Tuesday,
layed tennis
nor
golf
yesterday,
being definite_occaai
these
Again the unmarked
all
na.
tern Al play ed, can be used with those
definite
signals
"
just
the
indofinite
with
ones.
as
In. a roconnt book on the
and
si6nified
Thus
according
"The
cally
is
verbs
the
F2i6lish
sake of the
the
ossential.
phase
perfect
its
of
cake
is
to
are
Diglish
perfect
does
'Tho
the
vorbn
thore
(in
not
of
cause
and effect
doaignato
that
tho
phaao
perfect
theca)
apocifi.
quotation)
of the event they dosigaato
(3)
"...
to
He
say,
meaning" .
goes on
effects
not mentionod
4
perfect
the
of
concepts
cause
phase'.
perfect
meaning
the
(and
He then
conooquencea.
Joos,
Martin
1964.
Pross,
_
(2) Ibid,
p. 138
(3)Ibid,
p. 140
(4). Ibid.
1
overate
the
form.
between
(2
r©lation,
the
(1)
Jooa ucoo
porfectivo
present
in
Martin
vorb,
spacial
Jooa
by reference
the
that
and
that
to
perfoct-narkod
for
the
by verbs
between
exist
to tho
refer
fron
effect
exp1nin©d
that
the
to
nage derives
"the
is
'phaoo'
torn
the
Maglinh
'
for
its
mere that
Eaglish
on
aaltiono
phase do©c not
the
c ko but
for
come of tho
"First,
mean.
specified
V©rb' , The University
the
thingo
the
ovant
of
occuifod
Wiaconain
4.
provioun
to
"Socond,
a Frcnoh
apocifi©d
oono othor
of what tho
pant
It
has born
because
statements
it
constitutes
is
This
12iglish
being
also
partially
pial
forms'
to dwell
toaching
in
inglish
the
fact
(see
Arabic
to
and hence
does
corresponds
the
that
in, Arabic,
both
tible
indicators
with
two
(1) Ibid,
p.
144
(2)Ibid,
p.
145
is
the
p. l%1 .
causing
not
only
to
two
In
in
forms
of
both
in
porfoot
and because
opoak©rs
fora
fora
in
the
words
and
proocat
boing
corrospondonco
fact
forms
end participial
in
'partici-
The ditfi.
problems.
the
in,
Arabic,
may be callod
othor
Arabic,
of
porfect
that
in
one form
hut
Arabic,
distinction
definite
always
present
proocnt
Arabic,
different
definite-indefinite
perfect
the
teaching
lie
tho
no corresponding
perfect
what
forms
on tho
for
of
of
to
which
problem
characteristic
of
noun. that
indecisive,
there
(1)
phaoo. "
ourront
at boat
are
characteristic
moreover,
culty,
use
characteristic
partial,
i `golf,
2
necessary
since
contexts
in
doom not
mouna. '
its
of
corresponds
perfect
only
found
tho
with
perfoct
fhgliah
understandable
the
in
unintoraating
a serious
Arabic,
spocifiod
or a Gorman. portect
is
overt
ovont
. ..
is
forms
and indefinite
in
irrolovont
being
past
compatime,
A?
2.
i)
al
Since
indicators
in
perfective
of
indefinite
time
(once,
before,
this
respect
with
that
compatible
not
the
Arabic,
In other
words
in
basic
seems
the
the
form
have
one
we
in
also
simple
in
the
(the
in Arabic
the
),
etc.
of the
only
of
indi-
with
definite
- present
past
this
teaching
past
perfective
is
bound to
since
corresponding
and the
past
which
situation,
form)
perfect
its
perfect
distinction,
Naturally
simple
with
compatible
already,
those
with
in Arabic.
English:
is
English
definite-indefinite
difficulties
serious
forms
but
distinction:
is_ irrelevant
English,
two
time
in
being
latter
indefinite
time.
to
in
overlaps
cators
cause
Arabic
present
of
in
in
the
distribution
form
forms
Perfect
r
present
perfec-
Cf.
tive.
? ana
(I've
ruft
ha lfulum
film
seen this
mun ? abul
before)
ha lfulum
? ana tuft
mbaareH
(I saw this
film
yesterday)
the
form
This
being
so,
the
abundance
type
be
readily
cab.
accounted
where
'duft'
corresponds
to
both
of attested
the
present
of
similar
perfective
type
being
and 'saw'.
soon'
of
mistakes
the
following
for:
®I have seen him yesterday.
has been established
0 The department
0 The term has ended last week.
Mistakes
'have
occur
in
in 1953.
complex
used instead
of
sentences
the
simple
also,
past,
e. g.
"Pr
0 Show me the book you have borrowed
9 Because
2.
a`} ii)
',.
in. EagLish,
to
of
to
latter
being
having
text.
Cf.
freely
8am9aan. fii
(I've
heard
it
the
in
notional
the
variant
of
Arabic
the
I
form
porfoctive
torms,
verbal
in
fort
perfect
is
roforonoo
the
action,
fora
participial
with
but
was young.
proacnt
the
base maa ba9rof
him,
in
of
performed
to
I
while
forma
put
corresponds
perfective
it
functions
where,
state
learnt
Participial
the
In. one of
tho
have
I
yostordoy.
present
Arabic,
in
this
the
con-
? oeata
don't
know, Zien)
bass maa ba9ref
? eemta
smu9ut fii
(I heard of him, but i don't
know uhon)
roaari
ha lugraare
mnom
(Where
have
you bought
?
this
from
tie
fitareot
ha lugraafo
?
nneen.
(Whero did you buy this
tie
from
Free
Vora
variation.
in. the
indicators
above
of
of
the
context
definite
?
fora
participial
that
means also
past
time.
?)
Thus
it
min sun©
you a year
ago)
tho
perfect
is compatible
wo can
zgahr
bi
hdiyye
ulaaaDi
waa9udni
(He proniDed ao a present
last. month)
san9asn fick
(I heard of
with
have
with
Aº
r1
N :.
fact
The
to
partially
tiblo
the
with
for
speakers
form,
participial
in
perfective
present
indicators
ficult
with
the
that
definite
of
Arabic
of
to
in
the
present
®I
®I
the
have already
tininh©d
have oaten an hour c. o.
perfoctivo
in
F2iglish,
timo,
past
not
corresponds
which
difmore
makes it
auch indicators
accooiato
Dnglich,
oompa-
also
as the
following
mistakes
show:
The last
Arabic
Sarli)
? uli)
(two
,
These
'eine'
'for'
this
c4verbiala
and with
'Saar/?
aspect
of
latter
are
of
points
of tho
sort
ul'
to
kind
with
the
of
suffix,
statements
i. e.
what
i. e.
time',
w xamoiin
13an9t©en
? aaaabi 19 (five
t;dvorbiala
anuociating
Association
Eaglioh.
present
a pronominal
such notional
xaas
,
in
respectively
of
often
with
associated
tine',
of
days)
the
very
appear
w tuaa9aiyyo
? alf
a quantity
yoom (twenty
correspond
und
(? Uli)
week) , aunt
of
9uIriin
of
formal
(last
and indicators
weeks).
with-
when the
and
'indicators
an
to
ulaaaDi
hours)
(Sarli)
forna
forms
may be referred
(1950);
translation
mun saa9teen.
xaaleS uizußul
? aakel nun saa9a
participial
1? usbuu9
ago.
sontcacos:
The bracketed
with
litoral
can be consid©red
scntencos
following
work two hpuro
perfective
in
Arabic,
that
the
in
of
Fhßliah
is
present
the
per..
t1 !
hr
in
foot
used
up to
tinued
of
an action
tho
pronont
9aayo i bi
It
Arabic
fora
this
can have
and preceded
be taken
This
will
will
be discussed
following
ha lbclad
'Saar'
uniin
howovor,
that
'? ul'
or
at the
not
in
participial
suffix.
distribution
participlos
of
to
it
Suffice
in
verbs
all
pronominal
ta
whcn the
detail.
more
in
yoara
when appearing
up below
examples
ton
9atr
iaplicatioii
by
and con-
past
Cf.
town. for
be ncntionod,
should
the
in
started
moncnt.
in this
I have lived
Sandi
that
")
compare
the
moment:
? uli ? aakel tlut
saa9aat
(I ate three hours ago)
saaken, hoon tnun
Sarli
(I
2. b)
Past
The past
the
to
how the
the
Perfective
in
nuat
perfective
use
is
of
term
a still
( 1) OP, cit..
for
be considered
in
for
years)
Bight
Fh61i sh
simplo
regarded
oarlior
"
here
pant
perfective
present
perfective.
(his
pluperfect
the
living)
the
and
notionally
present
Bose time
been
perfective
present
perfective
of
(have
lived
have
sniin.
Thus
'past
-event
foraa.
Aocording
described,
is
as a kind
according
to
relation
of
to
perfective')
had a current
the
'shifting
Twuüdoll,
nignala
that
rolovsnoo,
pent
buck'
"tho
at
(1)
ý
In
Hill
way
acme
the
zý
the
relates
pant
to
perfect
the
present
as follows,
perfect
for the hove phrase
"If
the explanation
as comnosed of
is
aonon-past
and
completeness
the two basic
components
be
like
hnd
then
guessed
Press
can
a phrase
ceptable,
the components
rant
notion
and completeness.
to contain
A
tythe
is
but
is
whole
not
picture.
The guess
correct,
'1'nry
like
two
in
is
parts,
had
one
sentence
phrase
pical
The
home'.
John
before
occurthe
dinner
came
had cooked
before
the
pant
of
n
and
in
sentence
of
one
part
rence
the
the
time
to
of
the
as antecedent
completion
verb places
seems
always
preThis
relationship
antecedent
verb.
past
in
it
in
sequences
also
forms,
these
present
in
since
sent
John
home'.
'Mary
dinner
the
carne
had
when
like
cooked
'
home,
John
'Marv
the
dinner.
whore
came
had
cooked
and
in
time
the
the
relation
is
of
there
statement
no explicit
the
therefore
I
components
redefine
indicators.
should
past
and simple
as not completeness
of the had phrase
to
past
but
antecedent
action
past
and
completeness
action
(1)
"
action.
It
should
is
perfect
past
being
past
certain
tureen
out,
past
a clear
meaning
and the
that
choice,
But
possible.
where
simple
however,
a compulsory
not
equally
cases
the
be pointed
past
in many cases
no to
as Hill
contrast
speak,
mentions,
is
the
there
observable
the
simple
are
be-
perfect.
in
there
" Curiously,
of
sentences
no
good examples
are
is
the
had
required,
past
or
phrase
a simple
which either
the
is
in
employ
can
possible
which one
situations
and all
therefore
We
method of analysis,
use our usual
cannot
other.
the
in
which
finding
sentence
that
meaningful
element
a
of
these
components
and assigning
constructions
of
one
requires
fall
We
however,
can,
in accord with
requirements.
such
in which both constructions
back on a type of sentence
occur,
If
is
in
the
but with
meaning.
contrast
sentence
a clear
'
't! ary cooked the dinner
John
in no
home,
there
when
came
in
is
the
That
first
completion
verb.
antecedent
of
notion
John
Mary may have begun the cooking
at the instant
when
Op. cit...
p-214.
nra
This sentence
in expandnbla
to
marched in the door.
'
''nry
'Mary began to cook
If
the
hnd
is
sentence
...
'
John
in an antehome,
the
dinner
there
when
earm
cooked
for
the
when
wo
can
substitute
completiont14nd
cedent
"
before.
explicit
Examples
in
This
past
In
sentences.
complex
form
the
of
appears
mostly
in
occurs
noun
perfective
forms
dependent
clauses
and adverb
commonly
the
In the train
when the verb
clauses
are
found
pact
perfective
clause
is past.
of
clauses
time.
Examples
are:
In Noun Clsuses
I asked her how long the man had been unconscious.
She told
a new hat.
me she had bought
that he had seen the accused.
testified
The witness
In
Adverb
Clauses
that
had picked
The inspector
when Trent
up a strong
noticed
faintly
a certain
passage.
melodious
scent he whistled
the burglar
'When the police
had already
gone.
arrived,
the discussion
After
began.
we had had tea,
In conditional
with
indicators
past
of
and in
ditions'
action,
clauses,
this
past
time
use there
the past
in
what
is
knorm
as
is no antecedence
associated
'rejected
con-
to another
e. g.
If I had known you were here,
have done it before
I should
(1ý Ibid.
is
perfective
0.214.
I
if
have come nt
should
I had had time.
once.
( i4
N"S
1
kacn
b
2@
in. Arabic,
auxiliary
jDislioh.
Thus tho
of
Yore
verb
in
of
is
pant
fora
and that
'kaan'
of
vorb
botwoen
Exaaploa
cuteoodenoo.
uro
tho
in
in
action
4 participial
:
bad son
luaßa halla?
had just started)
lama wSulna kann ulfulua
(YJhen we arrived
the film
beenma HoDDartullon
onothor
obtaining
by tho
form
porrootivo
used with
rolationship
perfect
that
being
to tho
for
Arabic
tho
fora,
perfect
the
corrospond
in
_Arabic
(coo p. j ) procodod
forma
par£icipial
'kaue'
the
.
forma
Participial
ulGada
kaanu naaymiin
(By the. time I prepared
lunch
for them thoy had clrotuiy
asleep)
-fallen
d
la?
knun.
t
Etta
j
bu
iije
unno
nnat
maa
a?
aryuzin M ha, mun ? abu l
(He was not surprioed
by the result
beouuoo he had known
before)
about it
In
varicnt
the
above
with
the
the
examples
forzi.
participial
lanma wSulna kaaa_ u1rulua
bee=a
in
place
It
fora
rorent
of the
should
of certain
bu nnntii
previous
be mentioned
verbs
relationahipu
Thus
luaus
the
verb
in
freely
havo
buds
nnuuu
j© la? anno buun duri
tiiha
mun ? abul
©xr plos.
in
passing
when preceded
with
of
wo could
haha?
u1Gada ka=u
HaDDartullon
na- tfaaja?
fora
perfect
tho
that
the
participial
by 'kann. ' can exhibit
pr©coding
vorb,
and in
dit.
such oaoon
c
would
not
rather
to
the
the
to
corrospond
paßt
the
compare
9
pant
fallowing
Participial
(coo
below
at
in
porfoctivo
continuative.
in. more detail
discussed
w"
förna
p. lzt)
the
autl
the
'kaan. ' t participle
and the
perfective
past
to
it
; cuffjca
uaeulu"aon
like
otroot
lamina $ufto kam kaatob, ulmaktuub.
(When. I saw. hin ho hLd (alroady)
written.
to
be
will
present:
Lufto
1aia
kann ma 3t bu cöaaro9
(tithan I saw hin he was walking
in
drunk person)
With. some verbs,
but
Eaglioh
past
a
lottor)
tho
both
c,an correspond
continuative
fornc
in
Cr.
mglish.
tufto
lea
(I saw him
kaure Taule9
mun ubluGu1
his work)
when lip was leaving
naa la? eeto bu 1aaktab, la? anno kann Taal©9 ? abul caa9a
(I did not find him bocuuoo he had left
hia work an hour
before)
2. Vs Contrastive
In
past
fora
the
is
it
clear
distributional
extends
Arabic
c©dent
distributional
above
of the
perfective
form,
the
view
implications
Arabic
that
no direct
beyond that
and Baglißh
relationship
'kam'
und the
rang©
of
'loan'
obtaining
in
IIzglißh
of
A participial
conflict
of the
form
facts
occurs,
p participial
past
perfective
quo3tion
botwom
coinoido
or
perfect
sinne
or
portoct
form in
in
them and other
although
tho
F1iglich,
anto-
vorbss in
tho
n*"cl
perfect
the
and
pant
simple
J
forma in
Arabia
an'1 Diglioh
r©opoctiv©ly.
indirect
A romoto
on the
basis
&rabio
,
forts,
corpus
of
cnulysod,
substitutable
the
the
howovor,
conflict,
frequency
relative
latter
or
and participial
almost
sentonc©s
corresponding
the
nine
perfect
iliglich
times
forms
und
in
the
boing
Of.
invariably.
kunt ga=ol
Haaabi ? uxloS
Hs anbi
Sault Hsaabi ? ux1oS ? abul
both
of
only
appearing
to dinoorniblo
to
? ayluul
? abul
? ayluul
baaa naa ZabaT
bann maa ZabcT Hassabi
Dlglish,
before
to finish
I had planned
did not work.
calculation
September
but
my
r;
3.
forgo
Continuativo
present
does
it
that
not
with
aaaociabl©
rtctically
simple
the
with
with
appour
simple
oharaoto-
advorbißlo
(usually,
form
raroly,
wo can hßvo
Thus
georally).
sonetineL,
contracts
continuative
present
in
ingliuh
Continuativo
a) Prosont
The
in
smokes a Ciöz r
He usually
but
He is
is
it
duration,
at
with
compatible
united
or
The present
Indicators
in tho
way as tho
sue
He sometimes smoke cigars.
He is smoking a cigarette
now.
with
definito
association
Cf.
contrasts
with
with
past.
the
ample
noity,
1itaitod
includo:
now,
nowadays.
contracts
continuative
of time,
of
otault¬
Such indicators
still,
moment,
as regards
present,
inclicatorn
repetition.
at this
present,
now.
a cigarette
smoking
the
cinpl©
or indofinito
prosent
porfoctiv©
end
I
I
tri©d
this
have
triad
Exýaplos
cdv©rbials
brand
that
brand last
of the
of licit
preacnt
©d ropotition
boforo.
wock.
continuativo
arc;
in
ancociation
frith
tý^, 'ä
fý :I
to school
is walking
Wi11ian
this
torn.
YWoArcn't
auch moat nowadaya.
Dating
Jack io smoking too auch thouo doya.
-
Th© pr©ocnt
bialy
timo,
i'utur©
of
is
continuativo
also
aacociatod
leaving
They
Io
to cpend the weekend
are coning
to-morrow.
buying
shirt
a now
love,
forget,
know,
whore
precont
other
co that
fora,
month.
next
verbs
(aaoll,
present
verbs.
Thus
and the
present
in
the
hoar,
verbs
coo,
in
appear
a cane
and the
simple
following
are
think,
procont
both
niaplo
continuative
botwoon
foray
procont
boltovo,
the
in
variation
examples
continuative
us.
appear
the
free
of
with
notice,
)
can
otc.
contain,
we have
continuative
näv©r-
o. s.
Ic
Certain
with
the
tho
those
of
simple
present
possible:
(believe)
For the moment I an believing
tura out to be ri6ht,
him;
hold
better
is that
Roosevelt's
The trouble
we're disregarding
advice;
(fear)
fear
itself,
fearing
are
We
ýunderstand)
undorctanding
Answer to an exs ination
:Iu
question)
sanpýo.
gender in the limited
3.
a)
9am .º inporfect
9am + imperfect
to
(1)
the
The
present
forms
in
in
continuativo
exump1o 3 appoar
in.
in
rabic
Arabic
EaSlish.
%lilliai
in
correspond,
Divert
The
banjo
a artiolo,
6anorol,
of their
op.
cit.
.
Jva
comparability
9=
b.
of
to
found
prepeat
to
correspond
gam
inporfect
und
-+
9aci + inperfoct
=ore
present
simple
forms
(l%hat are
wear ? abuuk
--9an
yuß? 1 lwardaat.
(1hero
Is
doing 7last
?
the
present
simple
Bhglioh
b,
be
will
the
will
(nor)
bf
itporfoot
foi'ic
continuativo
in
rand the
contexts
two
forms:
of
ainultanooua
, e. g.
?
now ?
---
bu j jn oeno.
9am Ballen
I
urra.. dyo
the
am ropalving
&uu 9am ya9mol
In tho garden.
the roe©s. )
radio)
?
What Is
--
with
cuu bta9nol
9audatan
(1 hat do you usually
be
inporfoct
Tho following
indicators
?your father
He Is watering
example
with
IIigliah.
haha?
you doing
it
forma
contrast
with
asßociat©
od with
Arabic.
9aa+ impertoct
Wu 9am ta9mel
the
in
in
botwoon
obtaining;
in
such as h. la?
duration.
C f.
those
same way that
of
forma
continuative
contrast
characteristic
1. They
of
Son©rol,
botwocn.
9cm + imperfect
of
the
in
obtaining
forms
Distribution
or lese
dictribution
when tho
so that,
relationships
und the
present
forms,
imperfect
that-the
found
oloar
forms has boon oxamtnod und contrast
inporroot
-t
that
bocomo
will
a
ba9ct uDDuhur ? -- bnaz
do in tho art ornoon ?-.
I
Sloop)
ho
nob.7
2. They appear
events
or states,
(these
days),
kul
evening),
with
e. g.
adverbiale
associated
(in
bu SSeet
ba9d uDDuhur
(in
?aHad (every
Sunday),
the
the
with
(in
9a; iyye
Examples
etc.
ha 1? ayyaam
bi
summer),
afternoon),
dawaliib
gam yuituru
yaabaaniyye
(They are buying Japanese tyres
recurrent
tho
are:
bi ha 1? a yaam
these days)
gam nushar la wuss uSSubuH bu SSeef
(We stay up till
morning in the summer)
bu lleel
9adnaan 9am ydaxxen ktiir
(Adnan is smoking a lot at night)
while
both
indicators
of
mentioned
under
not
in
tors
in
appear
when in
the
active
indicators
with
of
(he sat),
of
this
saafar
the
in
following
cators
duration,
of
repetition
they
appear
the
duration
when
indica-
Such verbs
normally
associated
Members of
(he met),
can associate
participle
this
Habb (he loved),
(he saw),
indicators
active
are-
with
?cabal
With
of verbs
ppott)when
with
( as
can appear
(see
iaaf
examples
only.
in
number
duration.
(he feared),
(he travelled),
the
form.
compatible
and repetition
naam (he slept),
include:
xaaf
but
form
simultaneous
are
simultaneous
form,
habited),
verbs
a small
participle
of verbs
sub-class
?a9ad
indicators
9am. + imperfect
form
duration
1 and 2 above),
repetition
of
gam + imperfect
simultaneous
with
compatible
appeasing
in
most verbs
of
sakan
(he in-
etc.
Thus
with
indi-
simultaneous
form.
ý"
A. Repetition,
waa? of 9c i yxaaf
ynaan lawaHdo
(Recently,
Waol has boon afraid
gam yruuHu
nun
to
jdi id
sloop
blond)
9a 1? ohwo bad uDDuhur
(They have boon going
to the
capo in
the
afternoon)
Sawyer 9uza ynaan bakkiir
(H© has
boon
sleeping
early)
bi ha 1? ayyaan
9a m yukrah ulýdo? a bukkiir
(Ho has been.. hating to got up early those days)
B.
Sinultanoous
duration
loo; laabo i kul ha 1? awaa91 ? -ulbard.
(Why have you got all these clothes
of the cold)
leek ? aa9od' 9a l? arD yaa ? ubni
?
(Why are you sitting
on the floor,
xauyof
on ?
gala
Hanli
Ia
---
afraid
con ?)
fhhmaan kul kalaaiak.
(I understand
all you say)
bi ha llttHZa
karhannak
ktiir
(I hate you so auch at this
The above sets
moaoat)
A and g should
be comparod
with
note
below.
b
a und
a.
Ropotition.
ljaras
San ydu?? kul
(The bell is ringing
yooa usaaa9a taaano
at eight o'clock
every
zuu 9ai ta9nel
ba9d uDDuhur ?
(j; hat do you do in tho. af'tornoon
nun
day)
9an ruuj
? uab ll
? --I
go awiaainG)
w"
ý
ýj
N "J J
b.
duration
Simultaneous
jaaweb 9alee.
- answer it)
9am ydu??.
ttalifoon
(The phone is ringing;
?auu gam ta9mel
(What are you doing
imperfect
Since
have
we
a case
saa9aat
kul
tmun
kul
however,
This,
the
ring
in
forms
not
of
pair
gam tGiib
true,
of
dams butGiib
(The sun sets
In
1,
sentence
the
what
may be called
jdiid'
(recently,
extension
of
a day)
sleeping
and
'gam
naaa
hours
eight
can
tmun
be seen
a day).
from
imperfect
and b+
sentences:
early)
bakkiir
early)
form
'gam tGiib'
'indicators
lately),
sentence
1 is:
they
'nun
(is
becoming),
have been).
jdiid'
with
such as 'mun
of recentness'
'Saayer'
she,
can be associated
'? ulo',
Thus a possible
(lately),
so that
have,
can
siams gam tGiib
bakkiir
mun jdiid
(The sun has been setting
lately)
early
On the
other
hand,
the
compa-
bakkiir
(he,
'? ulon'
'? ulha',
can
'bnaam
say,
as it
garden)
may seem that
gam + imperfect
(The sun has been setting
2.
it
hours
been
the
'gam'-forms
and
between,
have
always
use
'b'
repetition,
eight
(I
following
scams
1.
sleep
yoom'
is
in
variation
(I
contrastive
the
of
free
of
yoom'
saa9aat
both
verbs
indicators
with
associate
gam ?uo? i jjneene.
?-I
am watering
form
b+
imperfect
in
sentence
2 in
we
j
#
incompatible
indicators
with
of roccntnoac,
so that
wo
havo,
cannot
Q vicuna butaiili
bakkiir
mun jdiid
lat ©ly)
©(Tho sun c of c early
.
1M;
oroovor,
havo,
wo cannot
ýama San tGiib,
4 6"*;
(The
this
since
has been
implies
that
im contexts
tor
forms,
the
sem
(lit.:
all
distinctionfron
the
an indicator
imperfect
his
b t
Life).
of
forms
a potential
with
indicators
of
forms
As a further
in
two
examples
that,
forms
'kul
with
indica9az & inper..
absoluio
'sun
like
can be
both
although
can associate
with
(every
year)
indicators
of
repetition,
=n Tuul
suuriyya
(Syria
has alwaya
9unurha
grows
btuzra9
wheat
Tuul
of
it
question,
suno'
can. associate
be used
illustration.
two forms
like
can
associated
the
repetition.
terns,
In. general
imperfect
and San " imperfect
oast,
always
potential
with
the
forms
repetition
to
in
set
imperfect
is
there
following
Treat)
to
sun used
and gate
between
the
a now courso.
recent
associated
b. + imperfect
gam
boing
as opposed
repetition
guard'
the
repetition,
of
relatively
of
feet
west
in
netting
b. -v imperfect
both.
while
tun
the
in
setting
mun, u1C}arb.
? oau1; kul
©vory yoar)
suno
only
,
recent
ý6 ý.
i
gam tSadder ?uTun kul eune
suuriyya
Syria has been exporting
every
cotton
mun jdiid
(Recently,
implications
3. a2)DContrastive
The last
between
tinction
forms
in
English,
in
English
though
is
is
not
paralleled
and present
present
simple
the
some verbs
with
b+
imperfect
by a similar
dis-
continuative
forma
continuative
present
indicators
with
associable
between
distinction
distributional
imperfect
gam
+
and
year)
of recent
repetition,
in,
as
We are'nt
eating much meat nowadays.
Jack is smoking too much these days.
But
since
Arabic),
mistakes
a transfer
reflects
of
English)
membership
repetition
and
in
of
when
verbs
in
gam + imperfect
leads
possibilities
the
forms
to
type:
is
marrying
Arabic
use of
iamma lbunt
gam tutGayyar
the
recent
of Arabic
following
of the
awhen a girl
completely.
which
(in
continuative
present
in
a difference
indicators
with
compatible
(in
is
there
9am tutjawwaz
tamaaman.
these
days her
9am + imperfect
bi
ha 1? ayyaam
life
is
in
Hayaatha
changing
ý^ý
N"l.
3.
gam t imperfect
forma
r
can bo uood
'
introducod
olaus
o3
aro
und
al
as advorbi
in
complex
by w,
centcnooo
o. g.
da9u st os ayyaara w huwwo 9aa yu? T a9 uü gnaro9
(He was hit by a car as he was oroocing
tho ntroot)
naam w ? ana 9v
(He fell
asleep
Hkauy©
? uHkiilo
while
I
was telling
hin
a story)
wwida9na w huwwo 9nn yubki
(He was crying
when he saw us off)
is
It
past
the
the
of
1)3 1h
display
in
the
clause
we have
between
figl1oh
fact
in terms
in
a potential
the
as regards
forms.
distinction
forms
(except
The
forms
continuative
a twofold
distinction
in
conflict
and Arabic
gam
imperfect
.
,
and present)
älaus©
appearing
uhoreas
of
iaporfoot
gam + imperfect
versus
that
9=4
on adverbial
Heroin.
forms
are variable
when preceded
of
do not
in. Arabic
poriphraotically
by 'kann! ).
Thus in. the
past.
to
adverbial
a contrast
a corresponding
tinuative
the
continuative
(past
tense
in
fora.
consists
contrast
in
verb
we have
use
above ©xnnpl©a that
by w corresponds
continuative
since
from the
clear
when introduced
English,
innlicationa
Contrastiv©
3. OS ii)
form,
Now since
F2iglioh
above excples,
since
9c
the
verb
imperfect
t
in
the
roquiroo
main
corresponds
clause
a past
In
to the
in
con.
the
proscnt
nýý
3
.,
rJ
in
continuative
tinuative
of
in
forms
English
gives
context
above
is
it
9a"
?aHmad 9aTab rujlo
naasi
caaf
got
with
perfect
a pronominal
suffix
gam + imperfect
suffix),
are
agreeing
in
form.
ha
9am
yxaanu?
smu9to
(I
heard
him scolding
(He got
Hassab
'? aan'
gender
Examples
her)
with
la? eeton'yutaaana?
u
(I found them quarrelling)
by a certain
cold)
suae9
(he thought),
(which
associated
mun ulbard
up shivering
gao»
preceded
w huwwe luaaa
These include:
sufto
gam yul9ab
(I
saw him playing)
? aam 9am yurjef
mun ulbaaS
can occur
form.
except
of which,
all
la? unno nuzel
la? a (he found),
(he saw),
pronominal
in
in
of verbs
up),
the station.
off the bus
lumHaTTa
yutrok
forms
+ imperfect
4.9am
number
mistakes
running.
still
w uttreen
wuSel
to
Arabic
reflect
which
rise
leaving
he got
is
the
train
® He arrived
while
his leg because
® Ahmad injured
while
con-
present
type:
following
the
the
to
distributional
the
of
gam + imperfect
of
characteristic
a transfer
English,
cannot
with
? aam. (he
be associated
a noun or
and number with
are:
(he. heard)
the
verb
,
ýý"
ý
3.
(iii)
a2)
The occurrence
(see pp. 29T ) in
has the
nu? ha'
heard
of
to the
corresponds
occurrence
of
two
following
her'
be (and the
or an infinitive
'smu9to
scolding
sentences
in
gam yxaa-
her).
English:
by deletion
is
no such deletion
(I
'smu9to'
sentences:
combined
context
But wherehoard
'I
of verb
in
required
Cf.
Arabic.
smu9to + gam yaaanu? ha
I heard
him
Now a mechanical
imperfect
for,
above
form
(he in
are
'he'),
pronoun
the
sentence
'source'
'source'
'He was scolding
in
an -ing
Thus the
English.
two
corresponding
as
to
gam + imperfect
ha'
'9am
yxaanu?
and
him)
him',
implications
Contrastive
the
forms
smu9to gam yxaanu? ha
+ he was
scolding
equating
of
in
the
following
the
above
her
present
context
reflect
which
continuative
gives
rise
to,
him
scolding
with
and
gam+
accounts
mistakes:
is reading
found my father
®I
® They saw her is running.
0 She heard
I heard
her.
him
Arabic
is
his
newspaper.
singing.
sentences
la? eet ? abi gam yu? ra
saaiuuha
9am turkod
like
jariitto
amu9to 9am yGanni
where
clauses,
no deletion
in
the
occurs
complex
in
sentences
sentence.
operating
as subordinate
ý^C
:)J
(J
5. The
comparable
following
this
In
cations.
in: order
fact
that
verbs
appear
in
wu? of
(he
by the
auzi
(he
participles
oY certain
they
in
9am +Imperfect
? a9ad
up),
walked),
$aaf
(he travelled),
saafar
Yaat
stood
(he
went
in),
sloon
TTalla9
(See how fast
(he
mara?
of
got
ussayyaara
the car is
verbs
(he
(he
(he
can be seen
roufto 9aa yu; turi
(I saw hin buying
Examples
of
? aa9ed
waa? of
Taale9
faayest
gam '
bus)
van tuäti
forms
9am yutfalsaf
gam yuntuZor
ulbaaS
9am yur? o$ nun ulfarcH
9=
y9ayyeºl!
in
context
5.
went),
went
up),
The
by comparing
fawaaki
fruit)
imperfect
,
(ho
ulopt).
with
TTa11a9 B1oon uddunye
(See how it
is raining
heard)
raaH
Tulo9
naan
other
include:
naeä e bisur9a
running)
sufto
naazel
mun ulbaaS
(I saw. him getting
the
off
.
with
where
verbs
sumo9
down),
to
characterized
(he came),
by),
passed
occur
form
Those
? uja
(he
these
verbs
down),
sat
saw),
(ho
forms
participial
form.
nuzel
behaviour
distinctive
(he
io
inpii.
contrastivo
9am + imperfect
appear
foray
has b©en round nocoooary
It
show further
context
active
preceding
to
9am + inporfoct
of
4.
context
with
them
separate
context
are:
t% -w
4 tJýJ
translation
A litersl
impossible
He
He
He
He
0
Q
3
Q
in
sentences
in
giglish
(a correspondence
the
appears
gives
us the
of the
with
following
continuative
present
with
fact
by the
about
to
parallel
the
when both
present
pt rticiplon
activo
distributionally
also
associated
the
brought
and the
verbs
are
verbs
to
are
participles
above
Fhglich,
equated
Ea&l sn :
Arabic
verbs
forms)
are
corr©spondenco
certain
fect
forma
(ho
is)
philophizing
sitting
(he
bus
for
the
is)waiting
standing
(he
joy
danoing
is)
with
going out
(he
ist
in
anouting
coming
is
is
is
is
The partial
active
both
whoro
oxamploo,
imporfoct
in
forms
continuative
present
above
and San f
participloc
active
the
of
form
continuative
indicators
future
of
form
in
that
these
San + Imper-
participloa
active
of
of
of
lish
FsaE;
time.
Examples
are:
jaayiin
ul? uabuu9 9ondna
yaaDDu 9uTlet
to spend the woek and with
(They are coning
lleele
9a
ssinema
rauyeH
(I ara. Going to the pictures
aaasi
au leaving
It
seems, then,
to
to the
the
to-night)
da?
aaye?
xaras
(I
corresponds
verbs)
ba9d
us)
active
in
five
that
minutes)
the
present
9am 4 imperfect
participle
and (in
forma,
in. IIiglish
continuativo
in
the
case of
contorts
certain.
ascociatod
cý ^. ";1
f,, r ýIv
indicators
with
when the
of
appropriate
following
the
'I
as falling'
indicators
would
of
the
expect
6.
between..
the
In
9an f
when occuzring
following
and the
' lussa'
in
carricd
in
in
(The
lussaaton
b©douins
not
still
present
time,
the
(asleep)
verb,
'
)
with
ono
involved
e. g.
9a j jaaal
travelling
thin
which
in
may b© nssociat
which
Of*
naayem
still
sleeping
Arabic,
act failing
In
continuative
ddunye 9aa tuäti
luasauta
(It
is still
ruining)
lussäto
( He is
in
associable
is
no conflict
with
9aa ysaafru
are
to
ovor
be.
to
(still)
concord
Arabic.
future
of
and I
lussani
gam ? ut9allam
(I an still
learning)
lbadu
Arabia
participl©a
an afraid
'saa? Ta'
context
inperfect
suffix
a pronominal
I
©xam.
continuative
present
with
active
duration
simultaneous
in
But
roculto:
participle
active
is
'? ana saa? Ta'
reflecting
the
context
the
mention
course.
time.
participlos
Ihglirn
to
only
mistake-
attested
0 Oh don't
(sic)
of
in
futuro
or
active,
forms
continuativo
contexts
other
between
correspondence
and present
duration
simultaneous
on caaels)
Fhgliczi:
od with
n 5
w,
3.
h)
The Pant
Tho use
tho
of
Continuativo
past
fgiich
In
continuativo
to
According
among gramnari cnn.
in
dobato
to
t3ubjoct
1
J eaporc cn,
"The chief
is to carve
use of the expanded tonsec
an
a. frame round something
which may or may not bo
else,
indicated
In
thereexpressly
connected
a
narrative,
...
the expanded tensed
fore,
in a doccription
often
occur
situation,
of the general
to
which serves
as a Dotting
by moans of simplo
what happened,
which is expressed
tenses:
'One morning
the thron
sisters
were together
in the drawing
Lucy
room; Mary was sowing,
the piano,
was playing
and Jane was doing
then suddenly
the door opened and
nothing;
tho room, oxolaining
John burst
into
' ý'
...
But
as Diver
as I
rained
tense
It
the
contrary
as I
'frame',
the
the
action
Jespersen's
According
(the
rained
represents
to
past
pointed
in. my study.
road
my dinner.
indicates
has
(3)
to Hill,
duration
It
rainod
for
prepared
overlapping
set
against
past
fora
the
a corollary
'Stinen Mary cane home, John. was cooking
as Diver
also
(1)
(2)
(3)
4)
Op. cit.
pp. cit.,
Op.
cit.,
Op. cit.,
PP"263-264+
p. '4
p. 209
P-141
pointod
rained
while
bod'
action,
that
day.
all
I
tho
It
was eating
cinplo
past
and tho
expanded
background,
directly
phrase
-ing
rule.
being
But
'It
in
can be assigned
continuative)
pleteness,
(2)
out,
out,
in
the
of the
with
a coaponont
of
of incoaplotonesa
dinner,
sentence
but
'I
it
incoa-
in
wasn't
Uraa writing
donor
cý ý-''ý
ýý ýJ
aa. hour
for
their
turougn
the
while
is
and the
finished
at tho
past
continuative
ship
between
is
tive
to
present
of
only
past,
notional
definite'
the
and
nor
versus
'past,
indefinite',
to
it
is
opposition
perfective,
past,
lo
playod,
tho
contenco,
of the
in
that
the
fact
and the
ono in
the
opposed
to
of
is
the
ro1clon.
continuativo
other
tho
words
present
uoo of tho
the
between
relation.
In
past
tho
the
ainplo
According
past
between
whose positive
past
pronont
past
continua.
terns
in
past
in
to
Diver,
continuative
the
cannot
si©plo
continuative
incompleteness.
characteristic
end the
present
the
opposed
phraoo,
-ing
d©scription
continuativ©.
completeness
basic
past
from
present
not
lies
simple
inferred
be always
and the
the
nalf-way
not.
in the
form
oimplo
were
tho
,
and of tho
i8
other
The difficulty
finiohod'
and tho
comploto
since,
and they
played,
whon I
programme
was writing,
incomplete,
band
of
toms
in
the
'pact,
continuative
charactorictio
is
Thus,
"Support
'definite'
of the moaning
of the uignal
was
-inS
to be, and is,
the reverse
for
m" be expected
of that
to
the
find,
have
Returning
wo
above
with
examples
-od.
'() No
the expected
th©. indefinite
incompatibility:
over,
before'
door
such
was
asking
a
not occur.
one
ever
question
'Wherever
he was going he was being
received'
well
would
occur if the indefiniteness
of aiiorovor
not normally
eon
'VM over
be confined
a definite
within.
occasion,
as In,
he was going in. 1960 he was boing
but that's
well rocoivod,
the case'.
Similarly
in the example with
always
no longer
is forced
reinterpretation
of the sentence
by the intro'Ho was always boing
duction
mooning.
of the definite
Text cut off in original
(N
be
interpreted
loyal
will
subject'
as 'He was always
a
'
If
on the appearance
of being
putting
a loyal
subject.
is
left
for
the moment,
the shift
out of the sentence
always
'He has been a loyal
to 'Ho was being
from
subject'
a loyal
the emphasis
from an indefinite
shifts
of
subject'
state
to a definite
Introduction
action.
affairs
of alwn s in the
the definite
in
latter
sentence
extends
occasion
me
(the meaning
'duration'
is not relevant
to AS (past
contithe definite
therefore
occasion
can be long or
nuative),
indifferently),
indefinite.
yet it does not make it
short,
in past time'
does not extend
the
into
A 'definite
occasion'
by always,
even when modified
whereas
present,
an indefinites
ö
daries
being
difThis
without
specific
occasion
may.
is clearly
being
ference
seen in 'He was always
a loyal
been a loyal
as opposed to 'He has always
subject'
subject'.
(This
unbounded
quality
of the indefinite
may well
account
the tendency
to speak of 'current
for
"
relevance'.
"In examples with dates that can be either
specific
the presence of was - in_g always forces
or non-specific,
interpretation.
'He was playing
a specific
golf
on Tuesday'
'I
tennis
to dewas playing
on November first'
and
refer
finite
occasions. "(1)
If
we were to accept
as it
Diver's
seems
justifiable
presented,
we could
say
indicators
of
tive,
tors
of
English
by
(1) Op. cit.,
to
do in
the
past
time,
verbs
'kann'.
the
light
past
of
continuative
and
is
compatible
continua-
the
is
evidence
used
with
with
indica-
incompleteness).
kaan + 9am + imperfect
appearing
to Arabic
general,
preceded
past
(or
duration
3. bl)
in
definite
that
of the
account
in
in
the
verbs
appearing
Examples
are:
pp. 157-158.
Arabic
past
in
continuative
9an + imperfect
correspond,
forma
"
~ý
iJ
lemma wSult
(When I got
kaanet
? ummi gam t? iim uSSufra
9a lbeet
the table)
home mother
was clearing
lamina smu9na lxabar
9a ttalivizyoon
television
when we heard the news)
kunna 9am nutfarraj
(We were watching
Tuul ulleel
mbaarefl
yesterday)
all night
kaanu gam yystuGlu
(They were working
In the
case of the
the
between
obtains
+;
past
continuative
in Arabic,
forms
kaan + participle
mentioned
verbs
on p. Ul , oorroopondena:
forms in English
and
e. g.
lussaatha
kaanet
lama
ussayyaara
nuzel
maasye
(When he got off the car was still
running)
kaanet
waa? fe
(She was
dent)
verbs
'kaan',
they
ceded
forma,
nuative
tors
to
of
the
since
repetition
simple
on the
standing
When these
by
past
lamina caafet
9a rrSiif
pavement
in
do appear
do not
in
and
form
kaanu gam yzuuruuna
(They used to visit
this
when
form
they
to
English,
saw the
she
acci-
gam + imperfect
to
correspond
correspond
in
the
uliiaadse
English
associate
'used
form
past
with
to'
pre-
contiindica-
+ infinitive
or
e. g.
bass baTTalu hal. la?
us but they no longer
do. so)
bakkiir
kaan 9am To
?abulma wuldet
? uxto
(He used
before his sister
o go to bed early
1cäanet 9am truuH ma9 ?uxtha
(1)
laHaalha
truul
(She used to go school
with
by
herself)
going
started
(1)
In all the above examples,
with zero+inperfect.
9a lnadrase
was born)
ba9deen Saaret
her
later
sister;
9am+imperfect
is
on she
freely
variant
ýJ
there
past
seems
case
of
ponds
to
nical
equating
with
the
to
be a straightforward
in
the
the
the
past
the
to
in
continuative
discussed
in
(or
gam + imperfect
the
However,
Arabic.
to'
'kaan'
English
parti-
since
+ gam + imperfect
'used
the
between
correspondence
forms
Arabic
just
verbs
'kaah'
examples
or
special
and
'kaan'
by
past
simple
the
English
last
of
of
case
preceded
cipial)forms
the
in
continuative
4J
implications
3. b2) Contrastive
Except
.
corres-
+ infinitive,
a mecha-
+ gam + imperfect
explains
the
following
mistakes:
® We were
® My mother
young.
reflect
which
playing
all
was helping
afternoon
me with
every
summer.
my lessons
when I was
Arabic,
kunna 9am nul9ab Tuul ba9d uDDuhur kul Seer
?unmi. kaanet gam teaa9udni
bi druuai
lamina kurt
The last
sentences
are
translatable
into
zGiir.
English
follows:
We used to play all
Mother used to help
young.
in
afternoon
every summer.
me with my lessons when I was
as
n ow"1
& Continuative
Perfective
4.
We have seen that
co-occur
distribution.
their
examine
a) Present
4.
Forme
continuative
perfective
the
in
appearing
indefinite
of
are
continuative
perfective
present
indicators
with
compatible
can
contiinteresting
perfective
and it is
continuative,
perfective
and past
nuative
to
Thus we can have present
(p. to9).
forme
and continuative
perfective
tine,
pant
and extended
e. g.
two
to get in touch with
I have been trying
you for
for years.
this
He has been teaching
subject
for him since
last
November.
She has been waiting
It
should
a difference
two being
the
present
example
The present
minal
forms
suffix.
the
Examples
the
subject
for
free
verbs
and the
perfective
between
difference
emphasizing
in
duration
Thus the
as freely
the
the
case
second
variant
with
years.
+ 9am + imperfect
continuative
perfective
in Arabic
certain
present
be regarded
this
Saar + Pra.
with
continuative.
perfective
He has taught
imperfect
of
above may perhaps
4. al)
the
continuative,
perfective
present
that
out
between
may obtain
variation
of
be pointed
days.
preceded
are:
corresponds
by 'Saar'
or
'? ul'
to
gam +
+ prono-
ý,"' ýi
? u1o gam yd.a11o1 9alooha
(Ho hao boon- trying
to
? urbt9
anlin
it
soll
for
Sarlon min uSSubuH 9an y9azzlu
(They have bei
oprin6 cleaning
four
ßlnoo
yours)
the
horning)
Sar1i aunt ©En 9= ?Ut a9 n o). a oyy aart i
(I have boon u: in6 my car for two years)
As waa the
verbs
appear
'? ul'
+a
case in. other
in. active
pronominal
form.
ti perfect
Sarlna
&ufT'ix,
saakniin.
Ste have boat
? ulha lnaTar
(It
has bean
From the
forwaard
coded
by
'Saar'
in_ person,
verb.
volved
in
this
ý+. b) Past
Fornä
are
naazle
raining
nntecedent
to
vorba
for
Ihro©
years)
or
it
between
seems that
the
present
(or
+ pronominal
=d
number,
or
appoar
in
is
a straf
gam .
nun uSSubuf
the. morning)
since
und San + imperfect
there
perfective
ugroeing
Hence no problems
gender.
continuaforms
participial)
suffix
ht-
pro..
the
with
are
in_-
respect.
Perfective
appearing
compatible
cniin
hero
examples
'2ul'
by 'Saar'
precodod
othor
oorto. in
ar©-.
living
correspondence
in. E)islish
tive
whero
hoop tlut
above
form
participle
Examples
(aeo pp. lc7 ),
contoxto
in the
with
indicators
another
point
Continuative
past
p©rfoctivo
of
of
past
extended
time,
for
continuativo
past
e. g.
time
which
to
ý r" F
1J'.
J
three weeks she had been receiving
During the last
in
taken
the
of
photographs
through
post a series
the city
streets.
When I opened the window I found that it had been
all night..
raining
ten hours a day before he retired.
He had been working
bl)
4.
kaan
The past
to
+ Saar/?
perfective
kaan + Saar/? ul
Arabic,
ul
+ 9am + imperfect
in English
continuative
+ pronominal
suffix
corresponds
+ gam + imperfect
in
e. g.
kaan Sarlo gam yuHki
(He had been talking
came to an end)
tlut
for
saa9aat lemma ntahet
ultaunaagaäe
three hours when the discussion
lanma kuseb ulbuTuule
maa kaan Sarlo gam yul9ab ©unteen
(When he won the chiampion3hip
he had not been playing
for more than two years)
lHarii?
a kaan ?ulha saa9a 9am tultuGel
(The fire
had been raging
for an hour
it).
Cf.
active
the
above
participle
sentences
is
with
used instead
the
of
lamma ktalafuuha
when they discovered
following
where
gam + imperfect
the
forms
maa kaan. Sarlo saa9a naayem lamina fayya? uu
(He had not been sleeping
for an hour when they woke him
up)
ba9dma kaan ? ulo naazel w Taale9 ?aktar
wu? e9 2a ddaraj
mun 9a2ur marraat.
(He fell
he had been up and down more
on the stairs
after
than ten times)
Cl »' 'º
(v 'J
As in
the
the
case of the
correspondence
between
present
the
past
and kaan + Saar/? ul
+ gam + imperfect
hence
one and
seems to
any teaching
there
problems
in
this
perfective
perfective
is
be no conflict
context.
continuative,
continuative
a straightforward
that
may cause
p..,
5.
a)
type
The
into
in
forma
Passive
English
transposed
of
English
of
number
a
which
corrospond©nce
active-paooive
in
enter
sentences
illustrated
by:
The teacher
Lightning
They'll
the
'her'
of
joint
form
their
struck
in
the
explains
last
the
in
'she'
the
appears
sentence
active
transposed
the
bylyicked
by
them.
She'll
seven
seven.
example
Sentencon
is explained
The lesson
by the teacher.
house was struck
Their
by lightning.
lesson.
house.
her up at
pick
that
Notice
Passive
Sentences
Active
the
order
of
form
absolute
nominative
in
up at
nominative
the
con-
passive
©en-
tence.
In
tive
general,
can
group
can also
verbs
Since
with
(1)
has
that
is
verbal
+ particle,
Jesperaen
quotes
literature
English
being
the action
form.
This
classified
as
verbs
just
perhaps
English
passive
in
'stroll'
reference
to
the
prepositions,
passing
of
in
appear
belonging
the
even
since
e. g.
preposition,
in
appear
true,
completely
verbs
only
also
which
it
passive
the
form
'a garden
is
appropriate
characterized
are
broadly
is
howeverI
not,
intransitive
when accompanied
made to
been made to
tr%oi-
so-called
be strolled
distinctive
to mention
by complex
divisible
by a
in'.
use
in
forms
into
the figure
70% of passive
in
sentences
(? ) appearing
the performer
without
of
preceded by 'by'.
Cl M"
non-propositional
('to
tako'
)
propositional.
('to
tako
to')
non-propositional
('to
put
non-phrasal
phrt
a].
('to
prepositional
Further
examples
Sore except
verba
of
when acconpaniod
6ihioh
transitive
transforms,
subject,
'becomes'
of
(so©
IV
i. e. havins
vorb,
in
typ©
the
and in
subject.
the
first
of
second
do not
(1)
up 4th' )
occur
by propositions
isn't
It
to be laughed
a thing
The doctor
was sent for
The bed had not boon slept
in
Sentences
put
up')
which
one of
panaivo
crro:
at
p. Z9) 9 which
two
in
objects,
the
which
contain
can
have
direct
object
the
indirect
a doubly
two
paosivo
lbacomost
object
Cf.
They offered
me a job
(to)
A job was offered
ae by them
I was offered
a job by then
(1)
The distinction
typos
of these
or verbs is duo to
'Syntasaatic
in his
T. F. Iiitchell
Relations
in Lin6uistiu
Transactions
Analysis',
Soci©ty, pp. 103of the Philological
106.
be zzentionod
It -should
those
here that
verbal
catoteaching
having
constituto
Arabic
a serious
6ories.
problem,
to match what is a characteristically
no such categories
type/.
verbal
Slish
cý ""
ýJ
On the
only
r
hand aentoneon
other
transform.
one passiv©
ý
of typo
V (coo p. U. ) can havo
Cl'.
They made him president
(by them)
He was made president
0 President
was made hin by than.
rare
Under
passives
verhn
which
fr©qucntly
in. 1glish
either
ao, e. g.
occur
In
passive
'your
with
rinnt
roplaco
Examplon
bo roinearnatod
will
Sox-ma are
non-finite
'your
shoes
'Get'
The verb
'bo'
they
Thus
forms.
or
most
gros
of a canoo and was drotmod
in Kentucky
think
some cases,
thoso
of
form
passive
crown.
boar,
reincarnate,
Ono boy fell
out
Lincoln
was born
Some people
in, the
only
bo asdo
chould
montlort
in
variant
is
with
frooly
va.
bo cloicd'.
constzuctiono,
tondinS
to
EagliDh
conversational.
in. passiv©
rrooly
shoes nood cleaning'
named to
doath.
after
to
o. s.
last
He got married
month.
difficulty.
Jokus sot elected
without
The above
Thus
last
'He Got married
married.
him'.
a copulative
'sick'
ex=plus
or
One view
verb
'rich'
', dot'
night
tranaforna
not
are
month'
is
that
(like
be.
is
'harried'
'be')
Cf.
not
just
of
activo
a transform
is
the
aantoncos,
of
conplonont
as an odjootivo
'H© was married
'Somoono
last
of
liko
month'.
ný
wJý
the
following
examples,
paDaivo
auxiliary
'bo':
In
tho
however,
He got
for spooling
irrostod
I got blamed for everything.
,5h© gets upset
easily.
In
to
none cases
psßaives
fron
'He
was married
(1)
someone
or
ago,
combinations
(2)
Gone througha year
at
(1)
the
'be'
with
ble
'got'
ago'
harried
a year
authorized
is
of
those
'be'
ago'
to
is
ceremony
is
state
before
a year
are
not
It
clonor
tho
of
to
that
can
dictinguioha_
only
noun
did
a year
time.
can neon
proforonoo
Thus
adjoativo.
c ©ronony
a wife
in
clearly
It
ambiguous.
perform
unambiguous.
an .. on fora
and a participial
he was in_ possession
the
In
yesterday.
used with
beccuso
'sot'
so a year
u.go,
'Ho got
that
atthor
having
harried
he arrived
ago.
I have dratim. on Ralph B. Long' a 'The Sentence and Its
Parts.
A Grammar of Contemporary. 1&Liah',
The University
of Chica6o Press, 1961, pp. 113-119, in ay -troatment
of
passives.
)d.
kJ
5.
b)
Pzuaivo
fixa).
narlers
-n,
Arabic
Arabic
are distin6uishod
torna
in
structuro
Active
of
by their
C and V rind by tho
pro.
o. g.
-to
Verbo
'apolvo
Vorbo
Darab uTTaabo
(ho hit. the ball)
nD arb of uTT nabo
(tho ball.
Wan hit)
2 ura lukt aab.
(ho read the book)
n? ura lukt aab
(tho book wan road)
z awwaý ? u,fkaaron.
tgawwagof
? af1: aaron
(thoir
thoughts
woro
(ho
their
confused
9alla?
(they
u nnataa?
published
In. senteacos
with
Active
the
thoughts)
ej
the
_confuood)
verb
t9alla? ot unnataa? oj
(tho ronulto
worn publishod)
reaulta)
passive
containing
active
corresponding
agrees
in
verbs
phonological
in
Vorba
paaaivo
verbs,
sentences
'becomes'
in
and gander),
numbor
the
(i.
subjoct
Sent..
9uffat
nuHna 9azamna 9nio
(we invited
Aunt If fat)
9t=o
(Aunt
luwlaad
kasaru TTaawl©
(the boys broke. the table)
TTaawlo
1?
zaa9u
axbaar
(they
baa9
winounc od the
(tho
the
television
it
9uffat
iffat
ceo
n9ameaot
wan invitod)
nkanbot
tablo
wan brol: cn)
1? axba r nzau9ot
(tho flown was nnnouncoci)
news)
uttalivizyoon.
(he sold
o.
e. g.
Ptwaivo
Sentences
in.
object
cot)
nbaa9 uttalivizyoon
(tho tolovinon
cot
sold)
wall
ý^
iJ
T"ho potZion
boforo
tho
aftor
or
tho
of
n? abal
(tiaatrya
nkaoret
a paoxitvo
post-vorbal
aontonoo
bo
fro-
loan
boing
pouition
cull
bu 1jaan9a
na9aawya bu ljaaa9a
at
was accoptod
tho
univormity)
uTTaawle
in
forma
£orns
passive
Thore
EaLish.
the
between
tuto
inplicationa
Contragtiv©
C)
Arabic
conflicts
in
tho
lan6ua3oc,
two
teachinS
creating
to
General
diffcrancos
howovor,
aro,
forms
passive
in
correspond
for
problems
passive
of
which
native
use
constispoai orc
Arabic.
Arabic
Since
with
load
the
in
TT aawwrle nkasrot
(The table
waa brokon)
5"
of
cub joot
vorb,
na9aawya n? abal
or
.J
Thus wo can havo
quent.
or
ý1
ýJ
B1ish
to,
passivo
passiv©
und ex-plains,
followin&
for=s,
the
fortis
tiro
not
conflict
copious3noss
in
poriphrastic
aricin&
of
in
attoutod
this
contrast
aroa
nictol;
may
oc of
typo:
is the most naiiric
0 Television
among thooo
ont apparatus
found in the houao.
furniture
(sic)
tthich
.
the playa
liked
0 Everybody
which porforaod
on the
Theatro.
gilitary
"
by a aßn,
0 no killed.
loft
his si6ht
for him.
o Ho lout
and nothinC
0 From what nontionod
above...
in Syria
Q msny schools
ostablichod
recently.
CN0- -1
.3
J
$ý
1!oroovor,
aunt
follow
or
procodo
tho
the
precede
last
the
tw©cn
in
lities
1-then the
verb,
und the
tho
oubjoot
JýiGllah
con-
occur:
round
Linda
tho
or
agroenont
plag o.
botwoon
conflict
to
the
word-ordor;
bo-
or non-a, Grooiont
subject.
The aGroomoat
pocaibi-
as follows:
is
subject
the
of
number
are
an indefinite
may be sinGular
latter
the
and cinco
one relates
of
O=
contonoo
corroopondln6
two
first
The
verb
%rabic
in
rovoala
possibilities
passivo
Arabic,
the buildings
all the rooults.
Sentence
the
' to
second,
a paatiivo
oc commonly
nistz
and ]DaGlish.
`,rabic
in
vorb
paccivo
0 Were scattered
U Vlao published
The
in
subjoct
vorb
followinG
the
tences,
tho
cinco
Thus
subject.
Tolsowtng
noun
or
plural
re6ardlees
the
of
pausivo
trio
wo can havo
nwajaü jamaa9a nutfaanaiin.
01*
nwajaüu
or
jaaaa9a
tThere
happened to
00 aoao pooplo
n9azat
9anna
ktitr
ilyuuf
n9aza=a 9anna D iuur ktiir
tx ny Guests
In
pairs
mutfaahniin.
are
ind©finito
the
above
more
were invited
context,
noun
in
the
dual
sentences
in
o3pOCtally
or
togothor)
our house)
Sirrt
und thin
frequent,
In
the
to
wL,o Got uu voll
in
procoded
of
tr
two
Co whon tho
by a nunora. L, o. G.
iJ
v
9aor
niasar
(tan plates
r.
I
SHuun
woro broken)
n9azam tlaatiin
(thirty
guests
Doof
were invited)
bi yoon waaHod
in a oinGlo day)
nbua9 xann sayyaaraat
(five
cars were cold
nfa j ar na91 duulaaboon 9a TTarii?
(two tyres burst on ray way)
tho
tlhen
the
verb
cub j oct
and the
subject
the
or follows
precedes
is
howovor,
is
the
always
v©rb,
TTullaab
nfaHaSu
(the students
were
or
dofinito,
tjroouont
caso,
whothor
botwoon
tho
e. g.
oxrinod)
nfaHaSu TTullaah
lHaraaiyye
(the
thieves
or
nkanagu
nkaraalu
were
possible
'DuHlu
1Harramiyye
transforms
gala
)
it
cau
With prepositional
? ubni'
verbs
of
the
(they
(see p. nc),
active
laughed
sentence.
at
my con)
wo can havo two
Thus
the
scntenco
can bo trancformod
into
nDcHak
or
sub j oct
9ala
? ubni
? ubni nDcH& gal©o
(My oon. is
lau&hcxl
In
tho
last
sent onto
at)
tho
propositional,
particlo
'Sala'
n^f
:)b
sv
is
with
associated
and gender
to
rice
the
with
involves
Arabic
a pronominal
mistakes
'? ubni'.
noun
a point
of
conflict
is
charaotoriotio
of
L%elich
and Gives
typo:
thou.
dopendod
on it.
Arabic
reflect
which
number
with
D 2:any girls
gras spo1"on about
A WW1o
woro ado fun of us.
0 Good handwriting,
In
aerocinG
This
followin&
the
of
sufUx
9aloohon
banaat
I tilr
nfaka
nD cHal: 9 al o ona
1xcTT ulHulu
9aloo.
yu9taaad
irthor
of
passivo
yu9tundu
depended
Pazi&ivo
1.
32.
gala ? abuuhon
fatho
on their
1.
2.
bi man? alt ulmunHa
battu
(they
the question
settled
of the scholarship)
ti-thile
in
the
the
tonco
cato
propositional
Sent one 013
etivo
laauu
(they
oxanple3
passive
above
is
latter
(see
in
verbs
contoxts,
can
they
an indefinite
p. ui ),
a nominal
on object
sentence.
äcntoncoc
fiiha
nau? alt
ulnun: ia nbatt
fii
ulnunlla
nbatt
a, s;?alt
(the question
of the scholarship was sottlod)
or
in
their
their
or
a'fii'
a verbal
Exanploc
follow
follow
can only
in
aro:
? abuuhon k an yu9t anrd 9aloo
ka. a yu9tz
aid gala ? abuuhon
(their
father
war; depended
on)
procodo
noun
varbs
subject
'particle'
sentence,
arc:
subjects
or
triton
son-
a prodi-
p or
? ulha Soot byuncuno9
(sho has an accoptublo
voico)
fii
? aöya naa btunflka
(there
that
are things
cannot
be said)
tt ar©et ? alam naa byunk-ucor
(I bought
an unbreakable
pan)
? ahwo btun: urob
is drinkable
coffee)
haadi
(this
An 1e the
in the
the
above examples
nentencoi
above
? ulha Soot Hulu
(she has a nice
the
occupies
the
with
forms,
verbal
case of other
place
the
of
pernuivo
vorb
an adjective.
Cf.
rollowinG:
voice)
fit
? a'Qya surriyyo
(there
are certain
things)
secret
itareot
jdiid
? alai
(I bou&ht a now pen)
haadi
(this
? ahWot aaza
is fresh
coffee)
Ma&1ich passive
verbs
in
have
connection
aeon,
as we
they
mistakes
conaidorod
(noo
in
p. 134) 9 the
O Handwriting
0 This
is
with
is
by
to
relation
follot.
'ins
sonothinS
n h=dtrritins;
not.
or
occur
dopcndod
Thun
claunoa
rolntivo
could
cannot
whether
pronouns,
ttho')
contexts,
pronouns
relative
by relative
(preceded
definite
is
cedent
verbs
be introduced
suet
in parallol
can occur
on
with
bo accoptcd.
(soo
the
but
p. t14),
anto-
part Uol
with
activo
paonivo
vorbz:
to
r" .1
(3
Comparable
bal
i'orns
discussed
a)
or
in
Infinitives
infinitive
The
in
form
dictionary
nominal,
to
by the
definite
These forms
and include
the
B'nglish,
the
of
is
for
indefinite
article,
colligate
an adverb,
and
that
it
has
a continuative,
forms.
facts
other
hand,
with
its
it
can
occupy
occupied
by nouns,
and
that
the
form.
with
In the
infinitive
On the
that
-ing
following
is
clear
examples
since
it
the
base
the
than
verbal
be preceded
cannot
an adjective,
can
freely
-ing
of
more
it
example
it
pically
called
infinitives,
perhaps
that
shown
are
consists
which
verb,
that,
extent.
or
by the
deemed
are
English
and
passive
what
sha-
and ver-
nominal
with
form,
-ing
forma
forms.
and -en
1.
both
with
a.. d contrasted
in English
forms
as nominalo
following,
In the
lorma; in Arabic.
to be comparable
forms,
classifiable
characteristics
are
non-finite
forms
considered.
syntactical
ring
Forms in Arabic
sections
were
and verbale
En lish
in
Forms
and
Non-Finite
In preceding
)
or
perfective,
nominal
can be followed
and
is
character
ty-
positions
some cases
verbal
an
a noun-object,
certain
in
or
character
it
varies
of
the
by a nominal
(% ',' r)
(a
as
iä
the
a finite
with
case
I see him every
with
in nominative
or a pronoun
noun,
form.
just
Of.
day
I want to see him every
Colligation
form)
abeoluto
with
day
an adverb
is
illustrated
the
following
example:
She likes
WO
to
She dresses
the
Loreover,
(to
continuative
(to
passive
been
elegantly
elegantly)
infinitive
tinuative,
on the
hand,
other
the following
a) Sin is
To err
asked),
and perfective
(to
(to
asked),
have
been
the positions
examples
be being
have
asked),
and perfective,
being
occupied
are characteristic
con-
asked).
by the
infinitive
of nouns.
human
is human
b)
The difficulty
The difficulty
c)
I
I
like
like
(to
forms
passive
have
ask),
have
and passive
(to
(to
simple
perfectivefto
continuative
continuative
and passive
in
appears
be asking),
be asked),
asking),
perfective
in
dress
swimming
to swim
is
is
(of the
the fulfilment
(the promise
to fulfill
promise)
Cr.
(is. ) J
with
The
Infinitives
with
Distinction
is
and without
'to'
infinitive
liaries
other
may,
(I
but,
help;
let,
shall,
so
will,
etc.
can't
but,
(adi)
as;
+ object
of verbs
which
see,
the
;I
after
a verb
make,
it
see
'toi
do anything
and after
have,
wish
had rather,
member of a sub-class
hear,
to
without
must,
after
cases:
do anything
make,
commonly made between
appears
(can,
'to'
& without
the
modal
) and
in
auxi.
a fear
do no more
also
when
include:
than,
let,
after
the
).
it
can
Examples
watch.
infinitive
verb
coo,
in
a
feel,
are:
I must see him immediately.
I had rather
die than fail.
I can't but thank you.
Live and let live.
his
He felt
hands
tremble.
Infinitives
and -inf.,
forms
Infinitives
and -ing
forms
and are contrastive
contexts
of
either
in
are
others.
form
in
some
Thus we can have
them in:
(to
He began questioning
us
(to leave)
leaving
I propose
loves
Nobody really
working
In
interchangeable
the following,
involves
a contrast:
the use of
us)question
innediately.
(to work).
the
infinitive
or the
-ing
n ^,
.
stop
thinking
what you're
doing
Just
stop
to think
what you're
doing
Only
the
Just
is
infinitive
in
possible
(thinking
bio)
(thinking
the
in undenirais
desirable)
following
examples:
to go and look for himself.
her to sing a song.
He decided
They asked
Conversely,
only
forms
-ing
in
are possible
the following
examples:
to the point.
going straight
laughing
when I see him.
in
I believe
help
I can't
form - infinitive
The -ing
associate
rentially
termine,
endeavour,
preserve,
pretend,
seem,
resolve,
and
risk,
with
avoid,
'like
proceed,
seek,
with
the
or
hesitate,
promise,
or
plan,
reckon,
write,
associate
delay,
enjoy,
finish,
an -ing
form.
Of.
'enjoy
---
it
with
---
I should
like
deprepare,
refuse,
an infinitive;
postpone,
doing
the frame
(and)
Thus:
deserve,
hope,
propose,
prefe-
form.
-ing
decide,
contrive,
fail,
strive,
invariably
to do something'.
Grannatically,
I like
expect,
lexically
operates
item3
infinitive
attempt,
complete,
associate
the
with
arrange,
afford,
ache,
lexical
Certain
and grammatically.
distinction
I had time
prevent,
ootnething'
C% /`
I should
can only
'to
by either
may be completed
like
A
1
road'
'reading'.
or
But
--by 'to
be completed
read'.
Infinitives
as adjuncts
Infinitives
can be used
in
as adjuncts
different
construe.
t ions :
a)
or
(i)
They follow
an adjective
that
nouns which
are usually
to a verb
are related
followed
by an infinitivo.
ON
to repair
the ravages failed
His attempt
I have had the good fortune
to know this
With
He attempted
to
I was fortunate
Further
examples
man
the ravages
repair
to know this
man
oC infinitives
in
this
position
arcs
to reswne work :zas taken at that mcotinE.
The decision
A refusal
to compromise kept him out of office.
She has not the ability
of public
cork.
From this
she emerged
the experience.
repeat
Infinitives
or a3jectivec.,
may also
to
with
follow
take
up any
a doter:
important
Dina tion
nouns not
rolotthl
not
form
to
to vorb3
o. g.
They swore an oath
to carry
out
their
duties
diligently
F. J
% rI
He made up hia mind to learn
He had not the heart to play
that
Of.
They
swore
(ii)
the
a noun,
Examples
type
type
and is
come back
would
to come back
The last
following
they
the hync himcolt
a record.
of
construction
is
different
infinitive
is
an adjunct
where the
the position
filling
of
it relative
from
to
clauco.
are:
His greatest
need is somebody to help him to overcome
his weakness.
the authorities.
He was not the only rebel to trouble
to be established.
Glascow was the next university
of.
as the next
Glascow
(Notice
that
the
above examples
(iii)
follows
verb
in
nouns
are-all
modified
type
a noun which
would
finite
by
the
was established.
infinitives
forms.
of construction
elsewhere
the
He has
exaniplea
plenty
of
the
of
the
Of.
are :
money
infinitive
be the object
He had many scathing
remarks to make about
discussed.
He made scathing
remarks about the matters
Further
in
complements)
In another
its
that
university
to
spend.
There were so many problems to settle.
had nothing
to any.
The Chancellor
the matters
diocuoncd.
n0.1
ti a
b)
feelings
(i)
follow
Infinitivoc
or states
o4 joctivoo
of mind like
(afraid,
with
aooocintoci
ambitious,
anxious),
o"g.
its
fato
to one who
The nation
was ready to entrust
both know and had foreseen.
to say that
I am sorry
wo have not had any indication
burden.
I was glad to be relieved
unwuntod
of this
(ii)
in
The
they
that
': It'
with
following
examples
can be related
differ
the
to
fron
laut
tho
possibility
of
of
onon
tranopocition
Thuß cf.
.
Cigarettes
are easy to
is hard
The temptation
They ought to make the
buy
to resist
pool coupons
easiar
to
fill
in
with
It is easy
It is hard
They ought
Cf.
the
also,
with
to
to
to
buy cigarottes
the temptation
resist
to fill
easier
make it
followin6
oxanplo
which
'it',
He is
eager to please
and contrast,
He is
easy
to
please
can be transposed
which
It
is
easy to
with
p1oaso him.
'it'
,
in
cannot
pool
coupons.
be transposed
it.
I
Infinitiven
c)
by aävorbial
Examples
occur
clauc©c
j
with
vorba
of purpooo,
und oro
cubctitutablo
condition,
or rosult.
aro:
ho may opoak
epoak to me (that
(If
it to going to bo ©ffootivo)
He ccno hero to
To be effective
gust be beautiful.
They were strong
won the battle)
infinitive
The
'absolut©
free
to
enough
occurs
also
adjuncts',
to
win the
battlo
in
may be called
what
(that
eta)
a poou
they
©. g.
John Vornan ondowed his guild
thoy
with his tenoncnta,
to provide
the lan©.
a beam light
and a lamp to light
A Military
Training
Bill
was paccod calling
up mon of
training,
age 20 - 21. for six month's
conscientious
to be assisnod
to various
objectors
dutiac.
non-combatant
agree
The
subject
and object
The
subject
of
in.
finite
of
the
'to
of
the
with
fora.
finite
talk',
form.
the
by a noun
a finite
verb,
Cf.
tho
is
object
or
pronoun
pronoun
to
the
also
subject
would
whhcn that
to
talk
thick
of
the
appoarfl
the
you',
can be concidorod
to
cub joot
infinitive
a tranufora
you'.
an infinitive,
object
objects
a nominal
tenoo-numbor
wants
sentence
of
in
of
'he
talks
and
'he wants'
loured
'hot
verb
toms
In. 'He
Thus
since
As to
an infinitive
in
verb
an infinitlyo
of
just
appearing
tho
as it
in
latter
can be
is
cauo
tho
nominativo
fol.
with
abcoluto
cý -ý 3
fa -)
I
I
coo him
want to
In
also
every day.
coo him ovory
cases whore the
the
subject
'for',
c cd©d by
of
day.
of the
subject
the
infinitivo,
ftnito
that.
else to
come.
to
*
infinitive
+
oooao a nomi1ali
often
zinc;
him to do so was diaScaceful
doing
so was disgraco21i1
to
seems
and
be tied
'subjectival'
to
was disgracoful
of
This
same device
(for
construction
occupying
the
or the
nominal
part
to
him
f 23/Pr.
position
of the
Cf.
position.
do so.
to
t
of
t int.
tfio
predicate,
) cam fora
cubjoct
of
boSan in hard
how human lifo
stop hero
an outrage
hero)
you to
it is
The tendency
religious.
was for
is
an outrage.
for you to stop
the
instruction
a
a finite
o. g.
how human lif©
For a an to toll
(cf.
it is hard for a nun to toll
For
(of.
pro-
of.
For
His
verb
occurs
not
o. g.
For + 2.t/Pr.
It
is
latter
the
for you to think
I should be sorry
for
He was gzite
willing
everyone
it
for me to road It.
He loft
d©vic©,
verb
to
bocono
boean)
more
ýý,
ý1
ý,J ýl `S
'Omission'
infinitivo
of
The sentencßs
i
I
did not want to stay the night
but
asked than to play but they didn't
ho bog Sod ao to.
want to.
I can't do as auch for them as I'd liko to.
She went home because her mother made her.
may be regarded
'I
and
and
and
not
want
'I
play'
them
asked
'They
didn't
ccn't
to
play.
do auch for
thoa'
like
to
'She
went
hone'
'Her
mother
as --'
of the
the
want to
'I'd
'as --
of
tho
stay
stay
When these
fora
to
'Ho bogged a© to
'I
and
did
as coapoundod
do much for
made her
nicht'
night'
them'
go homo'
components
are
'because'
and
,
second component
linked
in tho
togothor
oxa iplon,
in omitted.
an by
tho
'but'.
infinitival
ýý
1..:
1.
b)
of
foature
in
a verb
in
of
agreeing
Arabic,
not
their
discover
tive
in
following
participloc,
or
subjoct
in
imperfect
in
of
oristio
Vorbal
finito,
nunbor
botwoon
in
Arabic.
in
IIi&1iah
cud
object
function),
Grounds
the
infini.
Thus
are
u f,
I want to Imow
buddi ?a rof
following
a noun
She has not tho soility
naa 9andha ? ustiTaa9a
His attenpt
=ii aawalt o
(in
adjunct
function).
to snoulder
tutMa
al r
to cheat
was discoverod
Gutem nh a tif of .
the
para.
to sleep
oarly
bho likes
tnaara bal: kiir
butiiubb
b)
thoy
condor.
Arabic:
a verb, (in
forms
i. o.
distributional
behaviour
forms
oharact
nominal.
torus
infinitive
the
its
aro
on parallol
imperfect
of
in
infinitival
tho
natchifS
oxanplo
coaparablo
occurrences
Arabic.
a procoding
possible
and 0+
Fhglish
a) following
"
is
for
with
verbs
partially
by 0.
11eled
in
forma
sh,
nominal
it
However,
to
Ehgli
whother
with
agroe
forma
has no non-finito
Arabic
form
inp©rf©ct
0t
.
C f.
biS rooponsibilitios
kbtutr
? uuliyyaat
ný s1
w ti
As pointed
out
it
and
is necessary,
Arabic
more fully.
0+
of
Generally
speaking,
preceded,
which
1. It
forms
fect
Examples
imperfect
0+
in nediately
verbs,
is
infinitive
its
in
Englich
in
distribution
forms
must nlwnyo
by other
or otherwise,
be
forms
categoIies.
preceded
between
agreement
terms
in
operable
by forms
and the 0+
which
of number,
classifiable
person,
imper-
and gender.
are:
byu? der yruuH
(He can go if
?iza buddo
he wants to)
?udros mun ? aural
bdiit
a started
from
to study
Haavralt
(I tried
in perfect,
b+
group
of auxiliary
of
imperfect,
by the fact
can colligate
ussune
the beginning
of
the
year)
?u? un9o lacken maa ?duct
to convince him but I couldn't)
A particular
terized
to examine
is most frequently
as auxiliary
the
hnn only
verbo
of
imperfect
to special
belong
imporfeot
with
therefore,
Distribution
whether
0+
distribution
parallel
a partially
the
above,
with
verbs
that
is
0-
include
auxiliary
verbs,
or in participial
the only
imperfect.
: xaaf
imperfect
whether
is
form,
forms
1embers of
(he feared),
appearing
charac-
of verbs
this
9uref
they
group
(he know)$
n0iv 19
the tried)
naawal
(ho
xalla
E=pl©a
nuoi
9
lot),
t? teal
(ho
forgot)
(ho
hopod),
(ho ro
tzahknr
0
o borod)
,
(ho darod).
and otarja
aro:
Following
verbs:
uuluukon
xallaana
(Their
behaviour
nkawrwen fukra
unilila
made um form a good opinion)
aas 9aad st ar jay. ýfuki na9ha
(He no longer
dared to upoak
.
? iza
Haawalti
(If you tried
beautiful)
Following
? unti
(You
tuktbi
to
9ala
write
her)
bißiir
nahl©k
slowly
your
xcXTok
handwriting
Iiulu
would
bocoao
participloc:
au? ahhale tuHki
to
are qualified
of ha laa
uu9
talk
on thin
cubjoct)
nutina mu&9uddiin
(Wo are prepared
n nnwunkon
to help you)
YuxloS
auf? anfiel
(He is noping
to
bukra
finish
2. It
to
colligatca
to-morrow)
procodinG
with
form
that
nay bo a.laaaltiod
as follows:
(1)
(i)
(ti)
(1)
Notice
which
modal particles:
connoctivea:
tho parallolina
colligato
with
ro. i,
? abulna,
tauen,
ku1=a,
bijuu:,
Hatta,
with nodal uuxillario3
infinitivo
a following
laa,: om
in,
? unno,
law,
in znGilch,
'to,.
without
bass
ýV
4.
.ý
I-,
c o:
Etampleß
raH ? ub ato bu lbariid
(1 sill
pond it by poet)
(i)
zuurkon
nunkoz
(I
may viait
bukra
you to-morrow)
bu ljaam9a
luazom ? uttuSel
(I must ring
up tho uuivornity)
(ii)
roult
(I
"tabulma
lesson
the
before
arrived
uddaro
Z2xlos
kulna
t od yudros
(nhonovorhe sat to
finished)
kann yn.aam
study he would
fall
9alooha
wo may got
jiib
na9ak Hatta
nut9arraf
xaTiibtak
(Bring
with you so that
your fiancb
her)
byusiiu??
2unno neun
to
(He deserves
biT awttlu
(New CLuaents take
,vrith
as jeo=ttva1
au
-La
it
in
number
and Sender.
buddi
raadyo
yjiib
of,
want
a radio
kull
that
natta
tino
to
follows
r" amploe
help
wo should
to
l=Iotr
hin)
)
ti; ayyafu
adapt
thonaolvon)
a noun
und aGrooa
arc:
luaHaTraat
recoivoa.
pU
stationu)
buddi rattyu
jcllicl
41 want a now radio)
Saar1o
furSa
yurban
(Ha had the opportunity
it doom)
turned
tho
in
C.
O
Toro
distribution.
a long
pcuras30 it
3,
(I
(that
be helped
uj judad
Ti ullaab
o
aulaop)
C f-
infinitivo
luuf
to
ulloora,
win
in
at baoc rafaDha
tnouuands
rn&LIGh
of
pounds
uhouu a pttrallol
but
ho
ý,
He needs
byuHtaaj
It
4.
someone to help
waaHed vnnngao.
occurs
waa jubna,
forms
certain
These forms
suffixes.
minal
after
him
include:
?ulak
tlnn? i kul
(You can
(I think
you
for you.....
the
in
last
?unte
in
that
case
the
last
the
above
can
ready)
in
affirmative
is
partiale
'? unno'
0+
imperfect.
no follows:
tu? un9o.
question
parallelism
exaiple
used in negative
imperative
my thought
before
can be substituted
English
with
with
sentences,
contexts
in
becomes
by
readily
the following,
?unno truuf
fakkart
?unte tu? un9o
(Ithought
you should go and persunde
It
(lit.:
him
connective
examples
appear
?unte
the forms
which
Of.
apparent.
truuH
everything
go and persunde
the
example
Moreover,
5.
fukri,
papers)
tu? un9o
should
) )
all
?unno
fukri
a verb,
?ulnk,
prono-
Hamper
find
may be observed
potential
Thus
Eii
to
expect
truuH
fukri
is
9aliyyi,
with
e. g.
9aliyyi
9e11eH miit
war? a
(I have to correct
a hundred
It
compounded
which
hire)
corresponding
race
the
to
imperfect
in
ý1 ^
cl
v
can
vorb
be in
only
: laa
truko
socond
him
ruuH
( go
: lua t ruuH
! don't
go
Cortain
: don't
l©avo
udjoctivos
form.
1? aHsun. tuttuSlu
(It is best for
fiina
you to
0+
call
tho
1? atirfa? tudfa9
na? di
(It
is noro bon©ficicl
to
aü jectivez
Other
in. the
form
positive
article
1nuhir.
(Tho
in
DDaruuri
(It
last
thing
important
is
two
artiolo
fol.
cro
aro:
pay in
cash)
' auhiaa'
'Dazuuri')
,
profixod
imperfect
in
fora
truth)
p. loo)
by 0r
and followed
dofinito
comporativo
us)
(notably
(see
tho
Exciploo
dduari
to toll
l? afDal tu I: i
(It
i3 better
in
tho
with
imporfoct
by
low©d
o. G.
hits)
appoariz
)
c.nä colligated
p. m.
(zoo
pornon,
tuturko
(l©avo
6.
The
the
J
for. -a,
hin
for
the
with
to
appear
definite
O. S.
cucccod)
tazu^duu 9a lnuataBfa
necessary
oxc. pies
that
you
should
tako
can bo trunstoraod
hin
to
houpital)
thing
(to
into
lnuhiran
j
huwwo
aaHo
na
(Hie
success
is
tho
important
thins)
? axdo ga 1tusta6fa
huwwo DDt ruuri
ic. tho nocosssry
(Tubing him to hospital
do)
)
1:
a nominal
where
(see
Arabic
the
links
is
the
to
in
said
called
subject,
the
and
in
'huwwo'
pronoun
predicate.
of 0+
characteristic
distribution
sentences
introduced
to be the
deferred
is best to call us
the
to tell
is better
It
It
'it',
the
where
or
subject
is
infinitive
the
of
by
imperfect
in
infin-
apposition
To call
us is best
So far,
it
To tell
butional
the
tional
is
truth
in
forms
,atched
complete
7.0
contexts.
potential
those
the
the
The auxiliary
before
0+
0+
find
imperfect,
verbs
imperfect
are
very
'kann'
forms
in
are
English,
and are
0+
imperfect.
of
co
non in
or'Sear'
in
auch
Arabic
distribu-
however,
picture
forms
forms
The following
in
distri.
a partial
imperfect
infinitive
distributional
+ imperfect
0+
English.
of
of
to
possible
between
characteristics
by
better.
has been
correspondence
infinitival
truth
into
can be transformed
which
to
the
is
'tuaSdnr'
Of.
it'.
and
traditionally
by a comparable
English
itive
is
distributional
paralleled
to
jy)
4
p.
subject
This
in
(what
.ý
not
given
narrative
are
nlways
contexts,
e. g.
C%1ý r
w
V t)
? aam jaab
? u.-.-to cabbutni.
(Saar)
harb of .w
? a=ot
mbaareH
Drubiiha.
muu 9oob 9aloo ti
yaa nal9uuno,
ullha
li
9a$aayo w ? alli
rlkod waraaha w
t oubbi
t oot o?
insulted
(Yesterday
his sister
So he brouGht
no.
zoo
So she ran away. And
no to boat her.
and told
a stick
her and tells
her "You nau city 'irl
he runs after
aren't
j
such ninon ?')
your 6randnothor
you ashamed to call
(kaauu) wa?t y5iir
w yu9du yut farraju.
(Whonover
it
and
studios
8. It
preceded
above that
by another
instructions,
or
opinions,
loavo
would
0Tt
thoir
must bo
iporfoot
bolon&inG
to othor
initially
in
approval,
o. c.
may bo used
it
Howov©r,
thoy
fornn
or other
verb
diraaouton
yutruku
Limo,
gras tolovision
it and watch)
has boon said
cat©Sorie3.
s©ektng
wa?t uttalivizyoon
quontiona
bu tttzlifoon
fiihon
maktuub luana ? uttuSol
lottor
thou up 7)
than
or ring
a
send
? ub atlon
I
Shrill
?
? uubox lak razz
Sha11 I cook you Sono rico
?
?)
9wayyot
Hatab
?
9til.
a
waSSiilkon.
(Shall
for you ?)
I order
sonn logs
These
in
which
latter
the
c
of
present
tition.
questions
the
orb
can
future
and future
Cf.
in
appears
appear
time,
distinEuichod
are
with
b'
fron
imperfect
indicators
the
former
time
only
can
but
of
appear
not
with
other
form
questions
in
ropetitiom
with
that
an well
indicators
indicators
whilo
of
of
ropo-
"
ý.
tJj
? (9aadatan)
buddaxxen
(do
Do you smoke?
you usually
?
to smoke a cigarette
ddnxxen sigaara
(would you like
+ imperfect
9.0
wishing,
prayer,
In
?alla'
mungaani
(i)
appear
?)
used in contexts
(ii)
and
swearing,
(i)
it
and the
in coaxing
of
the
forms
(i)
with
certain
'man'
form
'balla',
precedes
'munlaan
and supplication,
Yalla
9aleek
yaa
-vurDi
(God bless
you nkr son)
blending,
exhortation,
collocatca
(ii)
In
n9aalla.
in exhortation,
imperfect
0+
also
cursing,
such as : ?alla,
forms
is
and supplication.
coaxing,
)
smoke?
e. g.
?ubni
nsacUa tun aHu
(May you succeed)
? allay
19ano
May God s curse
be upon
him)
6
(ii)
lees
?aa9ed sacket,
(Why are
you
maa tulki?
why don't
silent?
(mun aan ?alla)
us some old song,
balla
(sing
ilnR
for
the
?uxtak
munsaani tsnnyer
(for my sake, be nice to your
Subject
It
the
has
infinitive
0+
of
been
you
talk?
)
dii Qunniyye
sake of God)
? adij
o
sister)
imnerfect
pointed
and the 0+
out
that
imperfect
the
main
in
the
difference
fact
that
between
the
former
ý1 ^ yý
Ui
is
whereas
non-finite,
tive
be linked
cannot
form;
0+
unlike
(person),
in
number
from
any
lamm
which
object
girls
? aal
(tell),
Bootak
imperfect,
? ajbar
xalla
(Your voice
infiniin
its
subject
there
it
or
in relation
may
may be evident
to other
verbale
9a'luw1aad
maa ysallmi
they
entered
and its
certain
a nominal
i. e.,
did
not
4ablma tssrifer
them before
greet
she
verbs
subject
(xal1
(compel),
bunti
the
boys)
left)
tka
afu
adjust)
Aualek
t_
w tk
mmli
you please
go and finish
your
imperfect
after
with
form
gam ylaa? u Su9uube Hatta
(They find
it difficult
to
0+
by agreement
the
e. g.
SallaHuton
ul? ustaaze
(The teacher
corrected
daxiilek
(would
subject
indicated,
contrastive
lbanaat
yfuutu
i. e.,
agrees
0+
with
agrees
ambiguity,
(When the
a nominal
finite,
and gender.
its
the context,
clearing
with
is
may be expressly
which
a nominal
former
imperfect
The subject
be
the
work)
can fill
(let),
?a4na9
the position
naßaH
(convince)
(advise),
).
Examples
turtu9eb
made my daughter
?ajbaret
? axi
ZZuruuf
(Circumstances
forced
frightened)
9a rriyaaD
ysanfer
to travel
my brother
Lvrazii'
? af na9 9adna n
the m nis era persua
ed
7brýl
l'iyaZiif
to accept
to Riyad)
the
of an
post)
are:
J6
a phrase
of
objects
gala
?aSarru
(They insisted
them)
with
ni
bakkiir
9andon
to have
with
e. g.
me up early)
(lunching)
lunch
a personal
in
as
also
and a preposition,
to wake (waking)
that
out
colligating
suffix
pronoun
this
context,
the preposition
cannot
only
a
being
e. g.
possible,
9alee
9tamadut
(I
a verb
the noun subject
for
be substituted
of
on yutaadda
rfii?
friend
on their
be pointed
should
pronominal
yfayyu?
on my brother
counted
It
?axi
may be used
subject
consisting
gala
9tamadut
(I
and its
imperfect
0+
counted
bakkiir
vfay m? ni
on him waking
me up early)
9andon
yutGadda
on him lunching
9alee
?aSarru
(They insisted
with
them)
11
This
to
parallel
the
in
infinitive
cD Contrastive
It
has become clear
to thejinfinitive
the
that
native
speakers
distributionally
Of.
English.
(intervening)
implications
1.
Arabic
is
to intervene
on the minsiter
on him intervening.
They counted
They counted
relevant
imperfedt
of 0+
occurrence
two forms
of
Arabic
from
the distributional
in EngIsh
are
to
and 0+
sufficiently
identify
them
facts
imperfect
in
comparable
for
in
all
cases'
)
C%^Q
t.; aj
This,
naturally,
identifying
complete
In
the
first
to the
both
without
in
two
forms
problems,
since
will
rise
give
a
to
English.
place,
infinitive
ttol,
the
of
forms
unacceptable
teaching
constitutes
0+
since
tto'
with
corresponds
and to the
between
confusion
imperfect
the
two is
infinitive
to be expected.
at.
fakkek
xaTTak bass maa ?duct
to decipher
your handwriting
Haaralt
X tried
bu? der ?ufham xaTTak
I can understand
your
handwriting.
Two kinds
are
one is
context:
used
(with
the
'to'
where
it
that
however,
among
of mistakes
speakers
the
use
'to'
of
the
auxiliaries);
should
be used.
mistakes
of
likely
of
Arabic.
It
the
to
but
I couldn't
in
occur
where
it
should
other
is
the
should
first
Attested
type
this
not
be
dropping
of
be mentioned,
are
mistakes
more coxmnon
of
the
two
types
are:
1.
2.9
must to go back early.
(sic).
He will
to read all
it
9 But you must to wait many time
®I
(sic).
He hopes become all the people educated
(sic)
9 When he had returned
to London he began write his
(sic)
impressions
it
to books (sic)
and poured
He hesitated
tell
her
the
news.
C'
t) "J
In
Arabic
the
verbal
(your
in
the
which
therefore
is
verb
in
clause
the
(Your
comparable
in
from
verb
forms,
sisters
the
as in
came to
in
corresponds
help
of
says
us).
the
which
to
case
which
a difference
exhibit
one case
them),
agreement,
structures
intransitive,
an infinitive
that
pattern
both
?uju
help
we might
grammatical
ysaa9duunat
however,
English,
(first)
in
?uju
usual
t? uxwaatak
in
basic
of
in, a tyro-form
subject
example
common to
is
the
exhibit
'? uxwaatak
In
difference
subject
of
came so that
sisters
involve
not
a change
as for
conplex,
nsaa9udon'
does
place,
second
main
structure
a subordinate
Cf.
other.
Your sisters
came to help
?uju ysaa9duuna
?uxwaatak
us
Your sisters
came so that
"aatak
?uju nsaa9udon
we might
No such distinction
in
applies
help
them
the case of transitive
verbs.
or.
Your
Your
in
of
view
Arabic
of
"I
sisters
want to help
sisters
want
us
the difference
to English
They must train
to
us
help
between
results
in
students
them.
Arabic
the
and English,
following
attested
a transfer
mistakes:
so as to become (context
ood soldiers.
to stay in London
my parents
convinced
requires
to stay in London and not the parents)
the writer
to meet you at three
Do you prefer
(context
?
o'clock
requires:
do you prefer
that
I should
meet you ..
ý1
In
the
in
variable
the
third
place,.
terms,
of
a transfer
the
of
infinitive
being
rise
gives
0+
of
the
in
Arabic
invariable,
is
imperfect
following
is
whereto
and gender,
non-finite,
variability
to
imperfect
number,
person,
infinitive,
English
0+
since
to
attested
the
Engl ids
mistakes:
like
him.
9 Nobody can writes
(sic)
it
He will
reads all
the students.
it to make it takes all
We must extend
to gives
It must improve
us higher
certificates.
(sic)
the state.
him
controls
@He had an iron hand made
(sic)
to
university
our
see
wishes
my
all
and
...
in the world.
becomes among the best universities
(sic)
life
the
is.
knows
9 She made him
what
it.
to gives
He tries
that
dream comes to us.
to let
0...
her boy.
She must teaches
A fourth
in
constructions
function
of
object
the
to
as adjuncts
the
infinitive
in
appears
9ando
maSaari
ktiir
9ando maýaakel
It
English,
will
0+
ktiir
be noticed
imperfect
the
infinitive
as a finite
infinitive
in
in
reflected
which
certain
0+
and the
noun
would
transforms
associated
He had plenty
of money to
They have so many problems
with
is
a preceding
in
infinitive
Arabic
the
both
which
between
conflict
imperfect
and 0+
English
of
point
in
imperfect
be
which
Of.
verb.
spend
to settle
yuSrufha
yHullha
that,
colligates
finlike
the
with
infinitive
a pronominal
theta
in
suffix
tr
to
referable
of
this
the
preceding
characteristic
in
noun
gives
rise
this
to
Transfer
context.
mistakes
the
of
following
type :
My brother
has many friends
to invite
" We have many lessons
to prepare
them.
to see them
© There are good programmes
The same kind
is
of conflict
by a preposition,
followed
for
the preposition.
in
in
television
where the
infinitive
such cases
to the preceding
referable
suffix
a pronominal
with
occurs
them.
(sic)
in Arabic
noun colligates
Cf. '
He has no home to go to
There were many children
for
Susan
to play
with
with
maa ?ulo
kaan
fii
the
ktlir
mistakes
She did
Yet again
infinitive
is
ma9hon
this
kind
of
to live
in
city
to look at them.
it.
reflecting
a lovely
are just
nothing
the
is
1? uGraa?
ssiigaaraat
to be ashamed of
same conflict
conflict
is hard
easy to
arises
it.
in
to a preceding
an adjunct
The temptation
Cigarettes
are
with
tul9ab
following:
9 Damascus
C@The fruits
the
?ulo
yruuf
wlaad
Attested
include
beet
to resist
obtain
Sa9b ngaawmo
saht nu6triihon
contexts
adjective.
where
Cf. t
'' ""9
Cf. ' the
following
attested
mistakes:
is easy to learn
it.
@ English
them.
Q Dreams are not easy to explain
is nice
to see it.
Q Damascus Fair
A final
point
and 0+
English
of
same verb
particle
no
equivalent
of
'tot
or
In
form
in
appears
imperfect
a0+
did not watet to stay
do as much for
can't
I
I
from
in
the
of
the
of
cases
Arabic,
in
absence
charac-
instances
appropriate
contexts
the
form
infinitive
where
in
comparable
the
results
retention
with
'to'.
Arabic
infinitive
the
of
precedes,
the
in
imperfect
'dropping'
teristic
between
conflict
of
either
a counterpart
may be repeated.
Cfe
the night
but he begged
them as I'd
like
to
me to
with
laakunno
traj
maa Habbeet maDDi lleel
(saa9do
?
bu?
der
buddi
adma
maa
saa9do
2.
--ingForms
It
is
books
ticiple,
customary
between
two categories
and the
tical
grounds,
which
made other
'present
to find
since
participles'
the
two
grammarians
for
-ing
categories
reject
a neutral
made in grammar
forms:
The distinction
gerund.
aani
a distinction
of
the
is
are
the
term,
(maDDii)
present
par-
made on syntacidentical
terms
the
'gerunds'
'
-ing
in
form,
and
form.
L%
The use
the
of
in
especially
in
it
which
is
it
Hc3ever,
'gerund'
it
in
correspond
forms
and
which
general
both
present
in
to
active
forms
constructions
either
the
category.,
distinction
point
Arabic,
in
be found
will
in
forms
verbal
of
Therefore,
participles'.
'Al-Masdar'
participles
in
and passive
participles
as gerunds
are formed
English
of
as gerunds
'Al-Masdar'
participles
to
in
classified
so-called
relation
convenient,
a contrastive
a sub-class
'active
and past
relation
the
modo to
may be called
will
that
to
keep
from
as present
grosso
be considered
in
to
them
to
convenient
is
appear
assign
be found
classified
correspond
forms
participle'
will
form
-ing
-ing
to
difficult
'present
since
view,
where
seems more
-
term
uncommitted
cases
`J
.i
in
to
Arabic
gerunds
Arabic;
and
be considered
will
Arabic
in
respec-
tively.
2. a) Gerunds
Forms classified
form
of
the
verb
as
in
they
may be used
occupied
contexts
attributed
a suffixed
which
characteristics
Thus
by
to
overlap
in
They have
-ing.
with
contexts
by verbs;
those
of
occupied
hence
the
the
from
simple
syntactical
other
word-classes.
by nouns
term
as well
'verbal
nouns'
them.
The nominal
syntactical
properties
of gerunds
are exhibited
A0
in
or
contexts
used
as subject,
and in
contexts
Examples
as noun-adjuncts.
serving
object
to
appropriate
adjuncts
associate-with
selves
are
and complement;
a preposition,
can
of
nouns;
are:
Gerunds
of
they
and,
in
can
the
of
case
adjuncts
with
appear
gerunds
characteristic
to
corresponding
be followed
by noun
objects
form.
Examples
are:
absolute
properties
syntactical
exhibit
they
and them-
on.
also
a verb
where
is
hardly
the way to get
Stamping
work
your
in a clear
He began reading
voice.
like
treated
to being
They object
children.
is lying.
Complimenting
is masterly.
His handling
of the situation
luxury.
hankering
Single-minded
after
Retiring
age.
Thus
can
they
where
lý
verbs.
of
verbs,
transitive
or by pronouns
in
verbs,
nominative
He began reading
and distinctly.
slowly
flowers.
is busy collecting
His wife
Seeing her is a pleasure.
in
Moreover,
(seeing),
simple
the
2.
t)
Verbal
distributionally
classified
of
infinitives,
(having
perfective
and perfective
seen),
manner
passive
seen),
(having
can be
gerunds
been
passive
(being
seen).
Al-Masdar
nouns in Arabic
parallel
in Arabic
are termed
to gerunds
have various
'Al-Masdar'
in English.
patterns
and are
Fers
exemplitie'd
no
by
n04
Darb,
9amals,
Surb,
the
pattern
of
derived
forms
duxuul;
of
the
grounds
both
nouns
the
tion
as follows:
(perfect)
Verbal
Noun
mu9aakase
9taraf
?u9tiraaf
tkabbar
takabbor
tfaaham
tafaahom
that
are
they
and verbs.
adjuncts
Thus
similar
to
deemed comparable
exhibit
syntactical
Their
nominal
verbal
to nouns,
is
of
verbal
gerunds
is
character
character
characteristic
English
of
characteristics
behaviour
and syntactical
with
maa 9ayyant
(I haven't
are
verbs
commonest
Patterns
verbs.
9aakas
nouns
suffixes,
triliteral
the
ta91iim
And their
nominal
of
illustrates
9allam
morphological
sified.
first
quadriliteral
Verb
Verbal
form
simple
the
of
shown by
of
by
revealed
forms
so clas-
their
colliga-
verbs.
nouns
colligate
with
pro-
e. g.
yoom safar-i
fixed
the date
of
my departure)
ta9liim-o
mulawweq
(His teaching
is interesting)
Moreover,
article,
e. g.
verbal
on
nouns can colligate
with
the
definite
tý
?
lbaaxira
bu
aHla mun ussafar
ssafar
(Sea travel
is nicer
than air
travel)
bu lmawa9iid
tta? xiir
TI
am very
annoyed
Furthermore,
can
by
parallel
the
delay
to
gerunds
objects,
as subjects,
operate
bidaayu? ni
bu TTayyaara
ktiir
in
appointments)
in
English,
predicates,
verbal
nouns
and objects
of
e. g.
prepositions,
byaaxdu wa? t ktiir
lubso w Hlaa?to
long
take
His dressing
a
shaving
and
time)
a bad uDDuhur
the afternoon)
?ana bHubb ulairaa?
(I like
in
reading
kifaaH
lHayaat
(life
is struggle)
9a ttagaa9od
?aHaaluuhon
(They pensioned
them off)
It
differ
should
in
can
from
general
so classified
rare
be pointed
do not
nouns
or
in
that
that
the
verbal
majority
nouns
plural
exhibit
but
very
nouns
of
number variation,
seldom
forms
and even in
show number distinction;
cases when verbal
be singular
however,
out,
dual.
Singular
Dual
Plural
tafaahom
(mutual
understanding)
ta9liim
(teaching)
takabbor
(haughtiness)
?ustuGlaal
(exploiting)
?u9tiraaf
(confessing)
----
------
----
------
----
------
--^-
?u9tiraafaat
CP.
the
they
i1ý
V
ný
.ý
Singular
Dual
Plural
?unfijaar
(explosion)
?unfijaa-
?unfijaaraat
reen
The verbal
character
their
colligation
with
cally
colligate
with
to
corresponding
fact
ý
t
they
that
with
ciate
of verbal
transitive
the
verbs,
it
ktiir
is
case
is
by noun
also
objects
revealed
by
characteristiof
verbal
nouns
shown by
or
can
the
asso-
Of.
suffixes.
pronominal
is
which
and in
can be followed
Maki
biTalaapa
(Speaking
fluently
forms
adverbial
verbs,
nouns
fa99aal
very effective)
byuHki biTalaapa
yaaser
(Yasser
speaks fluently)
ta9liim
ul? ungliizi
(Teaching
English
Sa9b
is difficult)
?un liizi
?ana b9allem
(I teach English
6oofutha
ktiir
butsurr
(Seeing her, pleases
much)
ktiir
?ana bguufha
(I see her often)
3. a)Participles
If
participles
the distinction
is
accepted
made between
for
English,
gerunds
it
and present
would be convenient
'.q '1
ýJ
to
discuss
forms
-ing
together
with
so classified
-en
are
comparable
The present
We are facing
our history;
method.
The pressure
menacing.
The past
and passive
since
forms
classifiable
Arabic
is
participle
form
the verbal
of verbs,
passive
forms,
the
verbal
The participles
f'unotion
a)
are not
and passive
as will
a sentence
which
sentences,
e. g.
in -ing
ending
e. g.
be uncomfortable,
form
found
in
if
the
not
perfective
only
forms;
one of his poems.
developed
and it was not
that
its
were
rules
used in the perfective,
they
are
also
used
in
be shown below.
The Present
The present
form
e. g.
in
his life
He has depicted
This doctrine
was gradually
the nineteenth
century
until
defined.
strictly
continuative,
as active
than any revolution
in
to abandon the experimental
to
was beginning
forms
respectively.
a change greater
we are beginning
is
participles
participles),
with
in
the continuative
in
as present
(past
forms
participles
and passive
found
classified
Participle
participle
can be used after
can be considered
a transform
a verb
of
two
in
adjunct
n*4
They
(Cf.
were busy
They were
he gulped
Too often
(Cf.
He gulped
horses
They were
valeting
busy.
his
his
tea.
tea
valeting
standing
horses)
up
He was standing
up)
his name.
The child
came shouting
(Cf. The child
The child
came.
was shouting
The present
participle
by an adverbial
substitutable
adjunct'
can be also
in seclusion
Living
on an island,
became introspective.
(Cf. Because he lived
in seclusion
used
)
name.
his
'free
as a
clause,
e. g.
the Englishman
the girl
him
Knowing this,
admired
(Cf. When she knew this,
the girl...
on an island,
all
)
the
the...
)
more.
Looking
back on it,
one can see that
what really
interested
him was the idea of combat.
(Cf. If one looks back on it,
)
one can see...
When the
it
is
participial
functionally
phrase
equivalent
appears
in
to a co-ordinate
final
position,
clause,
e. g.
Sometimes he slipped
into
the grotto,
advice
seeking
that had cropped
on problems
up.
(Cf. Sometimes he slipped
into
the grotto)
and sought...
)
heavy drinker,
He is a fairly
never having less than five
a day.
pints
(Cf. He is a fairly
(and) he never has... )
heavy drinker,
b)
Past
Participles
Past participles
Puzzled
them.
by his
occur
behaviour,
in parallel
the
young
Thnctions,
men glanced
e. g.
behind
`1s
:i
v
by a situation
He could not go on, overwhelmed
his
head.
have
entered
never
would
He was almost
The examples
the
be
main
adjuncts
in
subject
of
sentences
strain.
so far
given
as their
verb
kernel
the
considered
free
of
the
of
subject
worn out by the
asleep,
Which
which
they
the
strain.
would
have
what
may
are
transforms.
strain.
CP.
with
He was almost
asleep,
He was almost
asleep.
In
be the
where
cases
of
of
subject
(cf.
own
their
out
with
the
the
main
verb
could
the
latter
He was worn
of the participles,
subject
a subject
the
by
out
worn
occur
not
with
e. g.
above),
turning.
dorm, its
The red car was upside
still
wheels
(Cf. The red car was upside
down, and its
wheels were still
)
turning.
There he sat down, dozing
only his
on the Birched
ground,
the
beyond
the
heat.
feet
of
protruding
oasis
great
sandalled
the point
the same
having
been raised,
He said that,
would not occur again.
mistake
A sub-class
catch,
keep,
Present
of verbs
leave,
occur
including
with
feel,
an object
hear,
see,
and a participle,
Participles
He could feel the heart throbbing
(cf,, he could feel that the heart was throbbing)
to watch the heavy
They undertook
many journeys
being mounted.
These
set,
two
things
always
set
the
world
laughing.
guns
start,
e. g.
R'rr
Past
Participles
her
Nothing would have surprised
her.
of
said
than
to hear
this
to make itself
felt.
The new estate
was beginning
duly to see the boy's
Janet watched
expression
(of.
that
face.
to
husband's
her
duplictaed
see
on
...
face)
boy's
on her husband's
was duplicated
expression
Participles
comparable
noun in
that
with
of
function,
adjunct
in
nouns
after
occur
also
a relative
a function
or precede
clause,
the
a
e. g.
by the numbers
is not to be estimated
The importance
(cf.
the
by
numbers who are participating)
participating
...
impending.
There were clear
of clear
changes
signs
This was a reward due for services
rendered.
He sprang at the officiating
cardinal
(cf.
He sprang dt the cardinal
who was officiating)
The laughing
crowd.
based on his observed
Conclusions
conduct.
When an -ing
serve
form
to distinguish
precedes
between
a noun,
a gerund
features
of
and a present
stressing
participle.
Cf.
A dancing
A 'dancing
( articiple)
(doll
'doll
that
dances)
(lesson
(gerund)
lesson
in dancing)
A running
A 'running
(participle)
'man (a man who runs)
(competition
in running)
competition
Stress
can be the only feature
between
and a gerund,
a participle
A dancing
A 'dancing
'girl
girl
a girl
a girl
serving
as in..
to
(gerund)
distinguish
(participle)
dances)
who
is dancing)(gerund
whose profession
j'"d.
3.
b"
Forms
and past
to
the
participle
passive
Arabic
are
in
participles
corresponding
and the
English,
in
as participles
present
participle
Arabic
in
classified
with
comparable
active
Participles
present
broadly
English,
the
participle
in
to
corresponding
the
past
participle.
It
in
is
Arabic:
to
possible
active
two, sub-classes
and passive
participles
among verbals
are classified
pies
distinguish
of
participlePartici-
participles.
on the basis
of certain
chracteristics.
shared
they
Syntactically,
participles
passive
with
verbs,
active
are
substitutable
verbs,
with
and passive
verbs:
participles
active
with
e. g.
(6tara)
kaari
beet jdiid
(He has bought
a new house)
? eemta waa9ed (wa9adut)
?ummak ?
(When did you promise
to meet your
(nHasadna
9ala
beetna
maHsuudiin
(We are envied
our house)
buddna tasjiil
ma7buul
(We want an acceptable
Cl)
mother
9ala
?)
beetna)
(yun? ubel)
recording)
The active
of a triliteral
participle
verb is of the pattern
CaaCec; the passive
participle,
of the
pattern
maCCuuC, e. g.
(writing)
(drinking5,
katab
he wrote )p kaateb
(written);
maktuub
laareb
dureb
he drank),
(drunk).
magruub
Participles
follow
of other
verbs
different
patterns
according to their
CV structure.
See T. F.
Mitchell,
op. cit. p. 87 fl
f
v, i
Moreover,
(Cf.
?ana saam9ak
(I hear you)
with
the
participles
appear
'1'
particle
+a
pronominal
hand,
On the other
in
differ
from
verbs
shared
with
nominal
the
?ana smu9tak)
(Of.
jdiide
new goods)
?ujaalon
both
and passive
baDaaye9
expecting
aayiilon
They are
-a
active
e. g..
suffix,
take
verbs,
or
suffixes
pronominal
with
to
similar
Thus
feminine
jdiide)
participlea
appear
forms.
and the
-iin
they
affixes
and adjectival
affix
plural
the
that
active
baDaaye9
with
are
participles
singillar
affixes
e. g.
and -e,
Nouns
Adjectives
Act.
xayyaaTiin
ýaaTriin
mxayyTiin
mxayyaTiin
xayyaaTa
gaaTra
mxayyTa
mxayyaTa
m9allmiin
mhazzabiin
daaxliin
mdaxxaliin
m9allme
mhazzabe
daaxle
mdaxxale
While
passive
their
participles
they
-a,
-e,
not
colligate
verbs
suffixes.
participles
share
with
colligability
with
the
differ
from
with
verbal
and active
participles,
active
nominals
suffixes
in
participles
affixes,
do not
and,
Pas.
Part.
i:
colligate
and active
-iin,
that
contrast
with
Part*
thcy
and
do
to both
pronominal
v
has been
It
and nouns
to participles
between
Arabic
the
of
Distribution
of
(in
time
past
verbs,
notably
ligate
and
(c)
the
(b)
with
of
the
(a)
indicators
(See how the
they
of
kiff
feet
forms
context
(see
in
fact
and
perfect
than
the
of
state
of
certain
they
duration
(definite
time.
or
Examples
or
col-
repeti.
indefinite),
are:
?uHuSne
raakbiin
are
riding
horses)
?)
Tam
yalli
mun ulGeem
coming out of the clouds)
the majority
e. g.
indicators
differently:
past
future
soldiers
),
p. 26-i
to
contemporary
of
TTalla9 9a TTayyaara
(Look at the airplane
this
the
character
with
participles
lees maati
gala mahlak
?
(Why are you walking
slowly
In
however,
and number;
verbal
refer
behave
motion,
of
ljunuud
the
of
cor-
by verbs
colligate
terms:
action),
indicators
guuf
more
they
is
gender
occupied
general
notional
verbs
with
(a)
in
indicators
with
have
of
verbs
distinction,
participles
terms
with
Participles
participles
performed
and
they
respect
A main
environments
counterparts.
having
tion,
in
forms,
While
in
share
this
and English
English
their
in
English.
variable
are
occur
imperfect
or
in
participles
fozmer
they
because
participles
characteristics;
certain
respond
that
that
above
said
i
(J
of verbs
appear
in
gam + imper-.
ýi S' y1
6uuf kiff lwalad
9am Vul9ab
(See how the boy is playing
(Why are
you
Soot 9aali
bi
gam tuHki
leeo
in
speaking
a loud
laHaalo
eating
gam yaakol
hay ? axuuki
(There is your brother
(b)
?
by himself)
la baadaad
marraat
more than ten times)
?aktar
mun 9agr
msaafer
(He has been to Baghdad
Hatta
maabi xams kilomutraat
(He has walked five
kilometres
bakkiir
Taale9
(He has left
The participles
in
this
mmi
his
of
sam9aan fii
(I've
heard
Saari
majority
to-day)
of
?
(Where have you bought
this
yugtriili
tie
similarly
Abahr
hdiyye
uljaaye
to buy me a present
(c)
lmudeel
yalli
(Next year's
Taale9 ussune
model is better)
?aaa msaafer
(I am leaving
bukra
to-morrow)
?aaxed
ma9ak
(Who are you taking
The majority
of verbs
gala
appear
next
month)
?aHsan
ljanye
bluudaan
with
?)
from
(He has promised
main
behave
verbs
? eemta
bass maa ba9ref
but I don't
know when)
of him
ha lugraafe
waa9udni
boon
here
e. g.
context,
mneen
wuSel la
to get
lyoom
ualo
work early
the
?)
voice
?
you to Bloudan
in
the
imperfect
?)
form
i'3
L) J
by
preceded
1b'
'raH'
or
in
this
context,
e. g.
jdiid
raH y9amrnru musta6fa
ussune ljaaye
(They will
build
a new hospital
next year)
ba9d sunteen
raH yutxarraj
(He will
in two years)
graduate
bu ibariid
send it
bukra bub9ato
(tomorrow
I'll
When associated
can
negative
with
indicators
with
colligate
by post)
particles
future
of
Hatta
mutHarrek
maali
(I am not moving until
time,
turDi
9aliyyi
I have your
law yjunn
Haakiilo
maali
(I am not telling
him even
if
all
participles
e. g.
blessings)
he goes
mad)
daaf u9l6 wales frang
maali
(I am not paying
him a franc)
In
(I
found
he had
sub-class
(which
(he
Hassab
is
followed
suffix..
the
In
present
case
the
and
rather
to
-the
the
'I
of
sentences
type
all
the
eaten
contrastive.
him
kull
apples),
where
a verb
(he
form
of
with
the
verbs
of
motion,
form
of
the
Thus
in
agreeing
verb
are
'la? eeto
? akal
kull
suffix
the
English.
pronominal
for
participle
variant
bu silaareg'
in
and
uttuffaaHaat'.
active
freely
not
a small
(he heard),
with
the
a:aaii
street'
of
may be substituted
however,
verb
the
sume9
uttuffaaHaat'
a pronominal
'la? eeto
Cf.
walking
saw),
participle
participle.
of
? aakel
) colligates
by a present
perfect
'la? eeto
saaf
includes:
thought)
perfect
found
the
but
corresponds
Whereas
#7 t7
t. ß (1
'la?
©eto mug;i
in
walked
6
bu ssaare9'
the
Of,
street'.
the
use
corresponds
motive
verb
There
the
of
motion
he had
house)
preceded
to
is
yet
by the
in
of
the
verb
forii
when their
the
of
the
of
(This
tions)
4. bukra
k"rhis
non-
participle
of
forms
Of.
sentencaa
'kaan'/'ykuun'
.
are
1 with
4 below,
kaan kaateb
saw him
mutul
time
he had
ulmaktuub
(already)
halla?
butlkuun
to-morrow
she
the
have
letter)
street)
baa9t e lull
will
the
written
ul9azaayen
sent
all
the
butkuun
mutul halla?
1'aal9a nun utluGul
time to-norr°ow
be going out of
she will
sentence,.
perfect
behaviour
participle
lamina sufto
kaan maasi bu UUaare9
(When I saw him he was walking
in
3. bukra
active
verbs
auxiliary
(When I
the
case
gam * imperfect
of
difference
another
1. lanma sufto
In
that
the
'katab'.
and 5 witn
2.
in
participle
und non-motive
mokive
to
found
la? eeto 9am yuktob
ulnuktuuh
(I found hire writing
the letter)
where
2,
'I
also
tufto
i+aale9 mun ulbeet
(I saw. him leaving
the
with
to
corresponds
3 the
fora
of
active
participle
a motive
verb;
'. raal9a-
corresponds
'baa9te'
and in
to
the
invita-
work)
corresponds
sentence
4 the
9am"inporfect
6) ell
eý tý il
fora
of
a non-motive
Cf.
verb.
3 and 4 with
sentences
b below,
5 and
5.
bukra
kThis
butkuun
Tu19et
mutul halla?
mun uuGul
time to-morrow
have loft
one will
work)
6.
bukra
mutul
halla?
. arallel
Arabic
butkuun
to-morrow
%xhis time
with
to
the
participles
which they
distribution
agree in
? axi 9aaye3
ktiy brother
gam tnaD])©f
after
wars byu9du
behind
sit
mka, yef
is living
of
gender
ulboot
be cleaning
she will
can occur
byu9du
yalli
(Those
sitting
house)
participiea
rnglish
(or
verbs
tho
and number.
other
participles)
Ex=plea
are:
iin
nurta
comfortably)
a happy
life)
Tullaabna
9am yudxulu
9a l jaan9a mkam-main 9anha
'okra xayaaliyye
w San yui la9u mama naoduuniin.
(Our students
the university
having
forned
enter
ideas about it and they leave
it disillusioned)
In
the
sent oncea
the
participle
following
examples,
and a preceding
la? eet Daww ulbeot
(I found the light
agreement
noun
6aa e1
or the nouse
saafiiuhon
lama
harabu
as iin
k ,hen they
saw tnen uon1n6 they
rajja9on
ine
sent
xaaybiin
tnen
pauk
disappointed)
or
obtains
a pronominal
Burning)
ran
away)
romantic
between.
sui rix:
!. i IJ
Participles
in
occur
is
posiL, ion
nouns
aer1uiteueaa
and genaer,
nunoer
after
of
tnoy
wniun
agree
indefinit©noso.
or
noj. "e enas"avtio. 1LLls
Active
with
passivo
rnis
participlos,
o. 6.
participles
DDaww uL, 6aa9el maa bixalliini
(A burning
light
prevents
maa fii
(There
naam
me fron sleeping)
? aHla mun uTTuful
unnaayom
is nothing
than
more beautiful
saa? ye 1aar e wala nahur ma?Tuu9
(A running
than
stream is better
Passive
participles
tjaawazet
(She is
ussun ulna? buul
accepted
the
past
a dry
a sleeping
child)
river)
age)
lmUzaat
lmawduude 9ando naadra
(The advantages
existing
with him
aro
rare)
can
only
1mikroioon
taGal
ulnalksuur
naa
(The broken
didn't
work)
-microphone
In
noun
as
above
the
of
adjuncts
examples
they
which
with
include
with
the
they
attaching
and the
only
preceding
nouns
nnahur
DDaww
sunnha
which
agree
to
are
In
agree.
participles
which
participles
the
only
noun.
subjects,
this
noun.
may follow
in
number
In
this
they
position
or
precede
and gender,
case,
e. g.
they
the
function
Lhe following
(the river
is dry)
'light
is burning)
the
aa9el
(her age is acceptable)
na? buul
na? Tuu9
follow
examples
the
noun
definiteness
are
predicates
'4 a.-ý,
is
it
While
distribution
of
from
and Arabic
points
constitute
for
of
speakers
The
forms
discern
to
possible
classified
partial
of these
differences
that
conflict
of
a partially
parallel
in
as participlos
description
the
distributional
other
remain
implications
ba Contrastive
3.
EaSl. ish
forms
above,
there
between
them
which
teaching
cause
problems
Arabic.
distributional
can be sunnuriz©d.
similarities
as follows:
1.
or
perfect
Ei
the
fish
present
and past
'have'
forms.
forms
and
makes them
in
fast.
papers
bisur9a
War?a lahalla?
2.
in
Participles
ouf'ton
comparable
with
the
perfective
appear
with
and conti-
C f*
raaked
mSa11eH tlaatiin
saw they
verbs
when these
.luHSaan
I
with
'be'
for
substitutable
participles
The horse is running
I have examined thirty
with
being
Arabic
gam * imperfect
auxiliaries
nuative
in
Participles
running
raakdiin_
both
so far.
languages
can
follow
vorbei.
C f.
in
ýýý
ýý
3.
both
In
running
stolen
mayy jaarye
b aD aaye9 masruu? a
The
behaviour
occur
to
relates
between
the
II1glish
characteristics
in, perfect
fact
(since
as predictaes
verbs
or
of
participles
in
participles
the
that
Eaglish
in
particip1o
in
participlos
they
occur
imperfect
function
cannot
of
as follows:
summarized
main difference
languages
with
the
in
can be
and Arabic
in
to
wat er
goods
Divergence
can
can be adjuncto
participles
Cf.
nouns.
with
languages
forms);
free
whereas
Transfer
as prediates.
gives
in
rise
to
the
tou
will
the
two
Arabic
variation
participles
of
Arabic
following
mistakes:
e You imagining
things.
in your head that
Sihy you putting
broken.
'his
microhone
14
her when, you invited.
Q Tell
"ihich
reflect
Arabic
? unte nutwahhen
lees HaaTet bi raa. ak ?lunnalc
fo on naksuur
haada lnikro
? ulla
? eemta na9zuun
raj-; tua"j of
fail
t
4
ýtJ
A characteristic
they
where
in
dence
of
by adverb
a teaching
and constitutes
this
difficulty
is
available:
at
all
structions
were not
used
analysed.
Instead,
students
phrase
an adverb
where
at
priate,
following
least
are
with
ever
they
always
say or
in
IIlglish,
is
clauses,
the
the
fact
unnatchod
that
examination
use
would
Thus
sentences
such
ovicon-
scripts
adverb
a participle
by oyrian
contexts
Ifogativo
problem.
invariably
used
Being poor, the could not
She is quite
a different
and beauty.
wealth
Instead,
in
stylistically.
hardly
in
participles
substitutable
are
Arabic,
of
.iN
clauses,
be more approlike
tho
students:
to buy books.
afford
woman now, deprived
of
her
write,
she could not afford
Because she is poor,
She is quite
woman now, after
a different
and beauty.
of her wealth
to buy books.
she was deprived
ýI ý1
ýiý1cý
(4
A.
Forms
to
the
are
In
sification.
forms
these
it
intersecting
fact,
in
in
which
adverbs,
be divided
the
each
following
us his
over,
blank
any
to
give
a clear
to
basis
and
elusive
satisfactory
clas-
picture
them
classify
on the
in
of
various
morphological
of
characteristic
eagerly,
chief
by any
of
adverbs
of
which
is
is
their
illus-
sentence
story
----
can be filled
basis
of
the
positions,
representing
on the
hopefully,
(1)
defy
order
exclusively
So varied
phrase.
be necessary
certain
The man told
in
belong
seem to
identifying
fill
the
do not
criteria.
primary
to
trated
they
noun
classifications
The
ability
the
that
will
syntactical
and
English
(1)
as adverbs
or
phrase
forms
these
in
Adverbs
classifiable
verb
)
a sub-group
of
their
aloud,
into
the
following
which
adverbs
may
form.
actor-wise,
backwards,
somehow,
and here.
In. the discussion
of adverbs
if. E. Palmer,
op. cit.,
works,
; and Strang,
op.
pp. 281 ff.
I have drawn
pp. 171 ff.;
cit.,
pp. 161
on three
Prancis,
if.
major
op. cit.
'v ;ý..
'1
filled
The position
following
for
a noun
the
all
in
for
only
Morphological
1. The
first
derivational
are
(with
which
are
formed
'-ly'
to
many adverbs
derived
group
comprises
few
of
aro
adverbs.
may be divided
adverbs
in
suffix
group
into
Members
'-lyi
from
slowly,
strangely,
deadly,
lively,
3. This
adding
of
the
group
are
consists
forms.
these
include
just
the
adveros
about
large
class
are:
healthily,
formed
adverbs
are:
Cf.,
etc.
suf-
as
uselessly,
Examples
usually
adjectives
forming
hopefully,
blackly,
of
in
are
adjectives.
dorivationc].
and bound
of
certain
)
of
so that
adjective
etc.
as there
group
falsely,
wnien
the
clearly
addition
adjectives,
to
visibly,
this
base
derived
of
and most
by the
formed
manly,
Examples
remarkably,
largest
related
addition
(homely,
adjectives.
2.
to
exceptions
this
the
adverbs
1-ly`
by the
nouns
t. raditionally,
tives,
environments
sub-groups
Lori,
suffix
there
by
common denominator
of
as other
their
includes
It
group.
marked
fix
final
sentence
sub-groups.
eight
the
a kind
question,
certain
is
adverbs
Classification
to
According
is
It
object.
adverbs
but
possible
by these
of
etc...
by the
eagerly,
however,
goodly,
adjectives,
those
prefix
Examples
adverbs
' a-'
to
are..
ahead,
that
nouns,
are
verbs,
away,
formod
ad j oc-
abroad;
ýi ö' `'
ý
%
tý '.
4.
English,
'-wise'
akimbo,
anon.
increasing
A rapidly
American
fix
anew;
astir,
adrift,
those
are
added
group
to
of
adverbs,
consisting
nouns,
lengthwis©,
e. g.
d©rivational
the
of
in
©specially
suf-
publicity-wino,
campaign-wise.
5.
üembers
by
adding
of
nouns:
the
combining
class
of
group
forms,
of
to
consists
some,
any,
a limited
group
thoco
formed
and no
with
of
every,
somewhere,
e. g.
formod
adverbs
homeward(s).
adverbs
determiners
those
of
'-wards)'
suffix
forward(s),
backward(s),
small
consist
group
derivational
the
6.
closed
this
of
anywher©,
by
a
nowhere,
everywhere.
7.
Members
indide,
8e
in.
This
have
that
clearly
there,
members
group
They
in
positions
identified.
of
of
up,
out,
group
includes
adverbs
are
mariers
forms
with
down,
sentences
over,
perhaps,
can
this
still,
operate
adverbs
distinguish
may
as -adverbs
where
of
a number of
which
considered
Members
seldom,
this
In,
e. g.
no common formal
often,
homophonous
are
group
around.
isolation.
adverb
this
as prepositions,
classifiable
under,
of
other
group
word
when filling
classes
include:
oven,
as nominais,
then
alww,
uys.
©. S,
are
now,
then,
Other
yesto:
uay,
j
t))
downstairs,
home,
etc.
Grammatical
. unction
Part
difficulty
the
of
and classification
to
as acrjunuts
as
a.
is
the
fact
worst-classes,
to
according
into
the
ciosuription
that
as to
as well
the
form-class
the
following
they
thoy
not
operate
sentences
modify
mutually
groups:
©xclusivo
Adverbs
These
once,
verbs
modifying
modify
verbs
Members
position.
fast,
various
in
-encountered
/may be classified
adverbs
fýdv©rna
adverbs
of
:Thus
a whole.
or
daily,
of
and occur
this
tvery)
too
Am I walking
i. once saw them.
group
much.
in
pre-
and post-verbal
include:
quickly,
Examples
well,
are:
2
quickly
He ran fast.
b.
Adverbs
Advero3
precede
usually
'It's
of
very
extremely,
modifying
-adjectives
group moa.ify
adjectiv©s
tnis
the
and adverDß
moditiect
nice
indeed. '.
too,
nearly,
element
1idverbs
r ai a.iy,
It's
very good
too fast
iou are walling
It isn't
good enough.
of
(their
this
enough.
for
me.
and adverbs.
head)
group
Examples
(cf.
include:
are:
Thoy
however,
vary,
"J
=s.
c.
Adverbs
or
mods 1 yixx
Adverbs
follow
roally,
this
of
their
C1,
L;x'oup modify
he4d.
merely,
quite,
nouns
--
Members
nonina. la und can
thia
of
Exarlples
etc.
group
procedo
includo:
only,
Eiro:
It's
a picture.
quite
Th© house upstairs.
It's
only a man.
d.
Adverbs
used as subject-conpleinentc
These adverbs
and other
verbs
are used as complements
incomplete
of
group
include
adverbs
of
verbs:
there,
abroQ4,
here,
out,
and the
up,
verb
Members
predication.
place
after
'to
this
of
proposition-liko
etc.
Examples
be'
adare:
He's abroad.
here.
It's
He-must be out.
Position
According
Adverbs
of
to
may be classified
a. Adverbs
b. Adverbs
c. Adverbs
d. Adverbs
e. Adverbs
(1)It
in
in
in
in
in
the
position
into
five
they
generally
occupy,
adverbs
classes:
pro-subject
position
pre-verbal
position
post-verbal
position
pro-adjunct
position
miscellaneous
positiono.
be emphasized
that
this
should
is
classification,
since aenbers
of this
C f. 'He only laughed',
word-classes.
not a mutually
exclusive
group can modify
other
'He really
came'.
ý ýý 1
3
f
ý ;.
in
Adverbs
a.
Adverbs
pre-subject
this
of
class
and some of
position,
belong
Here
sition.
them
placed
are
invariably
of
time,
post-verbal
I went there
Yesterday,
I
yesterday.
went there.
Some adverbs
like
in
sentence-initial
in
used
po-
Cf.
can bo used
sentence-final
this
can bo used, both
which
positions.
tsonetines'
and even in
pre-verbal,
are
adv©rba
and in
in-pro-subject
position
in
pre-subject,
Cf.
position.
I go there.
Sometimes,
I sometimes. go there.
I go there
sometimes.
We cannot
91
b.
q
however,
go sometimes
liaries
elude:
there.
Adverbs--in-pre-verbal
Adverbs
auxiliaries
have,
of
this
class
when these
may follow
alway$,
the
never,
are
position
precede
stressed.
are:
I always
go there.
I am always
going there.
I've
always
gone there.
1 -can. always go there.
finites
over,
the
except
W; en stressed,
Members
adverbs.
stills
all
nearly,
of
this
hardly.
ouxi-
class
in-
Examples
ýrý
e.ý ýy
_.
C f.,
however,
I
I
in
Adverbs
c.
These
the
include:
post-verbal
are
placed
if
there
immediately,
after
am there.
did say so.
always
always
direct
position
the
after
is
badly,
well,
but
no object,
and indirect
(finite
verb
almost
non-finito)
Examples
etc.
,
invabiably
this
Adenbors of
objects.
yesterday,
or
class
are:
He speaks well.
He speaks English
well.
his ti ork very badly.
He does all
I gave hin some of then yesterday.
co-occur,
the
of place,
o. g.
I
I
d.
went
or
too,
other
of time
adverbs
there
Adverbs
of
last
of
generally
follow
and place
the
adverbs
Sunday.
in
pro-adjunct
this
class
which
adverbs
they
etc.
exceedingly,
That's
very Good.
busy.
I am-rather
It looks too dirty.
You speak
time
when adverbs
yesterday.
saw him here
Adverbs
that
be noted
to
is
It
too
quickly
position
gonerally
stand
before
modify.
These
include:
Examples
ar©:
adjectives
very,
rather,
cý r
ýý
He's
It's
doing very
exc eedingly
Cf.,
however,
or the
adjective
well.
well
the
done.
position
it
adverb
of
'enough',
modifies,
follows
which
tho
-in
It isn't
good enough.
large
Thot' s hardly
enough.
He doesn't
speak fluently
onough.
any
e. Adverbs
of
Adverbs
this
of
word-class
22enbers
Examples
of
this
nisc ellaneouc__2ositione
class
can
and are
found
class
include:
modify
in
many and diverse
perhaps,
`Only'
Cf.
been
Is
an interestinG
positions
features
nation
the
inG
to
positions.
oxactly,
only.
are-.
Not I. but my brother
perhaps
Perhaps
I saw three
people.
I perhaps
saw three
people.
I saw three
people
perhaps.
three
1 saw perhaps
people.
diverse
bolon
words
even
serving
following
saw it.
member of
the
when modifying
to
examples
distinSuish
in
Which
this
ss
the
the
tonic
it
class;
e eleuojt,
element
occu nies
into-
modified.
syllable
has
underlined;
I only
I only
I only
I only
I only
saw
saw
saw
saw
saw
my
M
my
my
my
friend
friend
friend
friend
friend
yesterday
yesterday
yesteraay
yesterday
yesterday
(I
(I
didn't
talk
to hin)
didn't
soo yours)
idn!
t s©o my brother)
d.
%i
(not before)
L,, obody eise saw him,
nr
v r.
:.;.
is
i`here
yet
to
AccordinC
they
the
particular
are
correlated,
classified
into
adverbs
a.
Adverbs
which
adverbs
as
'how
verbs
of
of
did
group
of
manner
you do it
and post-verbal
classification
of
have
manner,
tiro,
may serve
Adverbs
These
YI .
and are
used
They
well,
Adv©rbs
' whien ?'.
therein.
of
They
Their
Members of this
Examples
of
adverbs.
words
with
traditionally
boon
place,
otc.
to
such
as answers
adverbs
in
used
pro-subject,
Examples
etc.
are
include:
but steadily.
He works slowly
He quietly
went away.
He doesn't
speak 1glisn
very
b.
of
question
adverbs
positione.
suddenly,
of
nannor
and sentences,
quietly,
kind
another
questions
to
modify
pre-verbal,
slowly,
stoadily,
gare.
well.
time
time
can
the
modify
as answers
whole.
i:
position.
group
serve
sentence
pre-subject
include:
or
yesterday,
to
the
or
an element
question
post-verbal.
thong
to-norrotiwr.
are:
I went yesterday.
I saw what he meant then.
I'll
see you to-morrow.
c.
Adverbs
Members
of
of
this
place
group
may serve
to
answer
the
questions
ý
''ý
`where'
,
sentence
whole
is
'whereabouts'
back,
anywwrnere.
Adverbs
These
r =plee
is
sentence
generally
by
modified
quently
are:
group
always,
and their
position
include:
adverbs
the
there,
are:
anywhere.
group
pre-verbal,
adverbs
seldom,
as answors to
may serve
'how many tine:
'how often',
like
modify
frequency
of
of this
Adverbs
Generally
therein,
an element
or
I'm going there.
Put them back.
I haven't
seen them
Is it here'
d.
They
, etc.
post-verbal.
generally
hero,
ýT ýÄ
'. t J
'.
Their
and
often,
in the
position
thou
of
many
degree.
of
quostions
Some members
hardly,
fro-
are
of
Exai plec'
never.
over,
are:
I always
see him there.
there.
seldom
very
tie's
I can't
see you very often.
I! ve hardly
over spoken to hin.
large
hey
enough.
never
are
"1
Other
degree,
These
'how
possible
adverbs
may serve
large'
l
etc.
of
groups
of
quantity,
as answers
Examples
adverbs
adverbs
to
questions
are:
It'
s very large.
They are rather
good.
He doesn't
work enou6h.
I particularly
wanted to
seo you.
include
of
adverbs
prccision,
liko
'how
this
of
etc.
fluently',
ss rý
c): c3
B.
Under
the
of
elements
riation
in
other
up va. ous
Examples
general
characteristics
class
identified
may oe altfett
with
to
is
to
possiolo
characteristics,
will
it
nako
include
a
thougri
Vato
nocossary
of
adverbs
by the
various
include
adverb-fornin6
word
classes
forms
that
'-an'
suffic
and to
can be
bound
which
forms.
are:
Noun st ens
Bound
ra? r.an
(directly)
daa? insn
(alprays
? aHyaanan
(sometimes)
? abadan
(never
? asaasan
(basically
jucklau
t oxceedingly)
Haaliyyan
Tab9an
(currently)
t a? riiban
t naturally)
(nearly)
9amaliyyan
9aas at an
.
t amaaman
stems
Adjective
i arfiim-an
(formerly)
rasmiyyan
(officially)
taxSiyyan
ýpersuuaI.
%prautlual.
Adverbs
adveros,
it
sub-classes.
The first
formally
`Adverb`
heading
variety
set
in_ Arabic
Adverbs
of
as well
Lyj
Ly)
this
(exactly)
thabitually)
class
as whol©
modify
sentences.
stems
verbs,
nouns,
adjectives,
t1 `; ý.
verb-modifying
Adverbs
by positional
they
adverbs
of tnis
group
and its
verbs
inr©lation
nobility
can be pre-voi"oal,
a verb
rnoaify
object
post-veroa.
(s)
to
the
verb
L, and can
Examples
,
and are characterized
Arhus
nodifiod.
oven
occur
between
are:
gala rfii?
i
z9ult
ana fu9lan
(I really
felt
for my friend)
sorry
daayman bifay? ini SSubuH
(He always wakes me up in the
? aHyaanan
(Soaetinea
The
last
btutHammal
it takes
three
morning)
? uabuu9
a week)
examples
different
can have
word
order.
adverb
can
Cf.
a.
? ana z9ult
bifayyi?
ni
btutHanmal
i
fu9lan
9ala rfii?
daayi n USSubuH
? aHyacnan ? usbuu9
b.
? ana z9ult
bifayyi?
ni
btutHammal
i fu9lan
9ala rfii?
SSubuH daaynan
? usbuu9 ? aHyasnan
Cf.
occur
also
before,
a.
before
the
or
the
followring
after
the
examples
object
of
where
the
object:
bidallilu
9aadatan
(They usually
spoil
uSSabi
the boy)
byuxtuSru
? aHyaanan ui? afia=
(They abridge
the films
sometimes)
tho
verb,
Ar-
? axaslu rat ßan ma9aalo, mniiH
(They
b.
immediately
the
after
got
a good
salary)
object:
bidallilu
SSabi 9aadatan
buxtuSru
1? aflaam ? aHyaanan
? axadu ma9aas nmiiH ra? san.
In
all
pre-verbal.
the
above
position
the
examples
as well,
adverbs
can
in
occur
of.
9aadatan_ bidallilu
83abi
? aHyaanan byu. %-tuSru 1? aflaan
ra? ian ? axadu ma9aai nn11H
Noun-modifying
Nouns
adverbs
and noun-like
fixes)
can be modified
before
or
ninal.
suffix.
yalli
(what
ttajribe
(The
after
the
elements
by
noun
Exanples
adverbs,
or
(numerals,
tho
nunergl
latter
not
occurinS
Dither
after
and only
la? eeto hutrare 19aks tamaanan
I saw is the exact
opposite)
hiyye
experiment
nuHaawale
is
?uula
practically
9aialiyyan
a. firet
attempt)
personally)
or.
but
suf-
are:
lbank
?ulo Biqa fii1L ,'axSiyyar
(The bank has confidence
in you
ya11i
ttajrib©
pronominal
la? onto
hiyye
huwwe to, naaman 19aks
9analiyyan
i uHaawal. o ? uula
tho
prono-
p
lbank
? ulo
Biqa
6ax; iyyan
filk
Adjective-modifyinggudyerbs
Adverbs
the
yalli
(The
the
modified,
adjective
Examples
adjectives
modifying
can precede
latter
case
follow
or
being
more
fr©quont.
are:
? addamet ulbarnaame j Habbaabo juddan
the proGramne
was very
one who introduced
biSiir
saa9utha
(It
would look
manZaro
completely
swoot)
Hulu tanaaman
nice then)
la? eenaaha. ? arxaS fu9lan
biz asuu?
(We found it really
in the
cheaper
market
C f*
? addanet ulbarnaanej
juddan Habbaabe
yalli
biSiir
saa9utha
manZaro taaaaman Hulu
la? eenaaha fu9lan
? arxaS
Adverb-nodifying
Adverbs
can
modify
ending
other
the
xaodified,
modifying
the
in
forms
the
classified
adverb
latter
below).
can be beforo
case
beim;
on syntactic
as adverbs
(see
more
?u ja gadnaan ba9di nubaaa.Iiaratcn
(Adnan came immediately
after
ne)
'-an'
suffix
adverb-forming
criteria
morphological
and/or
of
adverbs
or
The position
after
frequent.
the
adverb
Exanplos
are:
ýý
ýý
tý
.EV
saalmiin
na9na 9amaliyyan.
(They are living
with us practically)
ta? riiban
mbaareH shurna TUU1 ullool
(Yesterday
we stayed up nearly
all
night)
Cf.
?uja9
adnaan mub aal arat an b a9di
9amaliyyan
saalmhin
magna
Tuul ullool
mbaaroH shurna ta? riiban
in;no, adverbs
Sentence-modify
Adverbs
from
those
nal
verbs
are
those
'-an'.
suffix
or
The
sentences.
are
not
final
sentence
frequent
most
from
formed
Examples
positions
members
usually
mostly
this
of
by the
numerlas
diatinguichod
easily
They
sentence-elements.
modifying
initial
sentence
sentences
modifying
with
group
addition
Tab9an
The
positional.
of
ad-
the
vi taaniyan
are
biSgor
waHde ? ulha mii zaatha
every one has its
advantages)
lwa? t
(Naturally
of
nomi-
are:
kbaar
jjmaal
? aHsan la? unno ? awwalan zujleeha
? ulha Sabur 9a 19oTa:
(Camels are better.
feet
because
firstly
their
because they can stand thirst)
and secondly
Haman kul
(Certainly
in
occur
? ulo
time
following
criteria,
bi
? aha=iyyto
is
an important
forms
since
are
includod
they
occupy
ha leas? ale
element
in this
question)
amons cdvorbiulc
positions
typically
on
ý-. " cl
occupied
It
by
is
classification
On the
basis
following
1.
2.
Those
Those
that
ending
colligation
on form.
imm©diat
(We're
into
(association
dual
the
suffix
with
' -©en'
Dyuuf
ulleele
expecting
guests
bakkUr
bfii?
uSSubuH
in the
(I get up early
with
1yo om5 aaHi
(to-day
fine)
i
baarde
lleele
(the night
is
cold)
to-night)
morning)
©. G. 9aadatan,
always).
oly,
form
in
similar
are
'-an',
lyoom
9adnaan 9ars yustuGel
(Adnan is working
to-day)
jaayiina
may be divided
adverbs
suffix
(habitually,
which
with
the
with
characteristics
nounal
form,
tho
classifications,
based
their
amonc the
groups.
daa? imcn
iawran,
of
included
intersectinG
being
Formal
forms
classify
various
interesting
most
to
possible
into
adverbial$
the
adverbs:
to
nouns
the
).
and
definite
Cf.
exhibit
article,
l,
tý
4
.c
la wgguGul
best time
for
SSubuH ? aHsan. wa? t
(The nornins
is the
3"
that
Members
they
can occur
s Saar t alit
liiadii
(The
taut
lbusikleet
(The bicycle
is
This
be
cannot
include:
the
following
a dononstrativo
pro-
down taits)
stairs)
us)
? uddaara hadool
before
these)
tlufnaahon
yalli
triose
we sate)
had. ool foo?
(ihesigrRbove
4.
place
uddaraj
below the
doorkon
ba9dna
(Your turn
is after
wa?? fu
(Stand
any of
fact
e. g.
took
conversation
by
suffix,
a pronominal
pi oc o,
a relative
followed
or
by the
ur© charactorizod
group
alone
a noun,
elements:
noun,
this
of
work)
includes
group
by any of
follotred
hoon
(previously),
khere j,
hniik
bakkiir
(early),
a number
the
ttherej,
of
above
Datiere (late).
IIbaareH
(Yesterday
A ? t+ Dahwo
I
got
up late)
place
hure)
which
These
elements.
ba9deon
nuHna heek buddna nul9ab
k i; e want to play thus)
daar hoon
lnadiis
took
(The conversation
advorba
(later),
Examples
? able
are:
cý ý' +I
r? cy
5,
? abadan
but
sentences,
with
in
verb
first
the
the
third
Dontoncos
(at
to
one can
with
person,
neSativo
bnoob
members:
and can colligate
the
in
occur
(st ill).
lussa
sentences
a reeing
group
three
only
(never),
negative
tive
tnis
of
and include
only,
in
Adverbs
all),
c:an occur
in
occur
a pronominal
number,
only
affirna-
suffix
Examples
and gender.
are:
lussa
maa Tul9et
(The results
are
yufto
naa
(I haven't
unnataa?
not yet
? abadan
seen hin
:maa ba? a yunfa9
It is absolutely
6.
sified
members
or
as adjectives
number
and Sender).
Yaliil
1a
little),
now)
-useless
tnis
group
and are
Members
ktiir
are
homophonous
distinguished
show concord
of
(much)
nniiti
waa? el byuktob
(Wael writ es well)
ktiir
? atimad byaokol
(AYuaad eats much)
bizuuruuna
(Thoy visit
all)
bnoob
t i. e. , do not
invariable
at
ej
published)
? 1i11
us sparingly)
this
.
fron
with
group
Examples
forms
with
then
in
in
terns
nouns
include:
are:
clasbein6
raniili
of
twoi. Q
tý
_ý
Cf.
9ando Soot mnii i
(no has a good voice)
fii
byukrahu
ktaar
ttadxiin
rjaal
(There
are many nen who hate smoking)
HuS$uton ? aliile
(Their
snare is
.
by
7"
Members of
prefixing
'bi'
characteristic
small)
this
to
of
group
them.
They
occur
from
o1 atwmuuha
scenes in
abstract
nouns
post-verbally
Exatiplos
speech.
educated
lmaeaahed u1riaasirle
(They picture
crucial
formed
are
and are
are:
bibuTu?
slow motion)
bi. ýalaaga
yaas er byinki
speaks fluently)
I xasser
nays aa? btur? oS birat aaga
(iiaisa
dances 6racefu11yj
Adverbial
Under
groups
adverbial
a number of groups
word-classes
a.
cle
of
and a following
cludo:
(within
bu ibeet
the
law),
(at
is
which consist
and occupy
Members
it
groups
this
group
consist
or. adverb.
home),
forces belonging
typically
positions
noun
etc.
of
9a lnasr9ed
Exaaples
are;
distinguish
to
possible
of
occupied
difforont
by adverbs,
a prepositional
f©nborß
ton
to
of
time)
this
partigroup
in.
Dunn ulqaanuun
,
ý
w" n
Ci'ýýJ9
kaanet
mariHa Lunn
(She gras gay within
iiuduud ul? adab
the limits
of politonoss)
ka l9 aad e -r awwalt baali
(As usual
I was patient
haada
('t'his
gala koofo
naa byuZftuGol
7ulla
one doesn't
work except
as he likes)
b.
is
It
ad j eutive,
limited
to
possible
of the
consist
which
and
include
' Tarii?
a'
(way),
t xall ao munrhon bi T arii?
(He Got rid of then in
wazzu9on
(Distribute
bi
'ak1
them
naysaa? btunki
(Maisa
speaks
It
should
category
occur
position
While
flexibility
of
in
noun
ono of
a
' ýak1 ` (shape),
are. -
a ]zbi qa
a tactful
way)
manner
in
are
tnathäctveröial
in
the
in
Arabic
26lish
are
adverbs
position
Arabic
common being
.
forma
bi Soot 9a^ i
in a loud voice)
post-verbally
adverbs
most
nutanaaseb_
in a proportionate
bo nentionecx
of
'bit
particle
group being
Examples
those
group
in this
the
nouns,
of
this
in
propositional
nouns occurring
number
c4verbs
9 al ee
with hin)
in
almost
relation
croup
of
majority
characterized
to
aoso. Lutely
the
dement
mobil©.
of
this
cases.
by a certain
rlodifiod,
Thio
has
iJ J)J
been
already
lii.
will
'-an`.
In
the
be given
1.
uf.?
in
illustrated,
following
with
the
unt et =aanan
tamaaman tunte
rtara
5"
Cf,
vadle
balle
jdiide
well
tuGli
lussa
naa xallabt
(I haven't
finished
my work
DuG11 lussa
aaa xallaSt
tuunli
lussa
naa. xallabt
of.
Cf.
(possible,
jdüde
ra: nnaat o dars o mniia
(I explained
his lesson
fohaanto
ianIIH darso
darso
mniiH fahhanto
trier
could
voice
Sootha
biSu9uuoe
nsanay
uibu9uuOe
8.
in
their
sub-clasco3
positions.
yesterday)
jailde
jdiide
wa rt e1 yu t 9od ? uddaarl
xalli
(Let
in the front)
rt
tiael sit
xalii
waaa el ? uddaan yu? 9od
? uddaara xalli
swat el yut 9oct
Sootha
Cf.
$
the
naaareii
nbaarori
6.
7.
of
Gait aan
GalT aan
uf.
c f.
advot us onaing
? unto Ua1.t aan t arnaanau
(You are completely
wrong
(He bought
a now suit
wtara
npaare,. L tadle
ytara
balle
raoaareH
4.
each
variationa
possible
Wtara
r, f,
witn
examples,
2.
3.
connection
yet)
ns ana9 biiu9uube
_nardly
nsauay
ooot. ia
oo
neatü)
buddon, yuTla9u 9a 1"ruaeuun
tiney wait tu su up Lu. uLLOroof)
9a 1? usTuu11 buddou yurla9u
bucddon 9a l; ußTuU I yuT la9u
bturiki
Di Soot 9aali
naysaas
(IIaisa
a loud voice)
speaks with
btuHki
9aaali
Boot
bi
naysaas
otuHki
naysaac
bi ,soot 9aali
though
rare,
order)
6.% r..
to
Parallel
of
adverbs
to
the
as
into
group
of
of
it
etc.,
a parallel
question
is
into
advorbt3
to
possible
classification
words
with
clas-
according
which
thoy
are
ed.
Adverbs
of
manner
Adverbs
of
manner
'kiif'
They
classification
place,
Arabic
particulat
corrolat
ble
in
Eaglish
time,
manner,
Adverbs
sify
the
r
and can
in
mobility
(well)k
H
nnu.
have the
the
and are
(quietly),
bihuduu?
such
questions
'hook'
substitute
(thus,
by
characterized
Z"Iembers of
sentence.
to
as answers
generic
and sentences
verbs
modify
may occur
this
Group
do),
floxi-
include:
fa j? at an (suddenly).
Examples
are:
bi ? uxlaaS
9allamon
(He taught
them sincerely)
bisur9a
mZiina
like
(%ie walked
rapidly)
Adverbs
of
time
Adverbs
of
this
lyoom
(when)
'? eenta'
sentence.
Members
(to-day),
(When did
you
may occur
and can
this
of
modify
group
(to-morrow).
bukra
? ©ezata ba9atta
ba9atta
(I sent
Group
?
send it
nbaareü
it yesterday)
2)
as answers
the
include:
verb
or
nbaaroH
Examples
are:
to
questions
the
wholo
(yost
orday)
,
...
A
n.
_ej9 3
cl
A,dyorbs
Those
placo
of
adverbs
' ween_' (where).
(out),
barra
(in),
juwwa
hoop
is
meeting
of
frequency
Adverbs
of
this
do=),
this
soup
(thoro),
hniik
arc:
roap
la
? aliil
(I seldom
da,a? inan
(how
(always)
(often).
k-tiir
to
as answers
'l: an narra'
include:
(rarely),
na. adiran
may occur
(how often),
'1 u1 ? addeeý'
of
Examples
like
questions
here)
Adverbs
Members
(here),
hoon
etc.
to
waa? re barra
id waitinG
outside)
ssayyaara
(The car
like
as answorc
include:
They
1?u jtinaa9
(The
may occur
questions
ruany times).
(13o1-
?
aliil
,
Examples
are:
ruuH 9a ssineaa
go to the pictures)
9adnaan daa? imun
(Adnan i: always
byuDHak
1auýfldnS)
4
other
of
possible
answers
to
enouGh).
Examples
ate.
(how),
'klif'
include:
They
-dverbs
precision,
like
questions
how many' , etc.
nearly,
of
adverbs
quantity,
include
Groups
ktiir,
are:
i
? addeeW ? addo
(How lar6e
is
?
it
laa tba99ed ktiir
(Don't
far)
too
6o
?)
of
These
do6re©,
may serve
'? a dec%'
to? riibun,
adverbs
(hotr
kifany©
as
ziuch,
(auch,
ý "' ý
ýgý:lý
C,
Contrastive
implications
description
From the
it
is
that
clear
that
and Arabic
to
adverbs
The
culty
only
adverbs.
limited,
This
to
other
of
these
attested
hardly
the
is
problem
in
other
free
adverbs
bf
in
of
the
when they
adverbs
includes
ace hin.
both
is
the
lan5uaSos
to
b©
botwoon
to
is
Mnglish
Arabic
of
diffi-
cause
the
absolut©,
Arabic
above
attostod
position
elements
it
likely
most
demonstrated
the
in
characteristics
has been
a number
advorbs
equate
of
mistakes
could
should
mobility
of
to
so that
a teaching
by adducing
in_ relation
relation
which
constitute
a transfer
in
Arabic
En6lish
and Arabic
as adverbs
General,
and transfer
respectively.
reflect
of
characteristic
the
reinforced
in
adverbs
and to
versus
speakers
English
classified
behaviour
show parallel
expected
forms
of
and EaGliah
and is
mistakes
further
which
Arabic
adverbs
sentence,
but
co-occur.
not
also
A soloeben
followin6:
to my hone (Etc)
I could reach hardly
fluently
He doesn't
speak Ea lish.
invention.
this
will
we
enjoy
naturally
and
...
(sic)
this
for
hour
time
I have daily
one
of
Q He gras a tall
man with
always.
a head erected
He drank yesterday
much.
the scene.
4 She hardly
can describe
Al7
Appendix
T:ext
9a llat
A- ruritu
z-
la?.
A-
ruHt
iii
tuft
w maa 9anna
ulwa? t.
4aaae
w fii
la
barra.
Saar
9widide
fii
bi
bi
nafs
nunsu jne
Z-
ya9ni
ulwa'
ulwa? t
nag ba9Dha
Halkyek
kul
buddi
? ila
aat
byiTla9u
banaat
gam yur? uSu
baaloe
faun.
tarkiiz.
ya9ni
"laalvaat
*,
gala
nuxtulfe
nafs
biTaalu9on
uttaago.
lxalfiyyo.
jaaneb
bi
lumraaye,
mutul
? alb
rurga
nuta-
ra? S 9a inasraH.
bass
faun
ya9ni
? o0
bu ttar-
mahaara.
lizaalek
iii,
t
? asyaa
haada
Zlwayy e yaa ? anal.
lariatta
bi
ma9 uWýaale
smaHii li
lwavu9
zGiiro
uSSuwar
nafs
? ana naa bu9tu? ed ? unno
kiiz.
*at,
tlut
...
ya9ni
la? unn. ? awwalan
y&uufha
? iDaafiyyo
byunsujmu
? unnon
bisakl
muumumlkcn 9iidha.
mutla.
Sraaciecd biHakkem
byunsukha
t.' utt ariki iz.
1waaHod biruuH
ya9ni
ruHt.
xalaS
?
? ana
f--inn bu lj uhud
fii
tiraaHed laazem
w kul
? ajnabiyye
9aleeha
? ana,
Juana
yiklti
nu; S
byiHkl
? akt arma huwwe fann.
ruHt
masalan
9edrnaan
nuu Tann.
ya9ni
yi
9amal
ya9ni
fa
buddak
nuSS w 9adnaan
? ana birg?
?
wßi f fiha.
? ana w 9adnaan.
Z- bt&Hkin.
Ä-
erna maaj ika
?
tiulwe
A
kann
ktiir
? anti
i
naa narrast
mýatr raA..
tt oß.rii
naa ? durti
nu? dar
nutxayyal
ulnawDuu9.
? ufnan
4puu hiyyo
llaatorna
fa
u.
tuirSfiilna
9adnaan,
aaajiha.
? abul
ba9doon
3
t; )
but9allqu
? iza
kaan
fanniyy©
nuu
? aw fanniyyo.
wSufulna
yyaaha.
9-
9ara tuT't'awwar
ssinena
bitakl.
txalliik
? unno
9umluuha
w ullaotern.
la
T'r aril?
a ? aktarm
Z- T ayyeb $,uu hiyye
? aw bu 1? aHra
llaat
; aate
yaa. 'ýaat
naa `t iyye
w na j nuu9a
g_ ? aHyaanan
Jabal
? ilaa
fulun
la
raa? Set
la
9
19amal
sßinema
bu 1? a3aas.
ulfanni
hiyyo
9arU
ulfanni.
buddon
ya9ni
?
w majmuu9a mun ulnumasaliin.
bikabbruuha
w bizat#c1ruuha,
? iDaafiyye.
ya9ni
? ila
taalaat
eina-
mun ulmumas slim.
.W aaCaat
baalee
gam tur?
baalee
Z_ 1r14r j 91baara
ktiiire
? aaxirihi,
raa? £et
ta9Ti
9amaliyyan
ern naa j ika
ayu9ruDu
ýaaý©&;
narsna
gala
Hatta
buds na nss~, iri.
sinamaa? iyye
wuu hayye
Z_ Tayyeb
9ary
nun taawe sinamaa? iyye
9- mu?allafe
jaaneb
hiyye
nuHna heek
? unno
y? uulu
yalli
maajika
i
bu lnasraH.
mutmarukzo
bu lnasraij
rufnaaha
osinona
9unlu
ussinamaa?
hac,da huwwe lhadaf
mun ussaa91riyye.
nasalan
ma9 rattan? eH ...
ulfann
hayy
ulwaacgo9
ba9deon
sinoraana,
gam tufged
solnema
yTa99mu
tun? ol
bu 1 jatinr.
cinema
ha 66"aa91riyye
gam yriaawlu
tnaa', ol
? unnak
ba9deen
96ad. iide
zaa91riyyto.
la
ba9deen
ddaa? iriyyo.
lwaagi9iyye
see`t
tutl9or
sinamaskoob.
ssinema
fa
t xrawwor
9aleeha
nunguuf
btuT lag
gam tur?
kani ra
iyy©
Tabii9i
?
nutul
t aany© bt a9T ii 1z Suurot
oß foo?
o$ NaHCI1a.
load e eJnaaa?
nanZar
ililun
lunruuj.
gam tuji
w ulnar
Sßuura
9aarof
foo?
j ? uddaarno
kiff
ulmar j.
7
?
e) uJ
9-
la?
la?
1? aalt een...
bi
yu4tuGlu
wa?t
lkanurt
raa? Set baalee
sr ul? aale
foo? ha.
jdiid.
tlasalan
ba9Tilk
baalee,
Hawaall
xamsiin
raa? Sa.
tlaat
arba9
laHun
9ar1 tDiif
? unte
waaHed.
Hadiis
? aw Hiwaar
waaHeä 9an yZudd
Habul.
yun. add 9a lnasraH
kiff
9rufut
taanyo.
?
ZaaCo kbliro
9a laasraHH
ka? unnaL-
autul
? aHyaanatL
w u19=al
9am yHaawlu
i.
ussinanaa?
? au Harako
w uTTaraf
raa? Saut
San yuru? Su ra? Sa
?
; uu biSiir
nunlaa?
bta9Ti
byuTla9u
9an yur'u? Su.
ulnasra-Hi
it mar j
a jdiido
bu ßsinena
ulwa? t
P=
San tu9roD
Suura
4uu biSiir
yalli
been- ul9anal
bl$iir
nafs
raa? Saat.
S"TaHdew 9ala
yurubTu
bi
sinemaskoobo
jbaal
ttaanyo
Tarii?
ya9ni
? iiHaa?
mutul
o en 9arD
waHde btu9roD
waaHed.
Tabii9iyyo
w manaaZer
e on ? aalt
Haralcot
nasalan.
i Taraf
gam
ulHabui
San yuneedd
uttaahhi
ya9ni
nun
?
Z- ?e etiw
at
9- bas:
? ahann tii
bu lfu9ul
bass
? unno
nnuw9or
yaa tara
ha Lýii
?unno lgaDiyye
janaa9a
ween. byiSalu
naa Saar
lo
zanaan.
gaDiyy©t
tawglit
9a,amliin
juhud
6uu
w
nnatii
haada
jo,
w nahaara.
9ajiib.
naa nna9rof.
? awwalma
¢(1dden bi
bruks el.
gam t? addem ulbarnaame
A-
lacken
9-
1Ha? ii? a mac bta9ref
yalli
laatiiniyye
ya9ni
ktilr
w hiyye
Zariif©.
9arabi.
j mut 9allmo
9arabi.
kaatbiin
HaafuZtha
baSun.
1jumal
bi
maa na9ha
Hruuf
%rtu'?a.
ma9raD
n
X013
A-
? aHyaanan
9a lmasraH.
9aazfiin
i
butlaa?
9aazef
gam tu9zef
Z-
kul
A-
? ee.
byuTla9
uSSoot
yoom
kul
9-
fii
A-
1? uula
9-
bass
A-
la?
? unte
ttneen
barra
wawa.
w ul? orkestra
mumtaaze
? afDal
? unno
9asra
? ulla
llaaterna
maajika
w 9aara
ma9naata
?
ulbileet
tmaane
? arbag
bi
?
leeraat
uddaraje
1? uula.
leeraat.
sutt
la? unno
? aHsan.
bu9tibaar
?
tmaane
b? addees
ussaa9a
wara
9am yu9zef
yoom Hafulteen.
ussuHri
Haflet
byujtum9u
haada
9am yu, tuGe1
lfaanuus
A-
w ? aHyaanan
byuTla9
juwwa.
bta9ref
? ee ba9ref.
w ? aHyaanan
ulkamanja
w nuSS.
Z-
tasjiil
btaaxod
? aaxer
9a lmasraH...
ulmanZar
Saff
?aHsan
bu9tibaar
kaamel.
Gii.
fii
masraH
w sinema.
ýý
.ý
cý .ýý
Text
Z-
Haki
gala
? uSSet
raaHet
waja9
w maa kaan
bta9ref
mu9utti.
9andak
eii.
baalak
w ba9deen
? aklak
lwaaHed
? iza
Z-
w bu SSudfe
? ult
la
Sumt.
bkammel
uSSyaam w ? iza
bu lgaks
biSiir
lwaaHed
1? a9Saab
raaHa
la
xalaS
ramaDaan
9utt
bi
xaaf
ba9dma
Haali
juns
maa fii
laazem
? unno
trayyeH
taakol
mubaa`saratan.
9ada
ulwaja9.
w Surt
munno.
w Surt
rtaaH
baalak.
*9ruft
ha lhuduu?
ba9deen
bu lwaja9
la
yoom
? alwaan
4urb
HuTT raasi
lamma
maa 9utt
? aUkaal
w baTTalt
diini
? ana
gam tkuun
bu lbaaxira
? aakol
lumxallalaat
lmu9de
fa
Dalleet
rujii
1Haal.
muss
1HaaSel
lmu9de.
wuj9utni.
maa t? aalamt
bu SSyaam.
nafsi.
yakuun.
maa raddeet
walla
9an ? unno
huduu?
la
? iza
swayye
tHasaant
w raaHa
mun ? aHsanma
bufTar.
t? aalamt
9ando
raddet
mun ? akl
Tule9
bi4akl
bjarreb.
mun yoomma HaTTeet
saafart.
-sa9art
ba9dha
lalaali.
ba9deen
faaDye
iii.
fa
bikuun
yamulha
ramaDaan
9alee.
Hallalta
vi Hakeetullo
maa fick
ktiir
ktiir
uTTabiib
waZiifi.
tnaZZmo
saafer
wuj9utni
9änd
? unte
9ala
mun ? abulma
hniik
? uTTiraab
byi? der
kaan
maa nza9ajut.
? alli
Hakeetullak
bu nnhaar.
xams wajbaat
hayy
? unno
ruHt
faHaSni
mas? altak
A-
i?iza
xaaSSatan
ulwaja9.
yurken
ba9dma
? uSSti.
s11
maa ba9ref
ulbaal,
9am tuja9ni.
w mu9utti
B
w maa
ulHaliib
ruuH'ra?
san
naayem.
A-
haada
huwwe.
?unno
ha lfatra
fatrat
e
Z-
raaHa
.. o-
? jilt
la
ul? aHyaan
Surt
hoon
kamaarn maa wuj9utni.
la
? aliil
tuja9ni.
bdiit
Haawel
jdiid
ha 's"sahr rtuHt
?uHsob
naam laaken
bi
? ahammiyye
ya9ni
IaGle
taanye...
fa
raaHt
lmas? ale
v
mun 9asr
ha ssabu9
sniin
tiyyaam
mun jdiid
nwaGalt
? ulha
maa Saar
yalli
taani.
mudde bDallni
mas? ale
ktiir
mu9Zam
? ujutni
laaken
w ba9deen
ulbaal
yii
ya9ni
Saayer
ya9ni
maa bu? der.
kbiire.
mutul
naam,
fii
tamaaman.
ussafar.
? ana mun ? aktar
? usturxaa?
lbaaxira.
Hsaab
fiiha
halla?
ya9ni
w ba9deen
HuTT raasi
naam uDDuhur.
fatret
äý
mun
? ulha
? ahammiyye.
ma91 fatret
? aDDeethon
9a
0^
v A3
Text
9an ruruuT
B-
sa? altulli
S-
nsiit.
B-
? ee.
S-
? ana haada
? ultilli
bZunn
ma9o bakaloorya
byusmaHuulo
kul
fii
bi
bi
?
ulfuruu9.
ktiiriin
kulliyyet
?
ul9ulmi
9ulmi
yudxol
ba9urfo.
yalli
maa n? abalu
mun yalli
bu lfar9
ulqubuul
gam yutsajjalu
9ulmi
C
ma9hon
hadool
ul? aadaab.
kulliyyet
bakaloorya
bikuunu
? aw kulliyyet
uTTubb
ul9uluum.
B-
ma9hon. bakaloorya
? iza
maa byusmaHuulon
ya9mulu
?
Tubb
S-
lees
9ulmi
duru
byu?
maa
lkul
yaaxdu
byuTTarru
lizaalek
la? unno
yaaxdu
? aw byuTlubu
ul9alamaat
9andon
9ala
masalan
nusbe
mu9ayyane
? amkine
Hasab
bi
muHaddade.
tadarroj
9alamaat
ulba-
kaloorya.
suu ra? yak ndaxxlo
B- Tayyeb
bi
S- maa. btufre?
?anu. 1? afDal
S- ? iza
fii
miin
gala
B-
fukro
yudros
S- yruuH
bi
la
9alee
1? aHsan yruuH
la
? orooppa.
?
suu
buddo
?uqtiSaad
? ungeltraw
ha nnoo9
1? ungliizi.
?
yuSref
B- ,weep butfaDDel
S-
ra? san
ha lmarHale
B- bass
Hasab...
hoon lunma nub9ato
?
? orooppa
la
ljaam9a
yudros
?
siyaasi.
fii
mun uddiraasaat.
bi
jaa. m19et
bass
london
laazem
madrase
ykuun
mnshuura
mniiH.
bu
I;
"ý
"1
ýý
Text
H-
? usaama,
?-
suu. buddek
H-
buddna
?-
bdawwer
H-
? iza
buddak
Tayyeb
bu tta?
siiT.
truddi
H-
buddna
9i1d
tjiibha
miilaado.
jiibha
buqturHo
ra? yak
mist
tuätruuha.
bu tta?
bu ssahr
?ubni
? ulo
bilubb
9am ydallel
?
siiT
leers.
xamsiin
w ulbaa? i xamsiin
haada
nustriiha.
? unno
yyaaha
maane9.
leera
9aleev
ssabut.
9aleekon
tbii9na
maa iii
? awwal daf9a
laa.
bi
9aleeha.
suu
B-
?
?
T.arafa
? ana yalli
bass
D
hoon
bu lkamira
nSawwer
H- ya9ni
?-
kamira
ma9ak
a
bu S; ahur.
leera
yumzal.
9aleeha
tlut
aniin.
v
lmuhumm ?addees Ha?? ha ?
leera.
?- xamsmiit
H-
?- ? ee hayy
jdiide
Ha?? ha xamsmiit
kamaan.
maa buddna.
?arb911n
mnusturi
leers.
raH bii9ek
ul? anmad. btub? i
Tawiil
H-
jjdiide
? ee ruuH.
kamira
Hatta
sunteen
bi
tsaddidi
waHde mun luma9raD
to? siiT
Ha?? ha.
urruusi
Ha?? ha
leera.
?- maa byfa9u
ikamiraat
urruusiyyaat.
Ha?? hon ?arb911n
xSuuSan yalli
?awaam byuntuz9u.
leera.
kaan
Sandi
waiide
munhon w untaz9et.
A- laa
walla
Tule9
haha?
buddna
yyaaha
lemma la?.
ma91 fiiha
nust911r
Suwar ktiir
maa buddna
nuýturi.
ktiir
waaDHa.
but9i1rna
..i
t
Text
Z-
mbaareH
I-w
Z-
4ufnaa
nuHna
bi
ha lfulum
Z- lee
lussa
zGiire
kaan
yuksabu
w ya9Tuuhon
? asliHa
lxaarijiyye
taba9
wasinton
ha lbalad.
la
ssafaara
ma9hon
buddon
yub9atuu
tabagha
w bi? ullon
ssafaara
1? ameerkiyye.
ma9hon.
buddon
ya9Tu
dawulto
furqet
baalee
hutirre
waziir
wa inton
bya9ref
?unno
biruuH
byuttuSel
jaaye
muxaabara
? addees
? byu? 9od byut*aaraT
ya9ni
btuttuSel
ussantralii$t
lamma
w ul? ameer-
w urruus
wa/i inton
rruusiyye
la sammugkon yaaha
rruus
ySawwet
ySawwet
dawle
byumtune9
9anno
ul? ameerkaan
w bikuun
dooro
w yxalluu
buddon
ulmas? ale
manduub
byuji
w Sawariix.
tuttuSel_bu
fii
byustaxburu
suu w urruus
taba9ha
bu ssafaara
lamma
yxalluu
biSiir
bussafaara
bu 1? unam ulmuttaHido.
w butkuun
qaDiyye
Sooto
yuksabu
Sooto.
? amuH w mudri
uzzGiire.
waaHed w bikuun
1HaaSel
buddon
1? ameerkaan
fii
w ul? ameerkaan
udduwal
maa Sawwat.
mungaan
buddha
gala
Soot
9an uttaSwiit.
w xamse.
lfulum.
?avowal ma*had bikuun
9ala
9asra
?
gam ySawwtu
mwa?? afe
zzahra.
Hawaali
badyaan
musaa9adet
nsuufo
byunýaafo
bikuunu
sinema
wSulna
halla?
gala
xarj
ya9ni
bi
mniiH
gam y? arr? u 9a rruus
tazaaumhon
a-
E
mbaareH.
lussa
kaan
ya9ni
fulum
v'ufna
rý
mun
btudfa9u
ma9hon.
ba9deen
;.
V .11 ý
btuji
bfr ssafaara
byuttuSel
1a, ýzem nsuufo
Z-
ba9deen
buddo
ussafiir
tGayyaret
xaaTubha
w byiji
la
Gar? aane
bi
? ubn
butHubb
riiki
byub9at
biruuH
bunt
siyye
la? unno
? aHwaalo
w hadiik
yalli
1HaaS. "el
ya9ni
ussafiir
Kubb
9andha
ba9atu
1? ameerkaani
w byutjawwazu
jaabuuha
yalli
ba9Don.
bikuun
? ubnak
nnatiije
urruusi
yjawwzuuha
xaaTeb
bunt
? ameerkaani
bilaa?
yutjawwazha
ussafiir
Hatta
yumken
waaHed
urruusi.
? ubn
mniil.
waHde mun ruusya.
bikuun
munlaan
ussafiir
btutjawwaz
but? ullo
? unno
mlaaHeZ
maa gam yaakol
bijiblo
ul? amriiki
?ubn ussafiir
bikuun
urruusi
ussafiir
yutjawwaze
ul? ameerkaani
? addeeG"...
lmuxaabara.
biHubbha
ul? amriiki
mag ?ummo bu lmawDuu9
byutbhaias
w bifaawuDon
heek.
w hadaak
urruusi.
? ubno
? iza
bunt
samma9on
biruuH
rruusiyye.
tamaaman.
blDaHHek
G-
ssafaara
1? ameerkiyye
? iza
byudfa9uulo
? addee3
fulum
mun mo©sko la
muxaabara
la
iiha
bunt
ussa¬iir
iv ulbunt
urruu-
? ubunhon
ussafiir
ul? am-
71"
,L) .
Text
Z- amafuulna
Haanaat. w uljaww
I-
bta9ref
?unte
Hkuuli
uljaami9aat...
nwajad
gala
?
kawwanna. -a
9anha.
Sadaf
9andon nafs
kaan uljaww
?iza
fii
San ?ii j aado w maa ktiir
w to? riiban
maa. ba9ref
jaamu9hna.
ul jaami91
9am tuHku
lizaalek
jdii. de la? unn1 maali
gala
?ayyaamna mun
halla?
Saayer
ulmafaa-
? adyaa?
Sila...
suu ra? yak. bu TTullaab.
sane ?uula
w San. ul? umti-
bta9ref
9aayes
nuHna ljaww
jamaa9a mutfaahmiin
?aHsanma yumken.
Z- Zraaf
kurt
yalli
ha 1? a6yaa? yalli
w ul? afkaar.
H- Tayyeb
?unte
ya9ni
w nufma lkurna lmas? uuliin
karma nsuuf
hiim
?ulna.....
bu nnusbe
binafsna
--
9an. uddiraase
ktiir
uljaami9i.
suu ra? yak kaan. bu ljaww
Z- walla
bihummni
mawDuu9 uljaam9a.
ha lmawDuu9..
bi
nuHki
la
nuntu? el
E
w uTTaalbaat.
9allamton
yalli
?
tamaaman.
ya9ni
maa kaaii
?uli
?ay ?u9tiraaD
?aw ?ay-
?untigaad..
g-
?amnia ha saune ?ana maa ruft
gruup
Tullaab
Tuul
Zariif.
bi
?urne
ussune
w Taalbaat
Sadiiga
kunna
bi
?uli
nudxol
?udret
tkawwen
9a SSaff
nu? 9od
?urne.
Z- 'sii 9ajiih.
g_ Hatta
ya9ni
lamma yfuutu
TTul3aab
hunne
w
TTalbaat
äii.
u4
naf s
-
maa ysallmu.
9a TTullaab
"^1
e:) ýa -J
Z-
Tayyeb
N-
yagni
H-
Tuul
wa? tna
Hatta
?uDraabaat.
kaanet
? unti
bass
mudri
ba9deen
hayfaa?
?ustusnaa?
iyye
la? unnek
kaanet.
kiif
mdaawma
kaanet
uddiraase
Tatra
9an ussune
9an. fatret.
sawwaluton.
ba9deen
?aSiire
diraase
cu9ur
ya9Tiina
diini.
'su9ur
ba? a kaanet
la
esune ktiir
lfaHuS.
w
maa
nuxbe.
la
ul? adab ul9aalami
kaanet.
ýSu9ur
Dallet
9am ta9Tiina
tustuGel
mag ?unno muu raun barnaamujna.
mun Dumn. us&u9ur
haada
maa kaan. fii
ul? aHwaal ussiyaasiyye...
äu. nnusbe
mudde Tawiile
biiwuli
la
w ulbarnaamej
lmaaDye.
kaan. 9anne ?ustaazet
su9ur.
w
?adab 9aalami
tunteen
ul? awwal.
bu nnuSS ul? awwal mum ussune
tuHfe.
ulluGa
? amma hayfaa?
1? ameerkaan. maa kaanu
suu.
?anno
9an bahr
dawra
ya9mlu
sune taanye.
kaanet
ya9ni
91baara
kifft.
w ba9deen
la
maa ?all.
kulla
ul? asaatze
bi
91baara
Havel ha lmawDuu9
mawaad bu tturm
w tunteen.
ya9ni
nafso..
sii
tuHki
ba? a yaa
Hkiilna
dawaam Tawiil_..
mudri
fiiha.
?
?
sane uula
ba9ref
raH
muiiaaDaraat...
kaan. 9anna ?arba9
ussune
fatHet
btuHki
taanye.
mu? ahhale
tuHDari
ulwa? ut.
ssune
furSa
wa? tak
maasye...
maalek
maa kunti
Tuul
lizaalek
TTullaab
ya9Tu
Tuul
ljaam9a
sahreen..
w uddruus
g-
Suit butHubbha.
ddiraase
w nuSS yaa
Z-
zwayye 9a ddiraase.
Hkuulna
9aTutna
bu tturm
9awaaDha.
? evrimaan
uttaani
gala
Saar
? asaas
? uataaz
,g-ý n
L% Y ýý
T ext.
a-
ieen
gala
Z_
kulma
Tana
bursa ssaa9a
bkuun
nafsi
?uHtiyaaT.
sab9a
gala
?asaas
G- ya9n-
xayyabet_
gala
9a lwa? t.
ba? a ha
ZabTet
Imaw9ed bikuun.
?
Zarmak
ulyoom. wa? t buddna nruua
bluudaaa..
gala
nruuH
ta9i
bi? ulli
?
?
e-e.
w
aal.
nuSSw
Banda.
ktiir
Saar da? aaye?
Z- mujarrad
da? aaye?
9tabret.
ibeet
byu? der yaalluSni
?aw Hatta
lbusut
rubu9
muu ktiir
?aw 9agr
da? aaye? ma9naato
Haalha
mit? axxra
ya9ni
mut.?axzra
?arb9iin
haadi
9asr
gala
? ana
?ulla
w xamse
mama da? aaye?
?aw
?
matama kaanet
?unno ktiir
Butte.
xamse
esutte
w satte
saa9a
su? aalha
tut.? axxxar.
la
tut? aaaar
suit
ssaa9a
wamse w nuSS.
?aam maa. Taala9n-
gala
G- ? aw nuSS saa9a.
ssutt.
sa? alto
ruHt. ba9deen`9a
9altra..
uljamaa9a
waa9ed
hoon ussaa9a
?aabliini
9and lukwaffoor.
kunt
hiyye
hoop. ussaa9a
bluudaan.
A_ buddna
kurt
la
?unna ?iza
uu. Saat- magna hadaak
Z_ Hki iTo
tu. ji
9a lwa? t.
w ?ujat
?
ba9Ti
maw9ed. ma9 sayyidaat.
?unnha maa btuji
Zannak.
xayyabet
bi
?ultulla
Zanni
aayyabet
sab9a w tult.
sab9a w rubu9
murtubeT
t
wa?
lmarra
-
?
ulmadaam.
s_. jaaye
G'
mutt
9and ulHallaa?.
tut? auar
?unno lmafruuD
lgaa91de.
ba9deen
da? aaye? bass
tams
but
hiyye
u1Ha? ii? a
da? ii? a la? anno lrva9d
xamaa
4'
y
'+
H.
T ext.
Z-
bu TTayyaara
?unte
9ala
SaaHeb ulbeet
? iza
beeto
Sawa.
faaDi.
lussa
?aroma ? iza
Tayyaara
faaDi
maalo,
9ala
? iza
kul
turja9
btuSal
Haal
DaGT.
? uktob
rail
9ando muniaan.? us? alo
kaan ulbeet
mutulma
w laa? i beet
butlaa?
?urja9
waHde.
mnaaseb biduun
ykuun
saaken
fa
?unnak
faaD1
gam t? uul
i mahma kaanet.
munruuH
1manreq
w ba9deen. byulla?
butruuH w ma9ak 9aa?ultaic
la? unno ?iza
?awwal. beet
beet
kurt
yalli
?anno ruuH laHaaU
G-
Sawa bi
ha lfukra.
baali
bi
maa xaTret
la
maa butfakker
?aHsanma truuHu
w butfattes
Haawel
ulwa? t..
bu TTayyaara
rlu9ut
lataalak
Z-
munäaan
?
bass buddi
bu lbaaxira
? ana bffubb. ussafar
G- w ?iza
lumina bu lbaaxira
bu. TTayyaara
G_ raH tsaafer
uuni.
majbuur taaxod
kaanet
mahma
w
?ujurto
muwaaSafaato,.
Z-
?awwal marra
yalli
raf9et
kunt
ruHt
a-
Tul9et
w gala
u1? ujra.
laazem
t- ma9 Saaliubt, ulbeet
u19aa? ile
ha 1? asaaa ba9att
?usbuu9een. Daajet
SaaHubt
maa byutHammalu
luwlaad.
mun yalli
Z- ?aalutli
w uttafa?
9aAha ?anno jiib
naazel
ba9dma ?uju. bi
laHaali
t. fattek
9ala
äwayy Saaret
t?
lamma
axxart
w
?usta? jer
beet
äi
nutlammal
m9aajaztha.
eu9ur
Gaali
beet
taani.
t9aajuzna.
w Tab9an
jubuthon.
ulbeet
ballast
lizaalek
mum luwlaad.
fatteis
njabart
la? anno maa 9udna nu? der
ý"r
ýA
.Iw
hiyye
w
nuSS
w
g-
suu kurt
w ? unte
Z-
? ujet
buddak
waa9ed
fiyyi
ta9mel
unnaas
? any,, 9aamel Hsaabi
w 9a6ra.
sutte
w nuSS la
soutte
mag u19aalam
w nuji
waa9diinhon
?uju.
Hayawiyye.
lizaalek
mun. ulaamse
Butte.
Hatta
maa nuatujel
mut? axxriin.
A-
?u3u 9a lwa? t tamaaman.
Z-
la?
G_
auufu
ttwaaleet
mahma Sarfet
Sand. ussayyide
? iza
mas? ale
wa? tr muu ktiir.
A_ w huwwe bya9ref
Z-
yalli
Lwayye .
bakkiir
fa
?unno ljamaa9a
w Sadaf
basiiTa.
t.? aaaart
?unni
bTawwel
bkuun multhiyye
?ana maa bufham.
yämel
Hsaabo.. ya9ni
ktiir
btuz9ujni.
?ana ba9ref
äaGlet
bi
kul
bi
bii
?ulla
bu ttwaaleet.
luwlaad.
?anno lmaw9ed laazem
utta? xiir
bu lmawa911d
lwaalied
ktiir
ý ~. ý,
u ýý ý
Translation
A
Text
A-
Have you seen the
Z-
Na.
A-
I have
Nice
?
laterna
Magica
Describe
it.
with
Adnan.
seen it
?
Do you want Adnan to
describe
it
or me ?
halt
Z-
You talk
A-
In. my opinion
in
the
In
other
it
effort
is
a form
not
see
in
it
again.
the
Somebody tries
This
is
things
of
are
an additional
small
screen
like
on the
however
artistic
other
Z- Allow
words
(to
me
it
the
same time
the
with
things
stage.
is
rear
Therefore
Well,
I don't.
You haven't
been able
dancers
of
Amal.
to
group
shown simula mirror.
He
screen.
are
In other
harmony,
think
as synchronization
your
the
everybody
dancing.
words
it's
Thus we have simultaneously
(a display
experience.
a foreign
inside
screen.
collective
interrupt),.
is
ballet
in
as far
it
pictures
synchronization.
dancing
and
art.
that's
and
saw something
scenes
At the
on several
I
saw it,
I
* Three
synchronized
a question
instance
than
more
effort
lies
side
thing.
to project
them out.
takes
is
artistic
place
have
no comparable
we
and
There's
The
art.
It
For
half.
other
first
bedause
taneously.
of
it...
see
never
it
and Adnan the
synchronization.
you
words
see
time
and
I will
that.
must
the
is
addition
is
art.
to
is
It
In
concerned.
)skill.
You have not
description
describe
this
in
the
had any teaching
was very
situation
confusing.
so that
we
{1
can
visualize
know
what
artistic
Motion
pictures
are
convey
reality
the
Hence
cinema,
realism
has
robbed
aspect..
This
They
are
trying
order
to
say
Z-
But what
9-
It
bigger
the
laterna
of
a screen
(it
consists
cinema
is. it
screens
Sometimes
on the
mountain,
etc.
dancer
a ballet
converges
Z_ Is
the
with
Magica
Then another
over
the
the
theatre.
the
theatre
is
method
the
are. trying
to
do.
and dancers.
of actors
that
screen
as a group
a film
can become
is
In
?
projected
camera projects
You see ?
scene like
the
picture
Thus the
meadow.
meadow a screen
and the
dancer
before
other
and dancers.
of actors
we see a natural
meadows.
we
than
more
they
in
the
which
to. '-,-cinema screens.
addition
same screen
poetic
?
a big
on which
circular
its
Magica
all
to
and a group
as well
a screen
words
we intend
situation.
This
the
of
other
of)
in
or smaller,
words
9-
is
a display
what
an to
to
Extreme
round
Laterna
try
the
of
art
to
us.
the
flavour.
And the
comment
scents...
cinema
a poetic
In
in
centered
the
engraft
is
this
consists
Or rather
Z- well
itself.
is
can
as to
cinorama,
cinematographic
basically.
work
involved
the
I want
for
a way
acmompanying
cinema
virtually
that
feel
aspect
to
is
seen
artistic
the
the
aim
artistic
with
it
in. auch
all
of
on you
Describe
pictures,
poetic
give
Later
not.
developing
cinemascope
pictures
is
or
first
Adnan,
is.
and make you
the
have
Now,
Magica
the. Laterna
is
whether
g-
thing.
the
it
!ß
r"
it
?
picture.
a
of
iD
9-
The two
N®,. no.
.1.
the
machines,
two
mountain
and a meadow and natural
projects
(the
In
ture.
For
impression.
dancers,
Ballet
a big
you
yourself
try
to
there:
the
combine
being
from
pulled
person
a
of
inside
the
cinema
three
screen..
they
is
In
or,
You
see
?
that
it
is
as if
other
say,
they
other
words
a movement.
We find
and the
all
Sometimes
theatre.
stage
four
or
dancing.
is
screen
It
a rope.
a new
pictute.
same tune.
pulling
one
pic-
creates
that
a dialogue
a
first
is
or
on the
pulled
the
and the
cinema
other
another
The
who are
a conversation
occurs
rope
those
added
and the
happens
What
to
of)
which
same time,
stage.
picture
on the
you
them.
the
same dance
had
The movement
the
on the
dancer
me give
of
At
one.
one and the
dance
let
fifty
about
appear
(the
a new method
example
cinemascope
dancers
it's
words
projectors
are
scenery
a ballet
of)
picture
other
cameras
One projects
simultaneously.
working
J
one
end
of
end being
Yes..
Z_
9-
But
the
most
timing
going
A- But
and what
on for
the
been written
they
It
of
we feel
one wonders
results
long.
is
fact,
However,
mistress
9- She doesn't
thing
In
and skill.
of trouble.
get
important
can ac4ieve.
was first
ceremony
know Arabic
in
in Roman letters
have taken
they
where
a matter
they
are
This
has not
presented
at
of
a lot
going
Brussels
to
been
Fair.
knows Arabic.
fact.
The sentences
must have
and she must have learnt
them
t. )4
by heart.
p-
She
carries
the
music
on the
stage.
Sometimes
appear
the
you find
A- Yes,
the
magic
A9-
There
A-
First
9-
But
musicians
we have both.
and the
outside
Thus
orchestra
eight
are
Do you
know
At ten
day.
that
How much does the
o'clock
performance
tickets
for
is
class
stage
every
the
to
eight
laterna
Magica
and at
means
lamp.
I know.
it's
?
performances
ten.
better
A- No, because
the
nice..
and sometimes
playing
two performances
past
The
recorded
And sometimes
violinist
daily
there
half
Z- Yes,
is
very
inside.
playing
Z- Are
She is
no paper.
the
back.
you must consider
and the
pictures.
four
cost
Li#as
?
the
first
class.
the
whole
screen.
Zi, %ras.
because
better
in
six
ticket
you
can
The last
the
see
row
stage...
is
the
because
best.
there
is
ILI
A
Translation.
B
Teat
Speaking
Z-
gastritis
gastritis
troubles.
said,.
arrange
A-
If
you
Z-
It
so happened
the
ignored
I
got
I would
up fasting.
this
the
That's
it
and
easy
it.
I
pain.
would
over=
Then. I
to
You
I was
go to
stopped
,
sick
of
it.
pain.
I was
In. addition
and
set
foot
And
aboard
all
sorts.
pickles
and
eating
eating
stomach.
again.
started
started
any
one experiences
nerves
I
try.
made me a little
on.
pain
I'd
and
well
be empty,
afraid
of
I had
fasting
' The minute
left.
stopped.
after
the
thought
went
later
So I
after.
I
both
relieves.
I was no longer
up milk
gave
peace
on. until
myself
stomach
is
and you must
and if
contrary
to
Ramadan. was
all.
things
the
This
after
ship
found
that
peace.
went
this
Yours
be wonderful..
would
So everything
On the
be examined
you.
worry
fasting
continue
explained
fact
the
Anyway
A-
no pain.
I
inner
I
I'd
I had
After
and fasted.
advice
left
was greatly
came immediately
Ramadan
my
"
day.
a
meals
it
about
I
it
with
wrong
do this
doctor's
give
better.
of
that
inconvenienced.
not
to
light
to
can manage
before
You must not
to have five
you
a doctor.
nothing
trouble.
a functional
If
is
tell
there,
to, consult
"There
I
that
Especially
I wnet
aggravated.
did
You know
?
troubles
me he
living,
care-free:
of
Subsequently
I
sleep..
worrying.
You realized
that
that
4ý
period
Z_
and it
bothers
it
rarely
It
became possible
asleep
of relaxation.
was a period
here
came
I
right
did
for
I
have
been
recently
I
vital.
must
had
a period
the
ship.
of
say
time
but
involved
that,
relaxation.
for
I would
of
been thinking
I've
I
can't
more
like
without.
than
the
ten
seven
fall
re-
travel.
Moreover,
sleep..
So this
is
is
any worries
I hadn't
years,
days
else.
complete
about
in, a new case...
Being
speaking,
There: was something
month was a period
importance.
great
Generally
me either.
moment.
however,
a long
trying
of
the
So this
away.
keep
bother
me to have my siesta.
for
I
a matter
not
me at
Recently,.
laxation.
V
I
spent
aboard
tJÄý
Translation
C
Text
B-
Have you asked
S-
I've
forgotten.
he is
the
or
Faculty
why don't
they
S- They cannot
according
B- Well,
It
to
to
what
doesn't
Arta.
accepted
in
the
Baccalaureate,
their
grades
at
matter
planning
the
Faculty
because
or they
section,
of Medicine
of
the
limited
they
accept
reg4ire
a certain
? Shall
we enroll
him here
directly
?
students
percentage
this
or
shall
?
stage.
to. spend on him it's
better-if
you recommend ?
What does he want
to
study
be
of Medi-
?
better
..
would
Faculty
Europe..
depends
science
grades.
do you think
you are prepared
B- He's
science
These
science
Consequently
available.
Baccalaureate
B- Where would
S` It
section2
Baccalaureate,
with.
of
students
all
accept
B- But which is
S- If
science
Baccalaureate,
Faculty
them in
him
to
Europe
send
we
s-
the
Sciences.
their
accept
of places
number
of
have got
they
B- Well- ii
in. the
who were not
students
of the
for
sections.
Many students
enrolling
are
section
tine
his
Torall
eligible
is ems: :aAI know.
the
he got
You said
I think
S- This
requirements
?
section
B- Yes.
the
about
Political
to
read
Economy.
?
Yee went
Mý
ýý
S- Let
him go to England
London
that
be proficient
is
well
in
then.
known for
English.
There, is
these
a famous
studies.
school
Only
in
he must
car. ýý
CüJ
Translation
Text
have
H-
Ousama,
?-
What do you want
H- We want
H-
If
?-
I
B-
that
it
liras
and the
?- Five
H- Get
term
for
those
is
want
liras
liras
he says.
what
is
per
My son
it
offering
thing
as a first
the
for
month.
likes
to
A new one costs
It
to.
five
I am selling
a new one.
cameras
that
price.
will
take
We can buy
you
hundred
liras.
you a camera on long
two
one from
years
to
Russian
the
pay
it
off.
Pavilion
cost
are
forty
not
good.
liras.
They break
easily,
I had one like
that
especially
and it
was damaged.
A- Oh, no :I
joke.
for
sale
liras.
forty
Russian
to
He has been
instalments.
H- We don't
be fifty
terms.
liras.
you.
this
A hundred
would
The important
hundred
on with
birthday.
us on instalment
month.
balance
it.
to buy
to
per
any attention
years.
?- Well,
?-
selling
payment,
three
on his
do so on Saturday.
it.
Fifty
pay
Tarafa
of
you buy
Agreed.
H- We want
for?
it,
how about
Don't
it
it.
for
suggest
a camera?
snaps
you do bring
H- Well
?-
take
to
look
?- I'll
you got
D
tried
it
and got
very
clear
pictures.
Now we
ýýý
ý,.,
want
to
to
borrow,
us or won't
we don't
you
?
want
to
buy.
Will
you
lend
it
Translation
Text
Z-
Yesterday
we saw a good
N-
We saw it
too
Z-
In
film
this
G-
Is
it
they
are
be voting
A delegate
and the
vote
vote
on their
try
Americans
to
want
Then Washington
is
the
foreign
Washington
up the
would
pay
negotiating
the
in
speak
Embassy
Embassy
if
to
he lets
with
hadn't
to
and tells
to
wheat,
Embassy
American
them
there
and asks
the
him
etc.
and
arms
and the
Embassy,
aid
them.
the
rockets
operator
that
he-rings
was a call
for
the
them how much they
conversation.
Then Moscow calls
to
for
vote
When he knows
state.
the
Russians
make him
want
to
and provide
American
that
him
his
cast
So the
order
want
state
ballet
them hear
them.
in
They
was needed
The Americans
his
Washington
from
Nations.
that
state
Russians
give
their
send
minister
Russian
American
to
calls
wanted
a small
vote.
the
and
side
United
comes he abstains.
his
them and win
Russians
and the
states.
and all
make investigations
Americans
for
So the
ten.
past
Russians
small
the
issue
of
turn
When his
yet.
in
is
scene
on a certain
was one vote.
vote
five
about
the
at
to help
competing
The first
is.
would
there
fun
poking
cinema.
seeing?
worth
it
Z- Yes
started.
their
Al-Zahra
at
We got
just
in
Americans
film
yesterday.
had
The film
E
So he starts
the Russian
Embassy
3
tj
Sa he rings.
up the
them
how much...
hear
the
G- In that
In
Russian
the
American
of
had
son. because,
the
matter
he hadn't
his
with
it
is
with
he let
a very
So he sends
daughter
of
the
them
film.
amusing
who comes to
love
the
with
of
son
the
with
ambassador's
the
to
the
American.
daughter,
son
Russian
of
the
who was
and
they
his
that
from
had
wrong
been
Russian
the
get
the
son
married.
the
an
in
end the
of
been
ambassador
of
to
is
the
In
needs
The
she
who had
fiance.
son
engaged
that
marries
girl
with,
Russia.
ambassador.
ambassador
and the
the
girl
and finds
Russian
American
ambassador
be married
of
her
with
So he discusses
him
tells
ambassadar
marry
love
The Russian
well..
eating
she
in
was something
a Russian
American
American,
there
and
for
falls
ambassador.
been
wife
a wife-.
love
if
pay
ambassador
that
realized
his
to
would
short,
son of the
ambassador
Russian
and negotiates
case. we must see it..
daughter
daughter
Embassy
how much they
conversation.
Z- Then the
the
American
the
sent
falls
American
for
in,
^r ý1
Translation
Text
Z-
Let's
the
consider
university.
I
me something
about
with
much
your
life.
You know our
universities...
think
am very
the
of
life
university
of
time?
your
We ourselves
case...
our
for
responsible
were
are
the
Tell
What do you
university.
In
topic.
is
H- You know how it
Z-
of
exams and university
your
studies,
topic
this
in
interested
F
talking
Therefore
know if
It
about.
who got
people
this
so happened
was ideal
new is
something
happening
the
see
that
and who had
life
life
university
and we didn't
on together
university
created
there
the
and we
things
you
was a group
of
same mentality.
during
days.
our
because
I
am not
I
don't
in
touch....
H- Well,
the
Z-
what
first
this
to form
of
the
very
Z-
and girls
year,
a group
I had no objection
nice.
I
couldn't
who could
find
get
to
we
used
come to classes
year
and boys
boys
you
taught
in
year?
They were
H- As to
think
do you
on the
other.
would not
greet
toicriticism
a friend
of
who had been
on together.
where girls
Throughout
sat
them.
able
the
on one side
Strange.
H- Girls
boys.
the boys
and the
same applied
to the
n`"
cý ýýý:.ý
Z-
Well,
tell
N-
Oh dear,
talk
us something
Z- But
didn't
not
four
H- We had
in
subjects
It
attendance.
year's.
So the whole
the
are
chance.
I
know why.
don't
political
was quite
professor
lecture
a long
time
religious
took
literature
on Beowulf
she lectured
poetry.
over
less
staff
the
In
the
poetry
than
don't
was little
that
know.
The World
In
first
on poetry.
although
it
on Everyman
second
half,
last
of
the
were
md
lectures.
year
and the
not
they
the
year.
of preparation
were
Perhaps
a character.
on world
Then
syllabus.
I
events.
time
of
was a period
American
this
work
And there
period
you
attended
Two first
subjects.
session
always
your
term.
was not
because
subject
she
about
a short
It
same.
And the
exam.
had.
the
fessor
why they
a second
on the
first
year
was such
syllabus
of
That's
Haifa,
Haifa,
the
second
was the
spent
for
was open
students
talk
As to
then,
us,
and two
subjects
to
give
to
qualified
Tell
lectures.
by
The university
to
lectures.
attend
we've
You always
studies.
were....
you are
for
about
two months.
or
session
a special
N- Lectures
time.
the
all
strikes
having
studies.
studies.
one and a half
about
your
so much concerned
you are
about
H- We had
about
best
disturbed
literature
half,
In
was not
she used
poetry
in
she
the
as a representative
the
language
pro-
n,ý
Translation
G
Text
is
G- Where
S-
She is
wife?
your
to
supposed
past
a quarter
come at
twenty
or
past
seven.
Z-
I
to
her
told
a date
I have
Whenever
here
come
myself
seven, knowing
at
however,
time,
This
on time.
I give
ladies
with
time.
extra
she does
not
come
me by being
she surprised
on
time.
For
G-
She surprised
you?
Z-
Tell
happened
him what
to be on time
her
time
last
surprises
you?
to
when we wanted
go to
Bloudan.
A-
friends
his
at half
if
But
have
of
a quarter
an hour
It's
an hour.
Or half
to be five
a lady
to
and he said
Then
six.
at five
minutes,
and asked him
five
past
ten
until
and I arrived
dressed
much for
even
finish
meet
me to come and meet him here
done by half
my hair
to
arranged
the hairdresser's
I was at
he didn't
home to get
too
So he told
five.
past
He had
Bloudan.
go to
at six.
I could
yes.
a-
to
We had planned
Is
six.
past
or
I went
ten
minutes,
it
or
late?
she was at
much considering
not
the
hairdresser's.
Z-
Merely
is
asking
whether
it
minutes
late
means
or
ten
of
a lady
to be late.
It
too
that
is
much for
she
the
thinks
rule.
to
a lady
that
What
it
is
be five
is
more,
expected
ehe
n º, :7
1w
C'
that
considered
she was forty
half
A-
What would
late
minutes
five
past
ten
she was only
you have
done
you had
six1considering
because
turned
and she
we were
ten
up at
me from
with
late,
minutes
supposed
past
half
fact
to
most
six.
five
pant
to meet
arranged
when in
to
friends
your
at
six.
Z-
A-
I had given
myself
embarrassed
and arrive
Forget
It
it.
to
supposed
Z- No,
they
meet
were
turned
women.
Therefore
we might
not
be
that
also
up a little
the
friends-we
were
early.
on time.
exactly
make-up
so that
late.
so happened
G- Now listen,
of
time
extra
is
thing
n vital
it
doesn't
from
the
point
of
how much time
matter
view
they
spend.
A-
Z-
And lie knows
is
a matter
of
the
that
of
in
If
make-up.
everything
ever
except
I am late
it's
when
it
on account
children.
I can't
understand
an appointment
the
I am late
safe
side.
this.
I understand
you must
Being
give
late
yourself
is
something
that
extra
that
when you have
time
to be on
bothers
me.
at
i? s
c)
Translation
Text
G- Are
Z-
G-
Z-
I
by
travel
to
ship?
I'll
but
ship
try
to
go back
by plane
time.
to
save
If
you go by plane,
you went
back
together
in
it
If
is
if
his
all
if
appropriate
and then
they
could
join
your
family
you go with
house that
the first
turns
to
write
is
going
leisure.
at
to
if
lot
whole
house
we will
more
if
G- Because
the
am going
is
it
as you say,
a house,
available
I
be better
would
a house
find
Anyway
and ask him
it
than
rather
You can
it.
of
think
you
own,
one plane?
landlord
previous
don't
on your
thought
I never
able.
or by
by plane
you going
like
H
still
avail-
go together.
I went
my
If
not,
found
on my own,
me.
you'll
up regardless
have
of
to
its
accept
and its
rent
specifications.
Z-
the
to bring
landlady
So I sent
the rent.
arrival
I went
time
The first
the
for
to be one of
She said
I must
I didn't
find
look
for
one quickly
us.
we could
Consequently
not
stand
and,
them.
out
Z-
because
my family
couldn't
So she turned
to
I was on my own and I
landlady
a-
things
there
A fortnight
the
stand
those
she started
I had
to
their
after
children
So I
doing
rent
unpleasantness.
with
she raised
who don't
house.
another
her
naturally,
agreed
all
longer.
any
like
children.
tried,
sorts
an expensive
but
when
of nasty
house
0,0.9
Joos,
.1
'The
Martin,
University
Juillard
,,
English
(Janus
and Macris
James,
'The
'Linguistics
Robert,
The University
Long,
,,
Ralph
'The
,t
Contemporary
Mitchell,
,,
of
T.
of
the
Philological
J.
R. Firth
phonetic
English
Roberts,
Paul,
New York,
----
basis'
Randolph,
Quirky
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New York,
Memorial
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H. E...
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Phrasal
Studies,
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1962.
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1961.
Language
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London,
Analysis',
1962.
Transactions
101-118,1958.
pp.
Preprint
to
appear
in
Volume.
of
Spoken
English
and Sons,
Clauses
XXXVIII,
of English',
in
on a strictly
Ltd.,
Educated
pp.
Cambridge,
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1928.
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