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REFERINłE GRAMATICALE
Grammar Reference
Authors: Dora LOGHIN ; Cristina FELEA
Scurt Istoric privind Limba engleză – inflecŃii şi vocabular
Historical Sketch of the English Language – Inflections and Vocabulary
Engleza este o limbă de origine vest-germanică înrudită cu olandeza, frisiana şi germana,
avand, însă şi multe elemente de vocabular din limbile franceză, latină sau grecă, dar şi din
alte limbi. Engleza a evoluat pornind de la limbile de origine germanică ce au fost aduse pe
teritoriul Marii Britanii în raidurile lor de cucerire de către triburi migratoare cum ar fi
Anglii, Saxonii, IuŃii, etc, care sunt cunoscute împreună sub numele de Anglo-Saxoni sau
popoare engleze străvechi. Engleza veche (Old English) deja se întrezărea la orizont încă din
zorii secolului 8 După Cristos. Azi, cam 341 milioane de persoane vorbesc engleza ca limbă
maternă şi încă aproximativ 267 milioane o folosesc limbă a doua în cadrul a peste 104 Ńări –
inclusiv Marea Britanie, Irlanda, SUA, Canada, Australia, Noua Zeelandă, Africa de Sud,
Samoa Americană, Andorra, Anguilla, Antigua şi Barbuda, Aruba, Bahamas, Barbados,
Belize, Bermuda, Botswana, Teritoriul Britanic din Oceanul Indian, Insulele Britanice
Virgine, Brunei, Camerun, Canada, Insulele Cayman, Cook precum şi Danemarca. Limba
engleză este folosită pe glob de 750 milioane locuitori, fie ca limbă oficială a unei naŃiuni, fie
împreună cu alte limbi (pidgin şi creola). Este una dintre limbile - sau chiar limba - oficiale
pe teritoriul Marii Britanii, în Canada, Australia, şi Noua Zeelandă; în Statele Unite nu există
o limbă oficială. Larga răspândire a englezei la scară mondială în diplomaŃie, comerŃ şi
ştiinŃă, îi certifică importanŃa din acest punct de vedere şi ne ajută să înŃelegem de ce miliarde
de persoane o preferă altor limbi şi uneori optează pentru a şi-o însuşi ca limbă a doua. Nu
superioritatea sa intrinsecă în raport cu alte limbi a facut ca engleza să devină principala
limbă vorbită pe glob. BogăŃia vocabularului, o mare flexibilitate a gramaticii şi faptul că e
mai expresivă decât sunt alte limbi (unii pun cel puŃin ultimele două aspecte sub semnul
întrebării), sunt calităŃi care reprezintă, de fapt, rezultatul şi nu motivele sau cauzele
importanŃei acestei limbi pe glob. ImportanŃa unei limbi este dată de importanŃa utilizatorilor
săi şi felul în care aceştia o folosesc. Începând cu secolul al 18-lea, vorbitorii de limbă
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engleză – mai întâi cei de pe teritoriul insulelor britanice şi mai târziu cei din America şi din
dominioanele britanice – au exercitat o influenŃă considerabilă asupra fenomenului de
expansiune colonială, a progresului industrial şi technologic, precum Ńi asupra politicii
mondiale. Locul pe care engleza îl ocupă în lume este rezultatul direct al istoriei oamenilor
care o vorbesc.
Clasificarea limbilor
În cadrul istoriei limbii şi a popoarelor Indo-Europene, engleza este clasificată printer limbile
Vest- Germanice de Jos. Istoria timpurie a limbilor Germanice se bazează pe o reconstituire a
limbii Proto-Germanice, care între timp a evoluat şi a dus la formarea limbilor Germană,
Engleză, Olandeză, Afrikaans, Yidiş şi a limbilor scandinave.
Limbile Germanice
Subgrupa limbilor Germanice prezintă multe diferenŃe în raport cu alte limbi de origine IndoEuropeană.
1. Legea lui Grimm(sau Prima Mutatie a Sunetelor) explică modificările consonantice care sau produs în cadrul limbii sub forma în care s-a prezentat aceasta începând cu etapa ProtroIndo-Europeană până la etapa ei Germanică.
a. Oclusivele aspirate sonore au devenit oclusive neaspirate sonore (bh, dh, g s-au
transformat in b, d, g)
b. Oclusivele sonore au devenit oclusive mute (B, d, g au devenit p, t, k)
c. Oclusivele mute au devenit fricative mute (P, t, k au devenit f, θ, x (h))
Legea lui Verner explică alte excepŃii care nu apar menŃionate Ńn cadrul Legeii lui Grimm.
2. Sistemul verbal bi-temporal: desinenŃa de Past Tense (-ed) şi una de Present Tense (-s)
(fără a se recurge la prezenŃa verbelor auxiliare)
3. Past Tense neaccentuat: pentru exprimarea sa se folosea un sufix dental sau alveolar ( -ed
în
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engleză,-te în germană, sau -de în suedeză)
4. Adjective tari şi slabe: fiecare adjectiv avea o formă diferită in funcŃie de faptul că era
precedat sau nu de un determinant.
5. Accent fix: pe prima silabă.
6. MutaŃii vocalice (Proto Germanică)
o scurt la a scurt (în latină: hortus, în engleză: garden)
a lung la o lung (în latină: mater, în engleza veche: modor)
7. vocabularul comun: au apărut cuvinte care nu au mai existat pana atunci în vocabular, cum
ar fi termeni nautici (maritimi). Altele ar fi: rain, earth, loaf, wife, meat si fowl.
Perioada Englezei Vechi sau Perioada Anglo-Saxona (449-1066 A.D.) s-a numit Perioda
InflecŃiilor Intregi. Period cuprinsa intre1200 si 1500 A.D. s-a numit Perioada Englezei
Medii, sau Perioada InflecŃiilor Uniforme, iar perioada Englezei Moderne începe aproximativ
în 1500A.D. şi s-a numit , destul de impropriu, Perioada InflecŃiilor Pierdute.
În Perioada Modernă s-au manifestat aceleaşi tendinŃe la fel ca şi în celelalte doua perioade,
însă de semnalat este faptul ca într-adevăr schimbări mari şi rapide care au avut loc în această
ultimă perioadă s-au datorat apariŃiei tiparului şi a răspândirii educaŃiei.
Modificările cele mai importante din perioada Englezei Moderne sunt:
‘s este semnul cazului Genitiv
Though, thee, thy, thine şi ye au devenit forme arhaice, iar vechea formă de Acuzativ, youm,
este folosită acum ca formă de Nominativ şi Acuzativ singular şi plural pentru Pronoumele
Personal, persoane II plural.
NegaŃia dublă nu se mai utilzează pentru accentuarea unei forme negative.
Modul Subjonctiv este acum rar folosit, spre deosebire deconstrucŃiile cu Acuzativul şi cu
Infinitivul, care sunt acum foarte utilizate.
Be este folosit în loc de Have doar în cazul verbelor Intranzitive de Mişcare sau de
Schimbare a stării.
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Elemente referitoare la vocabularul limbii engleze
Evenimentul care a avut un impact covârşitor asupra limbii engleze, atât în privinŃa
gramaticii cât şi a stocului de cuvinte, adică a vocabularului acesteia, a fost Cucerirea
Normandă. Odată cu acest moment, tendinŃa formării de cuvinte exclusiv din surse pur
englezeşti a luat sfârşit, de acum încolo recurgându-se la împrumutul de cuvinte, ca o metodă
de adaptare la noile realităŃi socio-istorice. Pentru a exprima noile aspecte socio-umane,
engleza apela la ajutor din partea altor limbi, în vocabularul cărora conceptele respective
existau deja. Acest proces-procedeu a avut atât avantajele cât şi dezavantaje. Multe cuvinte
provenite din tezaurul lingvistic din perioada Englezei Vechi au fost eliminate, lor
substitutindu-li-se cuvintele nou-preluate – de ex. ‘inwit’ a fost înlocuit cu ‘conscience’,
(cp.’the ayenbite of inwit’ devine ‘remorse of conscience’), ‘rime-craft’ cu ‘arithmetic’,
‘wanhope’ cu ‘despair’. Multe astfel de cuvinte nou-sosite în limbă nu au supravietuit, însă
câştigul a depăşit pierderile, iar drept urmare, engleza a fost descrisă ca fiind ‘cea mai
completă limbă vorbită vreodată pe pământ.’Totuşi, engleza nu şi-a pierdut niciodată
identitatea. În ciuda copleşitoarei preponderente a elementului străin, de împrumut, mai ales
din limba latină, engleza este fără tăgadă o limbă de extracŃie teutonică indiferent din ce
punct de vedere am privi-o, ca limbă vorbită sau ca idiom scris. Toate inflecŃiile sale
gramaticale, şi părŃile sale de vorbire active, cum ar fi pronumele, adjectivele si adverbele
pronominale, prepoziŃiile şi conjuncŃiile sunt pur englezeşti. Toate cuvintele, chiar şi cele
mai banale, sunt, în general, englezeşti, iar la scrierea unei cărŃi, chiar şi autorii cei mai atraşi
de ‘cuvinte mari, nu pot să nu recurgă la stocul majoritar de cuvinte, care, fără doar şi poate,
sunt englezeşti. În Biblie, spre exemplu, din 100 de cuvinte, 97 sunt englezeşti - chiar şi în
scrierile lui Milton, raportul e de 80 la100. În scrierile în proză, raportul e de 60/100, 30
latine, 5 greceşti şi 5 provenite din alte limbi. De la pătrunderea în engleză a atâtor elemente
străine, s-a ajuns la o suprapunere destul de masivă vocabularului celor două limbi, ceea ce a
dus la abundenŃa acestei limbi în sinonime.
English is a West Germanic language related to Dutch, Frisian and German with a
significant amount of vocabulary from French, Latin, Greek and many other languages.
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English evolved from the Germanic languages brought to Britain by the Angles, Saxons,
Jutes and other Germanic tribes, which are known collectively as Anglo-Saxon or Old
English. Old English began to appear in writing during the early 8th century AD.
Approximately 341 million people speak English as a native language and a further 267
million speak it as a second language in over 104 countries including the UK, Ireland, USA,
Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, American Samoa, Andorra, Anguilla,
Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Botswana, British
Indian Ocean Territory, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cameroon, Canada, Cayman Islands,
Cook Islands and Denmark.
The English language is spoken by 750 million people in the world as either the official
language of a nation, a second language, or in a mixture with other languages (such as
pidgins and creoles.) English is the (or an) official language in England, Canada, Australia
and New Zealand; however, the United States has no official language. If we are to ask what
are the world’s most widely spoken languages we get a rather complicated answer.
Estimates of how many people speak a language are quite general and can vary
considerably. For example, English estimates vary from 275 to 450 million, Spanish from
150 to over 300 million, Hindi from 150 to 350 million, and Russian from 150 to 180 million.
The worldwide use of English in diplomacy, commerce, and science is evidence of its
importance in this regard, and serves to explain why many millions around the world find it
desirable and sometimes necessary to learn it as a second language.
It is not the intrinsic superiority of English over other languages that has made it the premier
world language. If it is richer in vocabulary, more flexible in grammar and more expressive
than other languages (and some would question at least the last two of these claims), these
qualities are the results, not the causes, of its importance in the world. Simply stated, what
makes a language important is the importance of the people who use it and the use to which
they put it. Since the eighteenth century, speakers of English – at first from the British Isles
and later from America and the dominions – have played an important role in colonial
expansion, industrial and technological development, and the world politics.
Classification of language families
The position of English in the world is the direct result of the history of those who speak it.
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The history of Indo-European language and people classifies English genetically as a Low
West Germanic language of the Indo-European family of languages. The early history of the
Germanic languages is based on reconstruction of a Proto-Germanic language that evolved
into German, English, Dutch, Afrikaans, Yiddish, and the Scandinavian languages.
Germanic Languages
The subgroup of Germanic languages contains many differences that set them apart from the
other Indo-European languages.
1. Grimm’s Law (or the First Sound Shift) helps to explain the consonant changes from
Protro-Indo-Europen to Germanic.
a. Aspirated voiced stops became Unaspirated voiced stops (bh, dh, gh became b, d, g)
b. Voiced stops became Voiceless stops (B, d, g became p, t, k)
c. Voiceless stops became Voiceless fricatives (P, t, k became f, θ, x (h))
Verner’s Law explains other exceptions that Grimm’s law does not include.
2. Two Tense Verbal System: There is a past tense marker (-ed) and a present tense marker (s) on the verb (without using auxiliary verbs.)
3. Weak Past Tense: Used a dental or alveolar suffix to express the past (such as -ed in
English,-te in German, or -de in Swedish.)
4. Weak and Strong Adjectives: Each adjective had a different form whether it was preceded
by a determiner or no determiner.
5. Fixed Stress: The stress of words was fixed on the first syllable.
6. Vowel Changes (Proto Germanic)
Short o to short a (Latin: hortus, English: garden)
Long a to long o (Latin: mater, OE: modor)
7. Common Vocabulary: Words developed that hadn't been used before, such as nautical
terms (sea). Others include rain, earth, loaf, wife, meat and fowl.
The Old English or Anglo-Saxon Period (449-1066 A.D.) has been called the Period of Full
Inflection. The period from 1200-1500 A.D. has been called the Middle English Period, or
the Period of Levelled Inflections, and the period of Modern English begins about the year
1500A.D., and has been called, not quite adequately, the Period of Lost Inflections.
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The same tendencies have operated in the Modern Period as in the other two, but a check to
great and rapid changes in this last period has been given by the Invention of Printing and
the spread of education.
The chief changes in the Modern English are:
‘s is used as sign of the Genitive case.
Though, thee, thy, thine and ye have become obsolete, and youm the old Accusative, is used
as Nominative and Accusative singular and plural of the 2nd Peronal Pronoun.
Double negatives are no longer used to strengthen a negative.
The Subjunctive is very little used.
The Accusative and Infinitive construction is greatly extended in use.
Be is used for Have only with Intransitive Verbs of Motion or Change of State.
Vocabulary
The Norman Conquest had almost as great an influence on the Vocabulary of English as on
its Grammar. It gave a definite check to the tendency to form new words from purely English
sources, and introduced the habit of borrowing words to denote new needs from languages
where they existed already. This process ha caused loss as well as gain. Many Old English
words have been driven out by the new-comers – e.g. ‘inwit’ by ‘conscience’, (cp.’the
ayenbite of inwit’ becomes ‘remorse of conscience’), ‘rime-craft’ by ‘arithmetic’, ‘wanhope’
by ‘despair’.
Many new-comers themselves have failed to survive. But the gains greatly exceed the losses,
and the result has been described as ‘the most complete language spoken by man.’
English, however, has not lost its individuality. In spite of the overwhelming preponderence
of foreign, especially Latin, words in its vocabulary, English, as spoken, or written, is
thoroughly a Teutonic language. All the Grammatical Inflections, and the working parts of
speech, such as pronouns, pronominal adjectives and adverbs, prepositions, and
conjunctions are purely English. All the commonest, shortest, and most graphic words are
generally English, and in writing a book even those fondest of using big words cannot avoid
using a majority of English words. For instance in the Bible out of every 100 words 97 are
English, and even in Milton there are 80. In ordinary prose probably about 60 would be
English, 30 Latin, 5 Greek, and 5 from other languages.
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From the intrusion of so many foreign elements into English there has resulted a good deal
of overlapping of vocabulary, and English is therefore rich in synonyms.
A. Prefixe:
Prefixes
Prefixele sunt fie: a) de origine teutonică, anglo-saxonă, ori engleză sau, b) clasică sau
romanică.
Grupa limbilor clasice sau romanice include toate limbile moderne ce provin din latină,
inclusiv latina şi greaca.
Prefixes are either: a) of Teutonic, Anglo-Saxon, or English origin or, b) of Classical or
Romance origin.
Classical or Romance includes all modern langiages derived from Latin, as well as Latin and
Greek.
I. Prefixe anglo-saxone
Anglo- Saxon prefixes
a-, al-, afte-r, be-, by-, for(e)-, gain-, in-, mis-, n-, on-, out-, off-, over-, to-, un-, under-, up-,
with-.
a- = on : ashore, afoot
al- = all : almost, always, alone
be- = verbal prefix : to befriend, to become
by- = aside, near : by-path, by-stander
for- = very (when it is an intensive) or against (when it is a negative particle) : forgive,
forbid, forswear, for(e)go,
gain- = against: gainsay (= oppose, contradict, argue with, refute, deny)
in- = (im, em, en) in, with adjectives = to make : income, imbed, inlay, embitter, enrich
mis- = wrong : mislead, mistake.
n- = not : never, n-one
on- = onwards, ongoing, onrush, onset
out- = outcome, outcry,
off- = offspring, offset
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over- = oversea, overdo, overturn, oversee
to- = the, or asunder : today, tomorrow,
un- = not, back, or the opposite : unbelief, unroll, undo
under- = underfeed, underdone, underwood
up- = upturn, upheave, upland
with- = against, away from, withstand, withhold, withdraw
a. Prefixe clasice sau romanice
Classical or Romance prefixes
Aici intră majoritatea prepozitiilor de origine latină sau de origine greacă.
These include most of the Latin and Greek prepositions.
b. Prefixe latine
Latin prefixes
a-,ab-,abs-, ad-, etc = away from : avert abhor, absent, advance, ascend, accept, affirm,
aggressor, ally, annex, apply, arrive, assign attend
ambi- = on both sides, round : ambiguous, ambition
ante- or anti- = before : antecedent, anticipate
bi- = two : biscuit, biped
circum- = round : circumvent, circuit
cum- = together, with : compregend, coequal, collect, contact, corrupt
contra- = against : contradict, controversy, countersign
de- = down, from, away : descend, devious, decay
dis- = away from, asunder : distant, dissect, differ, delay
ex- = out of : except, event, evidence, effect
extra- = beyond : extraordinary, extraneous
in- = invite, import, irrupt, embrace, encourage
in- = not + adj. : intact, ignore, illegible, improper, irregular,
inter- = within : introduce, intromit
mis- = wrong, minus : mischance, mischief
non- = not: nonsense
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ob- = against, away, upon : omit, obvious, occur, offer, oppress, ostensible
per- = through : perceive, perfect, perlucid
post- = after : postscript, p.m.
prae- = before : precede, pretend, prevent
pro- = before, for, instead of : provident, pronoun, pollute, porten, puchase, pusue
re- = back, again : reduce, receive, redeem
retro- = backwards : retrograde, retrospect
semi-,sub-, super-, trans-, ultra-,
vice- = in place of : viceroy
c. Prefixe greceşti:
Greek prefixes
amphi- = on both sides : amphitheatre, amphibious
a- or an- = not : atheist, apathy, anarchy, anonymous
ana- = up, back : analyst, anatomy, anaphora
anti-, ant- = against : antipathy, Antarctic
apo- = from, back : apostrophe, apocalypse, apohorism
cata- = down : catastrophe, catalogue,
dia- = through : diameter, dialogue
ec- or ex- = out of : ecstasy, eccentric
en- = in : energy, emphasis, ellipse
epi- = on : epitaph, epigram
hyper- = over, above : hyperbole, hypermetrical
hypo- = under : hypotheses
meta- = change : metaphor, method
para- = alongside , contrary to : parallel, paradox
peri- = around : permeter, periphery, period
pro- = before : prolongue, programme
syn- = together with : syb=ntax, syllable, sympathy, system
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B. Sufixe
Suffixes
Când un sufix care conŃine o vocală scurtă este alipit unei rădăcini, una dintre vocalele
rădăcinii se schimbă pentru a pregăti pronunŃia pentru elementele care urmează. Această
prescurtare este cunoscută drept ‘fenomenul Umlaut’ (schimbare de sunet) sau MutaŃie.
Often when a suffix containing a short vowel is added to a root, a vowel in the root is
changesd in preparation for what follows. This shortening is called Umlaut (change of
sound) or Mutation.
Example:
cat – kitten, thumb – thumble, fox – vixen
a. Sufixe teutonice
Sufixe substantivale
Teutonic suffixes:
Noun suffixes:
Agent: -er (-ier, -yer, -ar, -or), -ster, -en, -ther, (-ter), -nd, -le
Instrument : -le (-el), -r, -ther, (-der)
State, quality, action: -dom, -hood, -head, -ing, -ness, -ship
Diminutive : -ing, -ling, -kin, -en, -ock, -y, (-ie, -ey)
Augumentative -ard, -ar
doer, liar, sailor, spinster, father, daughter, friend, stair, water, feather, kingdom, manhood,
goodness, hoping, friendship, landscape, gift, sight, death, earth, Mickey, annie, drunkard
b. Suffixe adjectivale
Adjective suffixes
= belonging to, somewhat like, made of
-ed, -en, -ish (-sh, -ch,)-ly, -less (without), -ow, -some (with), -th (-d), -ward, -y
ragged, golden, sweetish, French, manly, witless, yeallow, narrow, awesome, fourth, (third) ,
westward, dirty, heavy
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c. Sufixe verbale
Verb suffixes
- care exprimă ideea de frecvenŃă
Frequentative : k, le, er
brisk, grapple, glimmer/glitter
- cauzative
Causaive: en, se
gladden, hasten, cleanse
d. Sufixe latine
Latin suffixes
Sufixe substantivale
Noun suffixes
Persoană Person: -ant, -ent, -ate, (-ee, -ey, -y), -ary (-ier, -eer, -ar, -er, -or), -ess or -ese
Instrument : -ment, -ory, -ter (-tre)
Stare, calitate, acŃiune
state, quality, action: -ance, -ence, -age, -ity (-ty), -ice (-ess), -tion (-son), -tude, our, -ure, -y
Diminutive diminutives : -el (-le), -let (-et), -ule, -cle, -el, (-sel)
Colective collectives: -ary, -ery, -ar, -er
Augumentative augumentatives: -oon, -one, -on
servant, agent, advocate, trainee, attorney, army, adversary, engineer, vicar, archer,
chancellor, baroness, Chinese, countess, ornament, dormitory, monster, spectre, constancy,
confidence, courage, enmity, beauty, prejudice, largess, action, reason, magnitude, honour,
morsel, panle, circle, rivulet, bullet, pocket, globule, particle, vessel, cavalry, gutter,
grammar, balloon, million
e. Suffixe adjectivale
Adjective suffixes
-al, -ane, -ary, -ate, (-ete, -eet), -able, -ous(full of), -ory, -ive
loyal, humane, vulgar, ordinary, divine, ornate, complete, discreet, capable, cursory, plaintive
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f. Suffixe verbale
Verb suffixes
Frecventative: -ate : agitate
Inceptive (inchoative): -esce : effervesce
Causative: - fy : glorify, testify
g. Sufixe de origine greacă:
Greek suffixes
Sufixe substantivale
Noun suffixes
-ic, (-ics) - science and arts : arithmetic, logic, politics, mathematics
-y, -ism - state or action : melody, theory, philosophy, theism, antagonism.
-ist, -te, -t - agent : antagonist, sophist, apostate, patriot, idiot
h. Sufixe adjectivale
Adjective suffixes
-ic,- ical : epic, poetic, theological, skeptical
i. Sffixe verbale
Verb suffixes
-ize or -ise = to make or do : theorize, sympathise
(partial source: http://www.ethnologue.com)
C. Alfabetul – Reguli de PronunŃare
The English alphabet – Pronunciation
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Sunetele reprezentate aici sunt acelea care aparŃin dialectului engelzei britanice marcate de
accentul RP (Received Pronunciation). În ceea ce priveşte prounŃia, alte varietăti ale limbii
engleze diferă de acesta în destul de mare masură, mai ales cand e vorba de pronunŃarea
vocalelor şi a diftongilor.
The sounds represented here are those of British English spoken with an R.P. (Received
Pronounciation) accent. Other varieties of English differ considerably in pronunciation,
especially the vowels and diphthongs.
Pronunciation
The sounds represented here are those of British English spoken with an R.P. (Received
Pronounciation) accent. Other varieties of English differ considerably in pronunciation,
especially the vowels and diphthongs.
a. Ghid fonetic
Pronunciation guide
/ei/ sunet diftongic: a,h,j,k.
(difthong)
/i:/ sunetul lung: b,c,d,e,g,p,t,v
(long sound)
/e/
f,l,m,n,s,x,z
/ai/
i,y
/u:/
q,u,w
/əω/
o
/a:/
r
Sunete vocalice
Sunete consonantice
Vowel sounds
Consonant sounds
/a:/ fast
/b/ cab
/٨/ cut, butter, but
/d/ desk
/æ/ match, act, mass
/f/ farm
/ai/ fly, mind, time
/g/ greet
/au/ how, down, cloud
/h/ house
/aiə/ buyer, tyre, fire
/j/ young
/auə/ hour, tower, power
/k/ call
/ε/ ten, lend, men
/l/ like
/εi/ day, play, same
/m/ mark
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/εə/ wear, fair, care
/n/ note
/i/ sit, tip, dish
/p/park
/i:/ feel, bee, treat
/r/ route
/iə/ clear, beard, here
/s/ safe
/‫ر‬/ lost, pot, dot
/t/ test
/əua/ boat, note, phone
/∫/ shore
/‫ر‬:/ more, floor, board
/u/ look
/‫ر‬i/ boy, employ, join
/v/ vote
/u/look, could, stood
/w/ where
/u:/ blue, you, choose
/z/ zebra
/uə/ poor, pour, sure
/ З/ leisure
/ə:/ bird, later, word
/η/ bring
/ə/ the weak wovel in:
about, /t∫/ chairman
forgotten, matter
/θ/ thin, mouth, three
/ð/ that, mother, there
/dЗ/ German, Japanese, danger
15
16
I.1. Pronumele subiect
I.2. Pronumele complement
Subject Pronoun
Object Pronoun
Pronumele
complement
înlocuieşte Help me. Give me a hand.
complementul direct sau indirect al unui verb
Pronumele
complement
urmează
unei
We use the object pronoun to replace the prepoziŃii:
direct or indirect object of a verb
We
use
the
object
pronoun
preposition
sg.
pl.
sg.
pl.
I
we
me
us
you
you
you
you
17
after
a
he/she/it
they
him/her/it
them
I’m late.
Wait for me. Maria doesn’t have the book, I
She’s (waiting) outside.
have it.
Were they present?
I can’t see Adrian and Susan; I can’t see
them.
Tell us the truth!
18
I. 3. DeterminanŃii
Determiners
Substativele sunt adesea precedate de cuvinte cum ar fi: the , a sau an. Aceste cuvinte se numesc
‘determinanŃi’. Ele arată ce fel de referinŃă însoŃeşte substantivul respectiv. Dintre determinanŃi
amintim, de exemplu, articolul hotarât, care precede substative la numărul singular şi plural.
Nouns are often preceded by the words the, a, or an. These words are called determiners. They
indicate the kind of reference which the noun has. Such determiner the definite article It is used
before both singular and plural nouns:
Singular: the day, the week, the anthem
Plural the days, the weeks, the anthems
Determinantul a (ssau an, atunci cand substativul respectiv începe cu o vocală) se numeşte articol şi
se foloseşte impreuna cu substantive la numărul singular. Aceste articole (an, a, the) sunt cele mai
comune exemple de determinanŃi, însă limba engleză cunoaşte mulŃi alte tipuri de determinanŃi.
The determiner a (or an, when the following noun begins with a vowel) is the indefinite article. It is
used when the noun is singular: a day , a week, an antet
The articles the and a/an are the most common determiners, but there are many others:
any day, some day, that week, those students, this paper, whatever taxi, whichever participant
MulŃi determinanŃi exprimă ideea de cantitate. Many determiners express quantity:
each person, many people, several computers, all examples, every week, both parents, few
occasions, enough food, no escape.
I. 4. Numeralul
I. 4. 1. Numeralul cardinal şi ordinal
Cardinal and ordinal numbers
Numeralul cardinal reprezintă poate cea mai cunoscută modalitate de a exprimă ideea de cantitate.
Numeralele se numesc determinanŃi atunci când preced un substantiv. În această poziŃie, ei exprimă
ideea de cantitate. Perhaps the most common way to express quantity is to use a cardinal number.
Numerals are determiners when they appear before a noun. In this position, cardinal numerals
express quantity: one car , two cars, twelve cars.
În aceeaşi poziŃie, exprimă ideea de succesiune de elemente.
In the same position, ordinal numerals express sequence: first paragraph, second floor, third prize.
19
I. 4. 2. Numeralul ordinal
Ordinal numbers
Subclasa numeralelor ordinale cuprinde un set de cuvinte care nu sunt numerale propriu-zise (aşa
cum first este legat de one sau second de two), dar pe care le numim, generic, numerale ordinale. Ele
sunt: last, latter, next, previous, şi subsequent. Şi acestea îndeplinesc funcŃia de determinanŃi. The
subclass of ordinals includes a set of words which are not directly related to numbers (as first is
related to one, second is related to two, etc). These are called general ordinals, and they include last,
latter, next, previous, and subsequent. These words also function as determiners:
next question, last meeting, previous paragraph, subsequent developments
Atunci când nu preced un substantiv, numeralele sunt considerate a fi o subclasă a substativului şi,
la fel ca acesta, primesc determinanŃi, sau pot fi precedate de numerale propriu-zise (în ultimul
exemplu, twos este un substativ la numarul plural si este precedat de determinantul five):
the two of us, the first of many; five twos are ten
When they do not come before a noun, as we've already seen, numerals are a subclass of nouns They
can even have numerals as determiners before them. And like nouns, they can take determiners. In
the last example, twos is a plural noun and it has the determiner five before it.
I. 4. 3. Pronumele şi adjectivul posesiv
Possessive advjective and pronoun
Adjectiv
posesiv
–
Possessive Pronume
Adjective
Posesiv
–
Pronoun
sg.
pl.
sg.
pl.
my
our
mine
ours
your
your
yours
yours
his
their
his
theirs
her
their
hers
theirs
its
their
its
theirs
I. 4. 3. i. Adjectivul demonstrativ
Demonstrative Adjective
20
Possessive
de apropiere – of proximity
de depărtare – of remoteness
HERE
THERE
sg.
pl.
sg.
pl.
this man
these men
that man
those men
My reservation is valid. This suitcase is mine.
Our room is smaller. The smaller room is ours.
Adjectivul posesiv se foloseste înaintea unui substantiv cu scopul de a indica apartenenŃa acestuia la
un anumit posesor.
(We use a possessive adjective before a noun to say who the noun belongs to.)
I like house music. My favourite producer is Jaydee. I am sure the next award is his.
Her guess was right. The right guess was hers.
II. Substantivul
The Noun
II. 1. Pluralul substantivului; Substantive cu plural regulat
Plural of Nouns; Regular plural nouns
cele mai multe substantive primesc terminaŃia –s: table – tables; book – books; train – trains.
most nouns end in –s
dacă substantivul se termină in consoană + -y, -y –ul dispare, substantivul primind desinenŃa finală –
ies:
match- matches; city – cities; duty – duties.
if the noun ends in a consonant + -y, the –y disappears and the ending becomes –ies.
în cazul în care substantivul se termină în vocală + -y, adăugăm la rădăcină terminaŃia –s: day –days,
toy – toys.
nouns ending in a vowel + -y, get an –s at the end of the noun.
Când substantivul se termină în –ch, sh, -s, -z, sau -x, primeste desinenŃa finală–es; se mai adaugă –
es si la următoarele substantive: potato(es), tomato(es).
nouns ending in –ch, sh, -s, -z, or –x get –es
21
În cazul substantivelor terminate în –f sau –fe, desinenŃa de plural devine –ves (excepŃie: roof,
hoof):
wife – wives; shelf – shelves, loaf - loaves.
nouns ending in –f or –fe, change their ending into –ves; exceptions: roof, hoof, proof, cliff, chief,
belief,
etc.
PronunŃie: pluralul s/-es
DesinenŃa –es pentru substantivele terminate în –ch, -sh, -s, -z, sau –x se pronunŃă /iz/: box / boxes;
wish - wishes.
With nouns ending in –ch, -sh, -s, -z, or –x, the -es ending is pronounced /iz/: box / - boxes; wish
- wishes.
II. 2. 1. Substantive cu plural neregulat:
Irregular plural nouns
man – men
goose – geese
woman – women
mouse – mice
child – children
louse – lice
person - people
ox – oxen
brother – brethren (spiritual -);
fish – fish/fishes (specii de peşti);
brother – brothers (blood -)
fruit – fruit/fruits (soiuri de fructe);
tooth- teeth
die – dice/dies
foot – feet
II. 3. Exprimarea cantităŃii
Expressions of quantity
Tipuri de substative
Types of nouns
1. Caracteristici
Exemple
Features
Examples
Substantive
- sunt însotiŃe de some + un He’s got an (interesting)
numărabile
substantiv la plural în propoziŃii idea/ a (useful) tip.
Countable nouns
afirmative
singular form:
şi
de
any
+
un The sportsman has won some
a map/ substantiv la plural în propoziŃii medals.
22
interogative şi negative
banknote/ student
plural
form:
maps/ sunt însoŃite de many şi de
They have many friends.
There are a lot of job
banknotes/students
a few.
Exemple:
Countable nouns are used with opportunities here.
We need a map, not some + a plural noun in positive has a few problems with his
several (maps).
sentences, and any + a plural car
noun in questions and negatives
-
(affirmative)
some/several/ Do you/does she have any
ideas/answers
questions?
- (interrogative) any ideas
Nobody had any solutions.
- (negative) any /no ideas
They had no solutions (at all/
- are used with many(a lot of)
whatsoever).
and a few.
Substantive
-
nenumărabile
propoziŃii affirmative şi de any în information.
Uncountable nouns
propoziŃii interogative şi negative Is there any good music
only
singular
sunt
însoŃite
de
some
in She
form: în acord cu un verb la singular.
has
some
(new)
here? I They haven’t got any
advice
-sunt însoŃite de much şi de a little
advice/information/
Uncountable nouns are used with All you need is a little food
weather/music/money/
some in positive sentences and any and rest.
knowledge, etc
in questions and negatives, but
only with a singular noun.
money.
There isn’t much fun here.
- are used with much (a lot of) and It takes a lot of courage to
practise this sport.
a little
2. Formele posesive: ‘s - pentru persoane şi animale: ‘s
the man’s briefcase,
şi of (Cazul Genitiv)
the cat’s cushion
Possessive forms:
and of
for people and animals: ‘s
‘s după substantive la singular şi unele
substative la plural, atunci când acestea nu
se termină în –s
for people and animals
‘s
-
after singular nouns and plural Jack’s opinion, the
nouns which don’t finish in –s
23
children’s room
- după substantive la plural terminate în –
s, scriem –s’
‘s - after plural nouns ending in –s, we
the students’ dorm,
write –s’
my friends’ house
- când sunt două substantive, ‘s se adaugă
celui de-al doilea substantiv, dacă este
vorba despre o posesie comună, sau după John
and
Mary’s
fiecare substantiv în parte, în caz de suggestion(s)
posesie individuală:
but
‘s – with two nouns, it is added after the John’s and Mary’s
second
noun
in
case
of
common suggestion(s)
possession, or after each noun in case of
individual possession.
3.
Cuantificarea a piece of/ an item of luggage/ furniture, a piece/word of advice, a
substantivelor
piece of information/ news, a kilo of strawberries, a carton of
cantitative
cakes, a bottle/glass of milk, a glass/ drop/ bucket/ gallon of water,
Quantifiers
a bar of chocolate, a cake of soap, a slice/ loaf, piece/ morsel of
bread, a slice of cake, a film of dust, a ray of hope,
a bolt of thunder, a flash of lightning, a round of applause,
a pint of beer, foot of wood, a pound of rice, an ounce of courage,
a piece of music, a bag of money, etc.
Note: some indicates the indefinite amount: some water
III. Articolul
The Article
Article
Characteristics/ features
Examples
1.
a + substantive care încep cu o consoană
I can see a bus stop over
Nehotărât: a/ an + substantive care încep cu o vocală.
there.
an
a + nouns which begin with a consonant sound
Is there an information
- primă referire
an precedes nouns which begin with a vowel desk
24
Indefinite a/an
-
here?
sound.
She’s reading a map.
first
reference
2.
PronunŃie: the /ðə/ inaintea substantivelor care The bedroom door was
Hotărât: the
încep
cu
o
consoană;
the /ði/
înaintea open.
referinŃă substantivelor care încep cu o vocală.
-
The trip to Bucureşti was
unică,
Pronunciation : the /ðə/ before nouns which cheap.
generică,
begin with a consonant; the /ði/ before nouns The girl is going to the
antrerioară
begin with a vowel.
library.
The books she needs can
Definite: the
-
only
prior
be found there.
reference
3. Utilizarea articolului Use of articles
- când precede substantive care denumesc mări, The Daily Telegraph, The
râuri, nume de hoteluri, localuri, teatre, muzee, Thames, The Pacific, The
ziare
Ambassador,
before nouns denoting seas, rivers, hotels, pubs, The Globe
1.
theatres, museums, and newspapers
Articolul
- când substantivul denumeşte un concept unic
the Sun, the Morning Star,
hotărât
with nouns that denote a unique concept
the Pope
definite article
Notă:
articolul
the
nu
se
foloseşte
la
substantivele care denumesc părŃi ale corpului;
pentru aceasta se folosesc pronume posesive.
Note: We do not use the with parts of the body.
We use my,/our/their, etc (I broke my arm and
she hurt her leg.)
- cu substantive care denumesc o profesie:
He
is
a
computer
with nouns denoting professions
programmer
2.
- când însoŃeşte anumite formule de canitate:
and she is a midwife.
Articolul
with some expressions of quantity
a pair of shoes; a little
nehotărât
patience; a couple of times;
indefinite
a
25
few
discretion;
a
hundred/thousand; once a
article
- în exclamaŃii, precedat de what:
week; forty miles an hour
in exclamations with what + a countable noun
What an interesting idea!
What a
pity!
What
a
terrible thing!
-
înaintea
pluralelor
substantivele She
sau
nenumărabile, pentru o referire generală
buys
only
fresh
bananas.
before plural and uncountable nouns for Mary
doesn’t
like
strawberries. Coffee keeps
general reference.
- înaintea substantivelor ce denumesc Ńări, you awake.
3.
Omisia oraşe, străzi, limbi, feluri de mâncare, reviste,
articolului
aeroporturi, gări, munŃi:
No article
before countries, towns, streets, languages, Don’t buy Vogue, buy
We will soon enter Braşov.
Cosmopolitan.
magazines,
meals, airports, stations, and mountains
- înaintea substantivelor ce denumesc lo
at school/work;
anumită locaŃie (un anumit loc) precum şi car/tram/ plane, etc;
înanintea
unor
substantive
ce
denumesc bed;
go/come/
mijloace de transport
by
in/to
on foot;
return/leave
before some places and with some forms of home
transport
- în exclamaŃii, după construcŃia ‘what’ + un
substantiv nenumărabil :
What beautiful weather!
in exclamations, preceded by what + uncount
What loud music!
26
to
IV. Adjectivul si adverbul cu gradele lor de comparaŃie
The Comparison Degrees of Adjectives and Adverbs
Examples: a) regular adjectives and adverbs: (mono-/bosyllabic or polysyllabic) quick, blue, fit,
comfortable, fast, correctly etc. b) irregural adjerctives and adverbs: good,well, ill.,bad, far, little,
much, many, some.
Adjective
Positive
Form
Features
(mono-/bi- forma de bază a adjectivelor şi a adverbelor;
Adj:
syllabic) hard; hot; nu
pretty; fast
exprimă o comparaŃie.
(pollyyllabic)
the base form of the adjective or adverb; it
impoortant
does not show comparison.
Adv: easily/gladly
Comparative
Adj:
(mono-/bi- compară două elemente;
syllabic)
harder;
hotter; prettier; faster
+ -er la adj mono-/bi-silabice
+ more pentru cele polisilabice
the form an adjective or adverb takes to
compare two things.
- + -er for mono and bi- syllabic adj
(polysyllabic)
more - + more for polysyllabic ones
important
Adv (of manner) : + more : more gladly
more easily/gladly
Superlative
Adj:
(the) hardest; compară trei sau mai multe elemente
(the) hottest; (the) the form an adjective or adverb takes to
prettiest; (the) fastest
compare three or more things.
- + -est for mono and bi- syllabic adj
(polysyllabic)
(the) - + (the) most for polysyllabic adjectives
most important
Adv
(of
manner): + most”: most gladly
27
(the)
most
easily/gladly
IV. 1.
Forme Neregulate (adjective şi adverbe)
Irregular Adjectives and Adverbs
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
good
better
the best
well
better
the best
bad/ badly
worse
the worst
Far
farther
the farthest
Far
further
the furthest
Late
later
the later or latest
Little (amount)
less
the least
many
more
the most
much
more
the most
some
more
the most
ObservaŃie:
Less şi least se folosesc şi la formarea comparativelor şi superlativelor majorităŃii adjectivelor şi
adverbelor: less important and least important.
Less şi fewer nu sunt sinonime. Less se foloseşte împreună cu substantive nenumarabile (less time,
less affection), iar fewer cu substantive numărabile (fewer seats, fewer participants).
AtenŃie: - er şi more sau -est şi most nu se asociază niciodată.
This is the more nicer member of our family.(incorect)
This is nicer member of our family. (corect);
She is the most nicest sister (incorect);
She is the nicest sister. (corect)
Note: Less and least can also be used to form the comparative and superlative degrees of most
adjectives and adverbs: less important and least important. Less and fewer cannot be interchanged.
28
Less refers to amounts that form a whole or can’t be counted (less time, less affection), while fewer
refers to items that can be counted (fewer seats, fewer participants).
Never use -er and more or -est and most together.
Alte adverbe:
Other adverbs
yes (of course), no, by no means, by all means, not at all, hardly so, perhaps, probably, definitely,
likewise, otherwise, elsehow, anyway, anyhow, etc.
IV. 2 Forme adjectivale compuse: Substativ + Numeral
În acest caz, substantivul este folosit doar la forma de singular: A four-mile journey; a fifty-dollar
banknote, a three-piece suit
IV. 3. Indicarea direcŃiei prin adverbe de loc
Adverbs of place for giving directions
next to; at the corner of; continue straight ahead/to; across from; far from; go up the street; go up the
boulevard; go up the avenue; take the street/boulevard/ avenue; near to; turn left/right/at the corner;
cross the bridge/ the square; take the second street on the right, at the end of the street.
V. Verbul
The Verb
Formele gramaticale ale verbului sunt determinate de categoriile de timp, aspect, diateză, mod,
persoană şi număr. În acest sens, distingem două mari categorii ale verbului: formele predicative şi
formele nepredicative.
Modurile indicativ şi subjonctiv alcătuiesc formele predicative, care pot forma singure predicatul şi
care se acordă în număr şi persoană cu subiectul.
Modurile infinitiv, gerunziu, participiul prezent şi participiul trecut formează modurile
nepredicative, care nu pot forma singure predicatul propoziŃiei.
The grammatical forms of the English verb are rendered by the grammatical categories of aspect,
voice, mood, person and number, which divide its forms into finite and non-finite.
The finite forms include the indicative and the subjunctive moods, while the non-finite forms include
the infinitive, the gerund, the present and the past participle. The finite moods form predicates by
themselves, whereas the non-finite forms cannot.
Verbele limbii engleze se grupează in două clase mari: verbe regulate şi verbe neregulate.
29
La Past Tense şi la Past Participle, verbele regulate primesc desinenŃa –ed, în timp ce verbele
neregulate nu primesc această terminaŃie, rădăcina celor mai multe dintre ele suferind modificări
interne la preluarea acestor forme. Există o listă de verbe neregulate la sfârşitul oricărui dicŃionar
sau manual de gramatică.
English verbs fall into two major classes: regular and irregular verbs.
Regular verbs receive the –ed ending at Past Tense and Past Participle. Irregular verbs do not
receive this ending and most of them change the form of their root while passing to one of these
forms. There is a list of Irregular verbs at the end of any dictionary or grammar books.
Infinitive
Past Tense
Past Participle
Vb. Regulate:
(to) ask
asked
asked
Regular verbs
(to) intend
intended
intended
(to) change
changed
changed
Vb neregulate:
(to) take
took
Irregular verbs
(to) see
saw
(to) understand
understood
taken
seen
understood
V. 1. Verbul to be, to have şi to have got
Verbul to be este folosit atât ca atare, la construcŃiile cu timpul Prezent Simplu, cât şi ca verb
auxiliar la construcŃiile cu Prezentul Continuu.
to be participates in the construction of the Present Tense Simple – its short infinitive – as well as
the Present Tense Continuous, as an auxiliary verb.
Be
Have (got)
Singular
plural
singular
plural
I am
we are
I have, I have got (I’ve got) we
have,
we
have got
you are
you are
you have, you have got you have, you
(you’ve got)
have got ( you’ve
got)
30
he/she/it is
they are
he/she/it has,
they have, they
he/she/it
has
got have got (they’ve
(he’s/she’s/it’s got)
got)
Caracteristici
Exemple
Features
Examples
- ‘have’ şi ‘have got’
exprimă ideea de posesie, Jack has (got) a
iar ‘have’, idea de acŃiune
new credit card.
- interogativul lui ‘have’ se I usually have
formează
la
fel
ca (nu
have
interogativul oricărui alt breakfast
got)
at
verb (exceptându-l pe ‘be’) home.
la Indicativ Prezent.
Do you have any
- ‘have’ şi ‘have got’ sunt time for me?
folosite doar la prezent.
-
‘have’ participă şi la
construirea timpurilor Past I have a lot of
şi Future.
ideas;
I've got a
- numai ‘have got’ prezintă lot of ideas.
forme contrase la pozitiv.
Do you have a
‘have’ and ‘have got’ are car?
used for ossession. - only
‘have’ is used when talking She will not have
time
about actions.
- the question form for jobs.
‘have’
follows
regular
Present Simple:
- ‘have’ and ‘have got’ are
only used in the Present
Simple.
- use’have’ for the Past
Simple or Future forms
31
for
two
- there is no contracted
form for ‘have’ in the
positive form, only for
’have got’.
V. 2. Timpurile gramaticale
The Tense System
V. 2. 1. Exprimarea Timpului Prezent
Expressing Present Time
Timp
2. ConstrucŃie
Caracteristici
Tense
Formation rules
Feature
Exemple
3. Ortografiere
and Examples
Spelling rules
meaning
Prezentul
Affirmative
Simplu
S
Present
(pers.Isg./pl./II
acŃiuni
Simple
sg./pl./III pl.)
acŃiuni repetate
S
+
exprimă adevăruri
verb general-valabile;
We spend our - persoana III sg,
holidays abroad
generale; I never leave
home late.
verb+-s expresses general She
+
primeşte desinenŃa
de pers./nr. -s
- verbs in III sg.
works always get the -s
truths, habitual or hard.(in general) ending
(pers.III sg.)
My train leaves
I/you/we/they
Interrogative
at 5.42 p.m.
travel
Do + S + verb?
Does my train He/she/it travels
(pers.Isg./pl./II
leave at …?
sg./pl./III pl.)
My train does termină în -ch, -sh,
repeated actions
- verbele care se
not/doesn’t
-s, -z, -x primesc
verb?
leave at…. .
terminaŃia –es)
(pers.III sg.)
I get up late at verbs ending in -
Does
+
S
Negative
+
Formule
weekends.
ch,
S + verb + do adverbiale
Mary
not/don’t
Adverbial
drops by for a receive
(pers.Isg./pl./II
constructions
cup of coffee.
32
often
-sh,
-s,
-z,
–-
(he)teaches,
-x
es
sg./pl./III pl.)
in the afternoon/ Do
you
ever (it)analyzes, fixes
the do şi go primesc –
S + verb + does evening/morning/
watch
not/doesn’t
at noon/
Discovery
(pers.III sg.)
(mid)night/
one Channel?
esdo do and go
receive –es
o’clock/ weekend,
(he) goes, does
on Monday /time,
- verbele care se
often, sometimes,
termină
usually,
consoană + + -y, –
always,
never, as a rule.
în
y → –ies
verbs which end in
consonant t+ -y
-y → –ies
(she) tries, cries
- verbele care se
termină în vocală +
primesc
–y,
terminaŃia -s
verbs which end in
vowel + –y, only
add –s
(he) says, plays
Prezentul
Affirmative:
exprimă acŃiuni
Continuu
S + be + verb +
care se petrec în our
Present
-ing
(sau aproximativ) abroad.
acest
Continuous
We are spending we
the
holiday consonant and add
–ing:
moment I am leaving for cut – cutting; run –
expresses actions Sibiu.
running; swim –
are She is working swimming.
which
Interrogative:
double
happening now or hard. (now)
- după –y, -w sau –
around now
x se adaugă direct
be + S + verb +
Are you talking –ing
-ing ?
to me?
after –y, -w or –y,
Is the student we simply add
33
coming today?
Negative:
–ing:
mix
–
mixing;
S + be + not +
They
verb + -ing
not/aren’t
snow - snowing
listening!
- la adăugarea -ing
We
are delay – delaying,
are
not/ la vb. terminate în
Formule
aren’t travelling –ie, -ie → -y
adverbiale
home.
Adverbial
when adding -ing
to vbs. ending in
constructions
Are you busy?
- ie, –ie → –y
(right) now, at the
At the moment
lie
moment
,
this I’m working on
week
–lying,
die-
dying
my project.
Julia is resting
this week.
V. 2. 2. Exprimarea TimpuluiTrecut
Expressing Past Time: Past Simple and Past Continuous
to be – past forms:
I/he/she/it was we/you/they were
ObservaŃii:
1. În limba engleză, trecutul se poate exprimă prin mai multe construcŃii gramaticale, dintre care
doar unele coincid cu formele de trecut din limba română. Din această cauză, şi din fidelitate faŃă de
limba engleză, vom păstra denumirile din aceasta limbă, cu precizarea că, acolo unde e cazul, vom
face echivalarea cu denumirile timpurilor din limba română.
The tense English system is more diversified than the Romanian tense system. While some forms
match Romanian forms quite faithfully, others – most of them – only approximate them.
2. În cazul verbelor limbii engleze, unul din cele mai importante aspecte îl constituie împărŃirea lor
în verbe regulate şi verbe neregulate.
English verbs are regular and irregular
3. În mod invariabil, verbele regulate primesc la forma de bază (rădăcina), care rămane neschimbată
la toate persoanele, terminaŃia –ed
34
Regular verbs end invariably in –ed
4. Verbele neregulate işi schimbă forma de bază, şi, prin urmare, trebuie învaŃate ca atare. La finalul
oricărei gramatici sau dicŃionar al limbii engleze există o listă cu verbele neregulate.
Irregular verbs change their form and must be learnt as such. Any grammar or dictionary is
provided with a list of irregular verbs.
Timpul
Caracteristici
Tense
Features
ConstrucŃie
Exemple
Adverbe
and Formation rules
Examples
Adverbials
timp Affirmative:
I
meaning
1.
Perfectul Acest
travel(l)ed
to adverbials
Compus/
păstrează în mod S + verb +
Simplu
omogen,
Past Simple
formă pentru toate verbs)
Mary received the month, at 2.30,
persoanele.
invitation from the in the park, in
Cluj.
(regular yesterday, two
aceeaşi -ed (for regular verb)
years ago, last
Exprimă o acŃiune S + II from of secretary.(irregula
care
întamplat/s-a
(for The
Tense)
receptionist
wrote
însoŃit de adverbe
number on a card.
timp/loc:
last Interrogative:
the
taxi subordinate
încheiat în trecut (e irregular verbs)
de
office,
etc.
(Past r vb)
s-a verbs
your
clauses:
They didn’t pay while working,
year, yesterday, ten (for all persons)
their stay at the when he came.
minutes ago, etc).
hostel by credit
Did + S + verb?
This tense has the
card.
same form for all Negative:
What did you do
persons;
it S
expresses
a not/did’t + verb
completed
+
did
+ when she called?
(How
react?)
past
action.
I saw you at 2.30.
35
did
you
2. Imperfectul
Exprimă o acŃiune Affirmative:
Past
care
Continuous
desfaşurare la un I/III sg.) /were Mary
afla
I was travel(l)ing
în S + was (pers. to Cluj.
was
moment dat sau pe (pers. I pl.; II receiving
o
the
perioada sg/pl; III pl.) + invitation from the
(de)limitată
de verb + -ing
secretary’s hand.
timp.
The
The action was in Interrogative:
was writing the
progress
at
a Was/Were + S + taxi number on a
certain moment or verb + -ing?
card.
during
They
a
limited
Negative:
period of time
I
was
receptionist
weren’t
paying their stay
reading S + was/were + at the hostel by
between 4 and 8 not/wasn’t/were
credit card.
p.m./ at 4 p.m.
What were you
n’t + verb + -ing
doing when she
called?
(in
that
very moment)
- exprimă acŃiuni Affirmative:
3. Would
Used
to care
curente
în S
+
Adverbials
The
used accommodation
at the moment,
(equivalents of trecut şi care acum to/would + verb
used to be better at that time, at
Past
last year
Simple nu
mai
sunt
în
when used as vigoare (corespund Interrogative:
narrative
imperfectului).
verbs)
These
Used
to
verbe
acŃiune
+ express
de recurrent
over.
they
to time,
that
were
past Would + S + younger.
(simultaneous
actions)
activit verb?
When we stayed while she was
sau /state which is now
verbe de stare
used
Did + S + used travel more when week(end)
phrases to + verb
a
They
2.30, all that
Negative:
in Spain we would reading
did often
+
travel
to (incidental
It is used with
S
both action and
not/didn’t use(d) Alicante.
action)
state verbs
to + verb
when
36
he
Would
+
S
+
would
exclusiv verbe
not/wouldn’t
de acŃiune
verb
It
is
opened
+
window
used
exclusively
with
action
verbs
V. 4
Past
Participle
S + had (for all She
had
Perfect Are aceeaşi formă persons) + Past completed
(Simple
and pentru
Continuous)
toate Participle
persoanele Exprimă form)
a
(III specialized course
before she found
1. Past Perfect o acŃiune încheiată
that
Simple
înaintea
they arrived at the
had + Past
acŃiuni trecute.
hotel,
It has the same
realized that the
form
guide had left.
altei
for
all
job.
When
they
persons.It expresses
a past action which
ended
before
2. Past Perfect another past action.
Continuous
exprimă o acŃiune
I had already been
care
in
preparing
o
bags for half an
perioadă de timp
hour when/before
sau
my
se
desfăşurare
de
afla
de
la
un
moment dat până la
arrived.
apariŃia altei acŃiuni
trecute.
37
the
friends
the
expresses an action
which had
going
on
been
for
a
period of time or
since
a
moment
before another past
action occurs.
V. 2. 3 Prezentul Perfect
The Present Perfect
Timpul gram
Caracteristici
ConstrucŃie
Exemple
Adverbe
Tense
Features
Formation rules
Examples
Adverbials
1.
Present Face legătura dintre Affirmative
perfect Sinple
timpul
şi I/you/they have places
trecut
timpul
and
I’ve so far, lately,
written known a lot of just, already,
prezent (‘ve)
S + have/ has (uneori şi viitor).
+
I’ve been to many Adverbials
(irregular vb)
people (so far/up to yet,
Past Aruncând o privire He/she has (‘ve) now)
Participle
retrospectivă către travelled
(IIIrd form)
trecut,
always,
usually, never,
ever, seldom/
ne (regular vb)
rarely, often/
informează ce s-a Interrogative
frequently
petrecut
or
sau
pană
înainte
de written…?
momentul prezent.
It
relates
you
în Have
Has he travelled
past long?
no
time
specification
since
38
with
actions and states Negative
to the present. It I
have
(beginning of
not
into
for
(duration
looks back from the written
present
action)
the He has not been
of
action)
past, and expresses travelling
what has happened
before now.
Exprimă o acŃiune
sau
o
stare
are
continuă încă:
It
expresses
action
or
I’ve had this
an
car for a year
state
(I still have
it).
which began in the
past and continues
to the present.
Diana
has
- evenimente care
been learning
fac parte din viaŃa
French (for a
noastră (în special
long
Present
Perfect
(still learning)
events that are up
Have you ever
to now part of our
visited
life.
Romania?
time)
Simple)
They’ve never
been
here
(before).
-
acŃiuni
continuă
We’ve
care
şi
în
waiting
been
for
present
weeks to get
actions that are still
the result! It’s
39
been
going on.
raining
for days!
I
am
tired
- acŃiuni trecute cu
because
consecinŃe/
been working
efecte
I’ve
în prezent
hard.
past actions with a
George
result in the present
taken/been
has
taking
computer
classes
(can
use it )
2.
Present
Affirmative
Perfect
I/you/they have
Continuous
been writing
He/she has have
since
S + have/has +
been travelling
(beginning)
been + verb+ -
Interrogative
/for (duration)
ing
Have you been
writing…?
Has
he
been
travelling long?
Negative
I’ve
not
been
writing
He’s not been
travelling
40
În
unele
cazuri,
I have worked here
diferenŃa dintre cele
all
dous
been working here
forme
este
insesizabilă.
my
life/I’ve
all my life.
Sometimes
the
difference between
the
two
Perfect
Present
forms
is
very slight
- pentru verbe care
exprimă ideea de
durată mare (work,
wait, travel, learn,
se
play),
preferă
forma continuă;
- cu verbe ca buy,
die, take, shut, etc,
şi care nu exprimă
această
idee,
folosim
mai
degrabă
Present
Pefect Simple;
- verbele de stare
nu se folosesc la
They’ve (already)
Present
been walking for a
Perfect
Continuous.
Present
long time.
She’s passed the
Perfect
Continuous + verbs
exam.
that
working/ trying so
express
the
I’ve been
idea of long time;
hard to finish in
Present
Perfect
time.
state
She’s
Simple
+
41
understood
you perfectly well.
verbs
Present
Perfect
Simple
exprimă
ideea
de
She has (already)
acŃiune
corrected
incheiată, mai ales
atunci
când
este
însoŃit
de
o
three
papers.
They’ve
changed
construcŃie
two trains to come
adverbială
to Cluj.
cantitativă.
Present
Perfect
Simple
expresses
completion of an
action when it is
followed
by
a
quantitative
marker.
V. 2. 4. Exprimarea Timpului Viitor
Expressing Future Time
Forma
de Caracteristici
viitor
Features
and Formation
Future form
meaning
rules
1.
Future
Simple -
ConstrucŃie
consecinŃă
Exemple
Adverbe
Examples
Adevrbials
- If you wait too
consequence
long, you’ll (will)
- previziune
get bored.
42
- It will be fine
prediction
- certitudine
S+
certainty
+
- promisiune
infinitive
shall/will tomorrow.
short - This letter will be
for me.
promise
- I’ll always stand
-
by you.
avertisment
warning
- There won’t be too
- hotârare
much time left, so
determination
we’d better hurry.
-
I
shall
never
smoke.
3.
Future - exprimă acŃiuni
Continuous
Who knows what I in ten years’
viitoare văzute în
will
be
doing time;
S + will + be tomorrow this time?
desfaşurare.
this time next
- expresses future + verb + -ing
In a week’s time month; at 2
actions
they will be enjoying p.m.
in
every
progress
moment
of
their holiday.
2.
Perfect
Future - corespunde lui
Past
Perfect
She will have left by 4.30;
şi
when they reach the by the time
exprimă
hotel
anterioritatea unei
viitoare faŃă de o +
Past
acŃiune Participle
altă
viitoare.
-
like
Perfect,
Past
it
expresses a future
action/state
completed before
another
returns;
by noon, etc
S+ will + have
acŃiuni/stări
she
future
43
action.
4.
Present exprimă
Continuous
What are you doing -
aranjamente
later? Are you going care
sau
out with the group?
planuri personale.
-
adverbului
-
viitorul
near
e
future
adverbials
S + be + -ing
obligatorie.
indică
apropiat
prezenŃa
corespunzător
adverbe
tomorrow,
expresses
next
personal
(week)end,
arrangements,
today, in the
plans – always
afternoon, etc,
accompanied by a
-
near future time
adverbiale cu
expression.
zilele
expresii
săptămânii
week
days
adverbials
on
Friday,
last Monday.
5.
Present - exprimă acŃiuni
Simple
sau
The train leaves at
demersuri
S + short inf.
oficiale.
-
8.45 a.m.
at 10 p.m
The library closes at
10 p.m.
expresses
official actions.
6.‘Going to’
viitorul
Are you going to when the next
intenŃiei
si al predicŃiei/
start or not? I’m train leaves
deducŃiei logice -
going to ask when
also
called
the S + going to + the next train leaves.
future of intention short inf.
It’s not going to be
and
any better than it is soon
of
44
prediction/logical
now.
inference.
going to rain soon.
6. be to
–
= urmează să
iminenŃa
exprimă
Look!
It’s
They are to arrive in in
unei
the afternoon/in a afternoon/
S + be to + moment
acŃiuni/stări.
in a moment
- expresses the short inf.
imminence of an
action/state.
8. be about to/
S + be about The speaker is about
be
to + short inf.
on
the
to
end
point/verge of
S + be/verb presentation.
=
on
a
fi
pe
the
the The play is on the
punctul de a/
point/verge
cât pe ce să/ a
of
sta să
participle
+
point of starting.
-ing She seems on the
verge of breaking
out.
9. be due to+ un program/ orar S+
inf/ due at
deja stabilit.
be
due The
to/at + verb
group
of
students is due to
arrive at 8.30.
Their plane is due at
15.15.
.
10. be bound - acŃiuni care se S + be bound The group leader is
to
impun
= trebuie să
obligatorii.
the
ca to + verb
bound to know the
details
regarding
their
programme.
45
tour
V. 3. Forme verbale simple şi continue - Verbe de stare şi verbe de acŃiune
Simple and Progressive verb forms - Stative, dynamic, process verbs
Majoritatea verbelor pot avea atât aspect continuu cât şi simplu, exprimând, în funcŃie de context, o
acŃiune static-informativă, sau o acŃiune dinamică.
Most verbs can take on either of the aspects, expressing, according to the context, a stativeinformative action, resopectively, a dynamic-progressive one.
John lives in this house. (it is his PERMANENT rersidence)
John is living in this house. (it is his TEMPORARY residence)
The stative form of the verb ‘lie’, means ‘be situated gepographicaly’ and its dynamic form means
‘having a recumbent, horizontal position’ Forma statică a verbului
lie înseamnă’ a fi situat
geographic, iar cea dinamică înseamnă ‘a sta culcat, a se întinde’ This country lies north of Spain.,
dar şi de poziŃie spaŃială: He left the papers lying on the table.
Verbe procesuale: arata evoluŃia graduală a unui process
Process verbs: they show gradation of a process:
grow,change, deteriorate, mature, narrow, widen, slow down.If it relates a process, then the verb is
an action verb. If it relates a state, the verb is a stative verb. Stative verbs: be, hate, like, love, need,
belong, believe, cost, get, impress,, know, reach, recognize, taste,
think/consider, understand.
Generally, stative verbs fall into the following four groups:
Tipul verbului Exemple
ÎnŃeles de bază = ÎnŃeles
Type of verb
stare
Examples
= Changed
state
meaning
=
process/action
believe, I think it will be a I am thinking of leaving.
o opinie sau un understand,
successful
I
proces cognitiv
seminar.(opinion)
considering leaving.
which
=
proces/acŃiune
Basic meaning
1. care exprimă know,
schimbat
recognize
express think/consider,
I consider it would
thought
or imagine,
be proper to wait.
epinions
or impress, intend, I dislike rudeness.
mental
mean,
mind,
cognition
perceive, please,
prefer,
46
am
(seriously)
presuppose,
realize,
recall,
recognize,
regard,
remember,
satisfy, suppose,
think,
understand,
want, wish.
2.
Verbe de be, belong to, We don’t have such They are not having lunch
relaŃie
concern, consist a lot of time.
(relaŃionale)
of, contain, cost, It
sau
care depend
exprimă posesia deserve,
Relational
fit,
right now.
belongs
to
on, nobody.
equal, I only own a bicyle.
Today Susan is being very
have, Susan is (as a rule!) nosy.
Verbs, or verbs include, involve, a discreet person.
which
express lack,
possession
matter,
need, owe, own,
possess, require,
resemble.
3. senzoriale
This sandwich tases I am tasting the sandwich.
related to senses
sour. (characteristic)
and perception
It also smells odd.
The
see, hear, feel, rough
smell,
sound
blouse
against
(action)
feels I must smell it.
my I am feeling this piece of
taste, skin.
silk cloth.
She sees well with
her new glasses.
She is seeing the eye
doctor. tomorrow. (has an
appointment)
Jane is no longer seeing
George. (is not dating him
47
This song sounds anymore)
familiar to me.
This
idea
She
is
things
seeing
sounds (=imagining)
great! (=seems)
They will
sound
their
complaints (=announce)
I hear you very well, They
don’t shout.
4. care exprimă
emoŃii/trăiri
which
hearing
voices (=imagining).
They didn’t forget He was forgetting/(again)
the was remembering to walk.
love, about
astonish,
(the
express hate, like, desire, documents.
feelings
started
process
of
detest,
dislike, ‘I feel better’ = ‘I degradation or of recovery
know,
believe, am feeling better ( a of an ability)
very present state, or Sometimes, for the sake of
understand,
suppose,
want, a gradual process, emphasis, we can say: I’m
more simply loving being here!
wish, remember, probably
forget,
forgive, evident
in
the (I’m fully enjoying every
guess,
abhor, present)
single moment of my stay
adore,
doubt,
here). Couldn’t you see he
feel, wonder
was
hating
the
conversation?
VI. ConstrucŃii interogative
Questions
1. Întrebări cu cuvinte care conŃin grupul Where is the station?
‘wh’ (wh – questions)
Wh- questions
(Close to the city
center.)
Who gave you this direction?
48
(The dean’s
what; who; whose; which; where; when; secretary.)
how; why; how + adjectiv/adverb ( how How can I get to the Library? (You’ll see the
much/ how far/ how fast)
sign right away.)
Why were/are you late? (I missed the bus.)
When do I pay for the trip? (Even now if you
wish.)
She didn’t say which she preferred. (She is
VI. 2. Întrebări care cer răspunsuri de still undecided.)
tipul
‘da/nu’
(mereu
despărŃite
prin
virgulă de restul propoziŃiei)
What were you doing at the time? (I was
looking for the hostel.)
Whose car are/were you washing?
Yes/no questions
(My
Pronumele interogative ‘who’ şi ‘what’ own.)
pot îndeplini în frază atât rol de subiect How long have you studied/ been studying ?
(subject) cât şi rol de complement (object). În (Not too long.)
cazul în care întrebarea vizează subiectul, nu Are you sitting comfortably?
se produce inversia subiectului cu predicatul Yes, I am/ No, I am not(I’m not).(sitting
şi nici nu e nevoie de auxiliarul do comfortably? Did you see the presentation?
(respective does sau did). În schimb, la Yes, I did/ No, I didn’t (see the presentation)
celălalt tip de întrebări, aceste fenomene Do you find the lecture interesting?
apar.
Yes, I do/ No, I don’t (find it interesting).
Who and what can function either as subject
Was you friend listening?
or as object of the sentence. In subject
Yes,
he/she
was/
No,
he/she
wasn’t
questions, there is no inversion and no do (listening).
(does
or
did)
auxiliaries,
complement questions.
unlike
in
Have you been to the theatre?
Yes, I have/No, I haven’t.
The Committee asks the candidate questions.
Who asks the candidate some questions?
(The Committee = Subject)
Who
does
the
Committee
ask
questions? (The candidate = Object)
3 Alte tipuri de construcŃii interogative
49
some
Other types of interrogative constructions
1.
Întrebări care vizează Subiectul
Întrebări care vizează
Complementul
Subject Questions
Object Questions
Who makes the schedule?
Who did she ask?
The group representative does.
She asked no one.
What has he pointed out?
What did he do with the
folders?
Who left the plan on the table?
Who has been to Romania before?
2.
Întrebări descriptive: Cum e/ What is your home town like?
Cum sunt?
Descriptive
It’s a nice, quiet, provincial town.
questions:
What are your room-mates like?
What….like?
Oh, them. They’re all right, I suppose. I’ve
‘What is it/he like? What are they like?’
hardly met them.
A nu se confunda What is he like? cu How is
How is your friend now, after that nasty flu?
he? (care înseamnă ‘cum se simte (cu
She’s much better now, thank you.
sănătatea)?’)
Note: We should not mistake : What is he
like? with How is he? (meaning ‘How does
he feel?’and we refer here to the person’s
health)
VII. ConstrucŃii cu Verbele Modale
Modal Constructions
Verbele modale: can - could, may – might, must-have to; will-would, shall-should, ought to, dare
(to), need (to)
Verbele Modale sunt semi-auxiliare, deci se comportă altfel decât verbele obişnuite, adică, îşi
formează interogativul şi negativul singure, fără a se ajuta de verbele auxiliare clasice be şi do, nu
primesc –s la persoana III sg. prezent şi nu au forme nepersonale (infinitiv, gerunziu).
(I can to to greşit).
50
ExcepŃie fac ‘have to’, need to, be bound to, be going to’ la care se regăsesc toate aceste trăsături
şi care se numesc semi-modale. Aceste verbe au în cele mai multe cazuri dublu înŃeles: I may go at
last!
(I am allowed to) I may go today.( I will probably go).
De asemenea, majoritatea au o expresie sinonimică care să le înlocuiască în construcŃiile în care
acestea sunt improprii: They can swim (present) – They will be able to swim (future).
Modal verbs are semi-auxiliary verbs, therefore they have other characteristics than notional verbs,
that is, they don’t be or do to form the interrogative and the negative, nor do they get an -s in the III
sg. Also, they do not have non-finite forms (gerund or infinitive).
Exceptions are ‘have to’, ‘need to, ‘be bound to, ‘be going to’, ‘dare to’, which are called semimodals. They generally carry two meanings
I may go at last! (I am allowed to) I may go today.( I will probably go) and have a
synonymous expression to replace them in various situations where they are not fit.
Toate construcŃiile modale au două forme de bază:
A. construcŃiile modale simple, care se referă la situaŃii prezente sau viitoare:
S + modal + short infinitive
Paul may be leaving on Monday (It is possible that Paul is leaving on Monday);
This book may be what I really need. (This book is likely to be what I really need.)
B. construcŃiile modale perfecte, care se referă la evenimente trecute
Perfect Modal constructions – referring to past events
S + modal + have + Past Participle (IIIrd
form)
He should have arrived by now. (We expected him to arrive already by now.) The course must have
started. (I am sure the course has already started.)
All modal constructions can be found under two major forms: A. Simple Modal constructions –
referring to present or future situations;
VII. 1. Can - Could
Verbul
Forma sininimică
Sens
Exemple
modal
Synonymous form
Meaning
Examples
51
Modal verb
1. be able to
abilitate fizică sau mentală (=a fi They can (are able
capabil de ceva)
to) ski very well.
physical or mental ability = ‘to I could (was never
be able to do something’
able to) never learn
to drive.
2. be likely/ possible posibilitatea ca ceva să aibă loc; It can (sometimes)
to (happen)
o
CAN
presupunere be
(is
very
possibility/probability/conjecture likely/possible
or a characteristic
to
get) very cold in
these
parts
in
winter.Can it really
happen to me/ Is it
really happening to
me?
3.
Can’t
=
impossible;
it’s mposibilitate este exprimată doar It can’t be true (it’s
it’s cu ajutorul formei negative
unlikey/ not likely
impossible
to
be
impossibility – exclusively the true)! He can’t have
negative form
said
such
a
thing!(It’s
impossible/not likely
that he said such a
thing)
1. was able to
o însuşire/caracteristică trecută
I remember that ten
past ability
years ago they could
speak Spanish much
better (…were able
to speak…).
2. it is probable that
This route could be
52
COULD
it happens/ to happen
the right one.(it is
; it is quite likely
quite likely that this
that…
is the right route).
3. Could’t = it’s not
This is line 4, so this
possible/ it’s hard to
couldn’t be the train
accept/believe
to Braşov.
4. why didn’t you?
reproş
You could hurry up
reproach
a bit! (it would be
nice if you did it!)
(Ai
putea
să
te
grăbeşti puŃin!)
She
could
have
come in time! (It
would
have
been
polite of her to come
in time)(Ar fi putut
veni la timp!)
VII. 2. May - Might
Verbul
Forma sininimică
Sens
Exemple
modal
Synonymous form
Meaning
Examples
Modal verb
1.
allowed/permitted
be exprimă
You may not enter
permisiunea/aprobarea de a the building during
face ceva; forma negativă conference hours.
exprimă interdicŃia de a face May
1. MAY
ceva
I
add
expresses something?
permission/consent
for
an But! They will not
action; the negative form be/were
not
expresses interdiction to an allowed/permitted to
53
enter the building
action
without a permit.
exprimă probabilitatea unei It may be better if
acŃiuni - e mai puternic decât you
left
in
the
morning instead of
might
expresses the probability for tonight.
the occurrence of an action –
it is stronger than might
it
is
probable, exprimă probabilitatea (mai Her
possible that/to
mică)
neighbours
unei acŃiuni – e mai might tell you where
puŃin puternic decât may
she’s moved. (I am
expresses likeliness (not very not
sure
either
for the whether they know
strong, though)
occurrence of an action – it is or wheter they are
less strong than may
willing to tell you.)
Leaving today might
be
an
option.
Attending the class
2. MIGHT
only
might
been
enough
understand
have
to
the
course.
- este o formă de reproş
You might at least
it is a form of reproach
stay until the speech
ends.
- de asemenea, exprimă o We’ve
lost
acŃiune ramasă ca ultimă document!
alternativă
We
(neplacută might as well start it
vorbitorului)
it also shows that the action is
54
the
all over again!
seen as the last alternative
left, which the speaker resents
doing.
VII. 3. Must – Have to
Verbul modal
Forma sininimică
Sens
Exemple
Modal verb
Synonymous form
Meaning
Example
1.
be
compulsory/ -
exprimă
obligativitatea Well, I really
obligatory/mandatory (convingere personală, nu must go now.
constrangere) de a face ceva; (I
know
it’s
forma negativă, ca şi may, right to do so)
dar
mai
puternic
decât The
plane
acesta, exprimă interdicŃia de passengers must
a face ceva , sau un reproş.
1.
MUST
(for
expresses
first
pass
obligation( through
the
‘internal’
personal conviction rather sanitary filter.
obligation
than imposition);
The passengers
/conviction)
must not open
the negative form, expresses their
safety
interdiction to an action (in belts unless told
a stronger way than may) or to.
2. it’s sure/certain
You
reproach.
mustn’t
speak to anyone
like that!
-
exprimă
certitudine
certainty
ideea
de
expresses This must be
the way to the
hostel
(I
am
sure it is) The
train must have
55
already left the
station by now.
I have to open
it’s
compulsory/
the
obligatory/mandatory
meeting
today.
2. HAVE TO (for
‘external’
They had to run
obligation/
to
imposition
bus.
The
will
catch
that
lecturer
have
give you
to
the
information.
3. SHALL
-
obligativitate legală it is All books shall
obligatory by law (a very be returned in
-
strong
stronger
obligation,
than
it
is due time.
must); The
citizens
sometimes it is followed by shall (have to)
‘have
obligation/compulsion
56
to’ pay their levies
before the close
of the year (if
they
want
avoid
to
being
fined).
- ofertă de ajutor/serviciu
-
Shall I carry the
bags for you?
offer of help
- horârarea de a face ceva I shall give up
-
dublată
de
certitudina smoking.
efectuării acŃiunii.
an action which the speaker
feels
strong
for and
is
certain to happen.
VII. 4. Shall – Should – Ought to
Verbul modal
Forma sininimică
Sens
Exemple
Modal verb
Synonymous form
Meaning
Examples
- sfat, recomandare, uneori You should be
1. SHOULD
it
is
advisable/ reproş blând
recommendable;
it is met that…
advice,
careful
with
recommendation, your money (!)
mild criticism
No one should
judge
others!
One
should
never
judge
anyone!
- indecizie
hesitation
Should I stay or
should I leave?
You
should
have completed
your project last
57
-
expresses
coincidence, It is really odd
when doubled in meaning that
George
by it is strange/funny/odd should be here
that …
2. OUGHT TO
now.
- recomandare morală = s-ar Laws ought to
cădea, ar trebui să, ar fi bine be obeyed by
să.
every citizen!
moral/etical
We ought to be
recommenadtion
caring
with
elder people.
VII. 5. Needn’t to – don’t have to
Needn’t to/ Needn’t have to
Needn’t = absenŃa obligativităŃii
Don’t/Didn’t have to
Not have to = absenŃa constrângerii
no compulsion
lack of obligation
You needn’t do it = there is no need to do You don’t have to do it = you are not
forced to do it
it
Needn’t have to = acŃiunea a fost efectuată Didn’t have to = acŃiunea nu a fost
desi nu era necesar sa fie efectuată
efectuată dar nici nu era necesar sa fie
efectuată
She needn’t have to come today = She She didn’t have to come today – She
came today although it wasn’t necessary.
didn’t come today and it wasn’t necessary
either
VII. 6. Will- Would
Verbul modal
Forma sininimică
Sens
Exemple
Modal verb
Synonymous form
Meaning
Examples
58
- promisiune
promise
I will write as
soon
as
I
arrive.(I
promise
to
write)
încăpăŃânare
1.
WILL
- încăapăŃânare
If
stubborn determination
refuse to attend
(willingness/
determination
you
the
to
will
course,
you’ll fail the
do something)
exam.
- deducŃie logică
logical deduction
This
message
will be for me.
(I
have
been
expecting it, so
I know)
- presupunere
2. WOULD
Phoning
supposition – similar to station
could/may/might
the
would
(may/
might/could)
spare you the
effort to go and
ask yourself.
VII. 7. Need ≠ need to
Need to nu este un veb modal, el se comportă la fel ca orice verb notional (primeşte –s la pers. III sg,
etc.) şi exprimă ideea necesitătii unei stări sau unei acŃiuni.
Need to is not a modal verb, it behaves like any notional verb (gets –s in III pers sg, etc.)and
expresses the necessity of a state or action.
They need to return as soon as possible.
59
Need este un modal şi este folosit în propoziŃii interogative sau negative.
Need is a modal auxiliary, and it is used only in interrogative or negative sentences.
Need she really show off like that? (Chiar trebuie să epateze astfel ?)
VIII. ConstrucŃii cu diateza pasivă
Passive Constructions
(Be + Past Participle; Have + Be + Past Participle; Will + Be/Will + Have + Been + Past Participle;
Be + Being + Past Participle; Modal + Be + Past Participle; Modal + Have + Been + Past Participle
S + Passive Voice + by…(agent) + with… (instrument) (Complement de agent ; instrumental)
The mistake was made by Helen. (agent)
The window has been broken with a rod. (instrument)
John will be given all the instructions for the project (Lui John i se vor da toate
instrucŃiunile…)
She might have been told, I don’t know (Se poate/S-ar putea să i se fi spus, nu ştiu)
ConstrucŃiile predicative care acceptă forme passive: Present Simple; Present Continuous; Past
Simple Past Continuous; Present Perfect Simple; ‘will’-Future, Future Perfect, Modal
Constructions.
(Acceptable Passive predications)
The plan is being discussed at the moment.(Deocamdată / în acest moment/ în momentul de
faŃă,
planul se află în discuŃie.)
Verbe dublu-complementare (cu două complemente)
VIII 1. Verbe cu două complemente
Verbs with 2 objects
Dacă într-o propoziŃie există două complemente, ordinea lor este persoană – obiect.
If there are two objects in a sentence, the normal word order is: person (p) – thing (t)
You should write your parents (p) a postcard (t) before you leave Paris.
With verbs such as say, present, explain, describe, report, we always put the person after the thing:
(t) + ‘to’→ (p)
I explain this rule to you.
60
Mary will present the new programming technique to the staff.
If the thing is a pronoun, it stands behind the verb.
I must buy it for my sister (p).
These verbs generate two kinds of passive sentences, the subject of each sentence with indirect
object and direct object respectively:
The organisers have offered the participants a set of useful brochures.
a) The participants have been offered a set of useful brochures by the organisers.
b) A set of useful brochures have been offered (to) the participants by the organisers.
ACTIVE VOICE
PASSIVE VOICE
1. Present Simple
They always tell me to be careful.
I am always told to be careful.
2. Present Continuous
They are discussing the plan.
The plan is being discussed.
3. Past Simple
They didn’t open the museum last year.
The museum wasn’t opened last year.
4. Past Continuous
The Committee was amending the project.
The project was being amended by
5. will-Future
the Committee.
They will soon check my documents.
My documents will be soon checked.
6. Future Perfect
They will have closed the office by the time By the time we get there the office
we get there.
will have been closed.
7. Present Perfect Simple
They have passed the new ordinance.
The new ordinance has been passed.
8. Modal Simple
Any of us can easily do it.
It can be easily done by any of us.
9. Modal Perfect
I think they could have told me about the I think I could have been told about
schedule change.
the schedule change.
61
VIII. 1.1. Verbe care nu pot fi pasivizate
Verbs which do not take on a passive form
Iată câteva: arise, consist of, depend on, exist, fall, happen, lack (even if it takes a direct object)
occur, result from-in, rise.
În cazul în care verbul este urmat de un complement direct, el poate fi pasivizat. Dacă nu există
acest complement direct post-pus verbului, pasivizarea nu are loc.
If the verb can be followed by a direct, it can be made passive. However, if there is no direct object
to become the subject, the verb cannot be transformed to the passive.
Leaving England occurred to me many times.
VIII. 1. 2. Cazuri speciale al Diatezei Pasive
Special passive cases
VIII. 1. 2. 1. Have something done (to you by somebody else than you)
She will have her classes rescheduled next week.
(I se vor face schimbări în orar săptămana viitoare)
My boss has had his office redecorated. (Biroul sefului meu a fost redecorat)
VIII. 1. 2. 2. Get something done (ideea de urgenŃă)
Get your car serviced today!
VIII. 1. 2. 3. Impersonal Passive (used in news)
It is said/rumoured/thought/considered + that + ….. (se zice/zvoneşte/crede/consideră că…)
Passive sentence 1:
It is said that sometimes trains can arrive with great delays.
Passive sentence 2:
Trains are said to (be likely to) arrive sometimes with great delays.
It is said/rumoured/thought/considered that Mary is/was the best candidate for the job.
S + is/was said/rumoured/thought/considered + to be/ to have been….(Se zice(…)/s-a zis (…)că…)
Mary is said to be the best candidate for the job.(Se zice că Mary este…)
Mary is said to have been the best candidate for the job. (Se zice că Mary a fost/ar fi fost…)
Mary was said to have been the best candidate for the job.(S-a zis că Mary a fost/ar fi fost…)
62
IX. Vorbirea Directă şi Indirectă
Reported Speech
Cu ajutorul vorbirii indirecte, cuvintele unui vorbitor sunt preluate şi redate de către un alt vorbitor.
Astfel, se schimbă perspectiva (locul/poziŃia/timpul/persoana) din care este emis un enunŃ.
In indirect speech, someone’s words are reported by someone else. A change of perspective takes
place: the place, position, time and speaking person are modified.
Transformări:
Transformations
I/we/me/us he/she/you/they/him/her/them
here there
now then
today yesterday
this week last/the previous week
last week the last week
come go
Imperative ‘to’-infinitive
Present (Perfect) Past (Perfect)
Past Past Perfect
will would
Modalele – ramân neschimbate ca formă şi înŃeles, cu excepŃia lui can, care la Past devine, în
funcŃie de înŃelesul cerut de context, could sau was able to.
Modals don’t change, except the Past Tense of can, which is equally could and was able to.
Din punct de vedere semantic, timpul la care se face referire în vorbirea directă NU SE SCHIMBĂ.
Modificarea este doar una formală, pentru a se respecta legea concordanŃei timpurilor
din limba engleză.
Semantically speaking, the reference time from the Direct Speech statement DOES NOT CHANGE –
the change is only a FORMAL change, to obey the SEQUENCE OF TENSES law.
Vorbirea directă
Vorbirea indirectă
Direct speech
Indirect speech
63
“She is my friend”, Ann said
Ann said (that) she was her friend.
She ordered me/her/him/us/them to go there
“Come here right now!”
in that very moment.
“I can’t do it by myself right now."
She
said/complained
(that)
she
couldn’t/wasn’t able to do it all by herself in
You should think it over, don’t you that moment.
think so?”
She advised me to think it over/ She said
(that) I should think it over.
“The session couldn’t have started.”
They agreed/said that the session couldn’t
“How old are you; where do you live; have started.
how many brothers and/or sisters do you She asked me/wanted to know how old I
have?”
am/was, where I live/lived and how many
brothers and sisters I have/had.
IX. 1. Verbe raportoare
Reporting verbs
With if/whether
ask, know, remember, say, see
Peter asked whether/if anyone should leave
by the morning train.
With an object + long infinitive
advise, ask, beg, command, forbid, instruct,
My parents advised me to stay in tonight.
invite, teach, tell, warn
With
that+(should) clauses or an add, admit, agree, announce, answer, argue,
infinitive
boast,
He added that all candidates (should) wear
claim, comment, complain, confirm, consider,
suits and ties.
deny, doubt, estimate, explain, fear, feel, insist,
The chairman expected everyone to be on mention, observe, persuade, propose, remark,
time.
remember, repeat reply, report, reveal, say,
state, suggest, suppose, tell, think, understand,
warn.
64
advise, beg, demand , insist, prefer, propose,
recommend, request, suggest.
decide, expect, guarantee, hope, promise,
swear, threaten
With question words
decide, describe, discover, discuss, explain,
He asked me how we could explain all that. forget, guess, imagine, know, learn, realise,
I can’t say who could have imagined the remember, reveal
consequences.
say, see, suggest, teach, tell, think, understand,
wonder.
X. Formele verbale nepersonale (infinitivul, gerunziul, participiul)
Non-finite verb forms (infinitive, gerund and participle)
Gerund = the –ing form of a verb (e.g. going, talking, writing, etc)
Infinitive = to + simple form of the verb (e.g. to talk, to dance, to write, etc)
Participle = forme participiiale – ele intră în compoziŃia anumitori timpuri verbale şi a unor
forme adjectivale ; alte utilizări: pentru a scurta unele propoziŃii
kinds of participles in English
present participle, past participle and perfect participle the first two are part of certain tenses and
adjective forms; additional uses: to shorten sentences.
Forma
verbală Caracteristici
nepredicativă
Features
ConstrucŃie
Exemple
Form
Examples
Form of non-finite
verb
- în combinaŃie cu a)
Verb
+
‘to’ She’s delighted to see
Infinitive
structuri ca:
you again.
we use infinitives in advise, agree, ask,
combination
with expect, intend, offer, you here again.
structures such as:
(I’m)
delighted/
I’m surprised to meet
plan, pretend, hope, I want to return there
hono(u)red/ promise,
refuse, one day.
pleased/ want, would like + They promised not to
65
surprised+ to meet y
‘to’ infinitive
be too late.
Mary hoped to pass
her exam.
1. INFINITIVE
- pentru a exprima
Read the instruction to
scopul:
be able to use this
- to express purpose:
device correctly.
She is here (because
she wishes) to learn a
new language.
b) Verb + (Pro)noun
+ ‘to’Infinitive
She told me to be here
remind, invite, permit,
before
allow,
(passive : I was told to
would
warn,
like,
ask,
expect,
9
o’clock.
be here….)
invite, force, require,
The policeman waved
encourage, advise, tell
the
+ someone + to do
left.(no passive form !)
driver
to
pull
Compare:
They expect to pass
the test (expectation
about themselves)
and
They expect me/the
candidate to pass the
test.
(expectation
about
someone else)
a)
îndeplinesc
They
enjoy
staying
funcŃie de subiect sau
here (= they enjoy
complement
their stay here)
(ca
şi
substantivele)
Studying (= the study
-can fulfill a noun
of) this is fun.
66
function (as a subject
I (don’t) like working
or object)
in large groups. (= the
work)
Compare:
(subject)
Writing
essays is useful in
2. GERUND
b)
Preposition
+
language study
Gerund
They
are
writing
(present participle) an
essay.
This is writing (- adj.)
paper.
Mary
talked
leaving
for
about
Canada
c) ‘to’ (= preposition,
soon.
not
He is in charge of
infinitive
particle) + Gerund
organizing the trip.
Are you interested in
joining us?
d) ‘not’ precede un
gerunziu
‘not’
She is used to working
precedes
late.
a
They look/are looking
gerund
forward
to
meeting
Verbe urmated de un
you.
gerunziu:
I do not object to
Verbs
followed
(their) postponing the
by
meeting.
Gernunds
avoid, consider (think
about), delay, discuss
I
(talk
accustomed
about),
keep(on),
enjoy,
am
already
to
not
sleeping very much.
mention,
67
postpone(put
off),
suggest,
(e.g.
stop
‘stop working’)
a) Participiul Prezent Ortografiere
Present Participle
Spelling:
1. se foloseşte pentru a - final -ie becomes –
timpuri y: dye – dying (=a
forma
3. PARTICIPLE
continue
vopsi) ; lie lying
- it is used to form -final
consonant I am listening!
/ after short, stressed
progressive
continuous tenses (e. vowel is doubled :
g. Present Progressive) refer
2. as an adjective
3.
se
–
referring; The film is interesting.
permit – permitting
Did you notice her
foloseşte
împreună
cu
verbe
leaving the office?
senzoriale, mai ales
atunci când idea de
finalitate a acŃiunii nu
este implicită.
We use it with verbs of
the senses if we do not
want to emphasise that
the
action
was
(see
completed.
Infinitive or Ing-Form)
: see, watch, notice, Ortografiere
feel, smell, hear, find, Spelling:
listen to
- consonant + -y = -
b) Participiul trecut
i:
Past Participle
forma
verbelor
a
treia
marry - married
a -
final
consonant
pentru after a short, stressed
68
formele
verbale vowel:
perfecte
the
I have/had read this
permit→permitted
third
form
book.
of
verbs used either to
The book was edited
build up
by….
-
perfect
tenses
(Present/Past
Perfect
It was well-written.
Simple
Having
- passive forms
bibliography,
- adjective forms )
wrote an article (=
c) Participiu perfect
They
read
read
bibliography
Perfect Participle
- uneşte propoziŃiile
the
they
the
and
wrote an article. )
care au acelaşi subiect,
atunci când acŃiunea
exprimată
de
construcŃia
cu
Having been looking
participiul perfect s-a
for a flat for a good
incheiat
de
while, he wanted to
începerea altei acŃiuni.
give up.(= He had
- joins clauses that
been looking for a flat
înainte
have the same subject active voice: having for a good while and
when
action + past participle
the
expressed
by
the passive
he wanted to give up.)
voice: Having arrived at the
perfect participle was having been + past hotel, they checked in.
completed before the participle
Having
next action begins.
redecorated, the house
- exprimă o acŃiune
looked neat.
este în desfăşurare de
câtva timp şi o alta
începe.
one action has been
69
been
in progress for some
time,
and
another
action starts.
-
face
parte
din
construcŃiile active si
passive.
it is used for active
and
passive
constructions.
X 4. Like doing ≠ would like to do
Like/love to/prefer to do/doing
Would like/love to
- exprimă plăcerea vorbitorului de a exprimă dorinŃa vorbitorului de a
face ceva.
expresses
face ceva.
the
speaker’s expresses
fondness/preference to do something.
the
speaker’s
wish/desire to do something.
They like to spend their weekends in They would like to spend their
the mountains. (le place să/ preferă weekends in the mountains. (le-ar
să…)
You
place/ar dori să…)
prefer/like
to
spend/spending
yours at home.
XI. Structuri Sintactice: Coordonarea şi Subordonarea
Syntactic Structures: Coordination (Correlations) and Subordination
Cu ajutorul coordonării şi subordonării, unităŃile simple gramaticale de tipul expresiilor sau
propoziŃiilor simple se pot combina, obŃinându-se unităŃi complexe.
Grammatical units (phrases and the simple sentences) can be combined to make new, more complex
units by means of coordination and of subordination.
1. Subordonarea
70
Subordination
Orice propoziŃie subordonată este introdusă de o conjuncŃie subordonatoare sau de către un pronume
relativ şi va avea în mod obligatoriu atât subiect cât şi predicat, fără însă să poată fi considerată
drept o propoziŃie de sine stătătoare. Pentru intregirea sensului este nevoie de precizari suplimentare.
A subordinate clause - also called a dependent clause - will begin with a subordinate conjunction or
a relative pronoun and will contain both a subject and a verb. This combination of words will not
form a complete sentence. It will instead make a reader want additional information to finish the
thought.
Notă
Note
Virgula se cere pusă în mod obligatoriu doar dacă subordonata apare în faŃa propoziŃiei principale,
altfel utilizarea ei nu este obligatorie.
When you attach a subordinate clause in front of a main clause, use a comma.
Not having been able to finish our task in time, we were frowned on by the project coordinator.
Were we to be busy on Tuesday, find someone to substitute for us.
but:
Nick needed additional explanations Ø because he had missed the past three courses indicated
in the course.
My team is very likely to win again the leading position in the district Ø since out entire
activity is
coordinated by real professionals.
Subordination is there to be used to combine ideas effectively, for example, two ideas in a single
sentence:
My son called. A woman asked about me.
Since the two simple sentences are related, you can combine them to express the action more
effectively:
My son called when a woman asked about me.
If the two ideas have unequal importance, save the most important one for the end of the sentence so
that your reader remembers it best. If we rewrite the example above so that the two ideas are
flipped, the wrong point gets emphasized:
When a woman asked about me, my son called.
71
Subordinating conjunctions
after
Relative pronouns
once
until
that
although
who
whose
provided that
when
which
as
whoever
rather than whosever
whenever
because
since
where
whichever
whom
whomever
before
so that
whereas
even if
than
wherever
even
though
that
whether
if
though
while
in
oder
that
unless
why
2. Coordonarea
Coordination
COORDINATION
Conjunctions: or, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
Examples
Punctuation: , and ;
Functions of ‘and’
- simple addition (2nd clause adds something - This museum houses ancient items, and it
to the 1st clause)
also has a collection of recent international
- sequence (2nd clause comes after the 1st currency.
clause)
- Mark checked in, and (then) he went to
meet his colleagues.
- result (2nd clause results from the 1st - The maid found the wallet under the bed,
72
clause).
and John cryed out for joy.
- Catleen prefers the seaside, and her
- contrast (2nd clause is in contrast to the 1st husband loves the Scottish mountains.
clause)
- Your ambition is to come up with a
breakthrough, and yet you always seem to
- concession (1st clause concedes something miss it in the last second.
while 2nd clause gives the actuality or truth)
- We should try harder, and you’ll reap your
success.
- condition (1st clause is a condition for the - The new subscribers benefit from a 20%
2nd clause)
deduction, and the regular clients can enjoy
- similarity (2nd clause makes a point similar similar advantages with each renewal.
to that of the 1st clause)
.
- He needs to take steps immediately, and
- explanation (2nd clause comments on or that’s to change completely both his food and
explains the 1st clause)
work habits.
XII. Fraza CondiŃională
Conditional Constructions
PropoziŃia CondiŃională exprimă o condiŃie necesară în vederea obŃinerii unui rezultat care apare ca
urmare a realizării condiŃiei.
It is a Subordinate Clause which contains a condition. Three major types of Conditional Clauses
are known according to the condition on which the clause is built.
AtenŃie! if = dacă
dar
even if = chiar dacă, cu toate că.
Note:
PropoziŃiile introduse de ‘if’ exprimă condiŃiile necesare prin care se ajunge la un anumit rezultat.
Aceste condiŃionale determină rezultate predictibile, care sunt motivate de însăşi condiŃia intrinsecă
care stă la baza acestora. Spre dosebire de ele, în cazul condiŃionalelor cu ‘even if’, rezultatul la care
se ajunge este unul neprevăzut.
ComparaŃi:
Compare
If she studies hard, she will pass the exam (Dacă se pregăteşte serios,va lua examenul)
73
and
Even if she studies hard, she won’t pass the exam. (Chiar dacă/ Cu toate că se pregateşte serios, nu
va lua examenul).
‘If’ clauses express the conditions necessary for the result. If clauses are followed by expected
results based on the condition. In contrast to sentences with ‘if’ sentences with ‘even if’ show a
result that is unexpected based on the condition in the ‘even if’ clause.
În funcŃie de felul condiŃiei, se cunosc trei tipuri de propoziŃii condiŃionale.
Tipul I: sau condiŃionala posibilă şansele de realizare a condiŃiei sunt foarte mari.
În propoziŃia principală avem de regulă Future Tense (uneori Present Tense sau un Modal), iar în
propoziŃia condiŃională avem Present sau Present Perfect Tense.
Type I - often called the ‘real’ conditional because it is used for real - or possible - situations.
These situations take place if a certain condition is met; it contains a Possible (sometimes called
Probable or accomplishable) Condition.
We have Future/Present/Modal in the Main Clause and Present Simple/Present Continuous/Present
Perfect in the Conditional Clause.
Tipul II: sau condiŃionala puŃin probabilă deoarece exprimă situaŃii imposibile sau chiar nereale; în
acest caz, nu mai suntem atât de siguri de realizarea condiŃiei propuse. În cazuri, rezultatul la care se
ajunge este unul imaginar.
ObservaŃie : Forma verbului ‘to be’ este in acest context ‘were’.
În propoziŃia principală avem Past Tense (sau Past Continuous), iar în propoziŃia condiŃională,
Present Conditional (would + verb)
If he had a student card, he would travel cheaper.
I wouldn’t jump to conclusions if I were you.
Type II - often called the ‘unreal’ conditional because it is used for unreal - impossible or
improbable - situations. This conditional provides an imaginary result for a given situation.
Note : The verb ‘to be’, when used in the 2nd conditional, is always conjugated as ‘were’.
Tipul III – adesea e numit şi ‘past conditional’ deoarece se referă doar la situaŃii trecute cu rezultate
ipotetice.
Type III - often referred to as the ‘past’ conditional because it concerns only past situations with
hypothetical results
If Al Gore had been elected president, the situation would have been different/ would now be
different.
74
XII. 1. Alte conjuncŃii care introduc Subordonata CondiŃională:
Other subordinating conjunctions
Whether or not – indiferent de condiŃiile propuse, rezultatul va fi acelaşi:
Whether they have money or not/whether or not they have money, they are determined to
leave.
(Indiferent dacă au sau nu au bani/fie că au bani sau nu, sunt hotărâŃi să plece.)
Unless – are aceeaşi valoare cu ‘if not’:
Unless she eats everything, she won’t get any better. E IDENTIC CA SENS CU: If she doesn’t
eat, she
won’t get any better. (‘Dacă (ea) nu mananca, nu se va simti mai bine)
AtenŃie! ‘Unless’ se foloseşte doar în CondiŃionalele de Tipul I.
In case şi in the event se folosesc atunci când nu ne aşteptăm ca un eveniment sa se aibă loc. Ambele
expresii se folosesc in special pentru exprimarea evenimentelor viitoare. ‘In case it rains, take the
bus.’ ‘I'll be studying upstairs in the event he calls’.
Only if – înseamnă ‘doar în cazul în care se întamplă ceva – şi numai atunci’. Are practic acelaşi
înŃeles cu ‘if’, dar pune accent pe îndeplinirea condiŃiei pentru a se ajunge la rezultatul scontat.
Dacă ‘only if’ se află la începutul propoziŃiei, atunci trebuie să inversăm propozŃia principală.
Certificates will be released only if the participants attend the entire section of the workshop.
If only (!) (o falsă CondiŃională) exprimă, de fapt, o dorinŃă ipotetică, o intenŃie prea puŃin
realizabilă.
PropoziŃia Principală se deduce din contextual semantic al ideii de dorinŃă:
If only they were given the right directions (they would be able to reach the hotel for the check in)!
Măcar dacă li s-ar fi dat instrucŃiunile corecte (ei ar fi reuşit sa ajungă la timp pentru cazare)!
Whether or not expresses the idea that neither one condition or another matters; the result will be
the same. Notice the possibility of inversion
Unlessexpresses the idea of ’if not and is only used in the first conditional.
In case and in the event usually mean that you don’t expect something to happen. Both are used
primarily for events.
Only if means ‘only in the case that something happens - and only if’. This form basically means the
same as ‘if’. However, it does stress the condition for the result. Note that when ‘only if’ begins the
sentence you need to invert the main clause.
75
If only is a false Conditional, in fact, expressing a wish, a hypothetical desire or a hardly
accomplishable dream. The Main Clause is understood from the semantic context of the wish.
when=if
When (=if) I am not supposed to, I don’t interfere.
XII. 2. CondiŃionala de Tipul I (CondiŃia Reală – cu referire la viitor sau la prezent)
Type I Conditional –Probable Condition
- exprimă o situaŃie anticipată posibilă/foarte realizabilă. (Acest tip de condiŃională este identic ca
structură cu subordonată temporală introdusă de un adverb de timp: when, as soon as, the moment,
etc.)
If anything happens, I will stand by you. (Dacă ceva se întamplă, eu te voi sprijini.(în mod sigur!)
If/When/As soon as/ The moment Mark comes, I will talk to him.
- mai exprimă o situaŃie de tipul cauză-efect (în acest caz, avem Present Tense in PropoziŃia
Principală şi tot Present Tense în PropoziŃia CondiŃională):
If you work, you have money, if you don’t work, you starve.
Situations that are always true if something happens. This use is similar to, and can usually be
repleaced by, a Time Clause using a time adverbial.
TYPE I
PropoziŃia
Principală
ConjuncŃia
Conjunction
PropoziŃia CondiŃională
Conditional Clause
Main Clause
Îndeplinirea acŃiunii
are un grad mare de
certitudine -condiŃie
posibilă.
Probable,
FUTURE
if
You will get a room
you check in in time.
highly I’m going to miss the
fulfillable condition
beginning
-promise/prediction
You’ll fall asleep
PRESENT
you don’t leave now.
PRESENTCONTINUOUS
you are not working faster.
PRESENT
- warning
The plant grows
it is watered regularly.
76
MODAL
- cause-effect
you finish.
You can/may leave
PRESENT PERFECT
You can’t/won’t take
you haven’t written the
the exam
essay. (stress on action
completion)
XII. 3. CondiŃionala de Tipul II (CondiŃia improbabilă sau nereală)
Type II Conditional (Imporbable, unreal condition)
- exprimă o condiŃie improbabilă, îndeplinirea acesteia nefiind la fel de sigură ca în primul cazde
condiŃie; este vorba mai mult de situaŃii ipotetice, imaginare. Traducerea in limba romană se face cu
ajutorul modului condiŃional-optativ prezent.
În PropoziŃia Principală avem would/could + verb, iar în PropoziŃia CondiŃională avem Past Tense/
Subjonctivul ‘were’.
Often called the unreal or hypothetical or even absurd conditional because it is used for unreal impossible improbable - situations. This conditional provides an imaginary result for a given
situation.
NOTE: The verb ‘to be’, when used in the 2nd conditional, is always conjugated as ‘were’.
TYPE II
PropoziŃia Principală
Main Clause
ConjuncŃia
PropoziŃia
Conjunction
CondiŃională
Conditional Clause
AcŃiunea
are
sanse mai mici
de
indeplinire
decât în cazul
Tipului
I
–
condiŃie
if
probabilă
PRESENT
PRESENT
Improbable
CONDITIONAL
you checked in in time.
condition,
likely
to
less You would get a room
I were you/18 again
be
77
fulfilled
I would try again
(unreal, because I can
- hypothetical
never be you/ I no
PAST
condition
longer 18)
The plant grew
-
PAST
unreal/absurd
it
condition
regularly.
was
watered
- past causeeffect
XII. 4. CondiŃionala de Tipul III (CondiŃia imposibilă/nerealizată)
Type III Conditional
- exprimă o condiŃie neîndeplinită datorită faptului că timpul rezervat realizării ei a trecut. Este, de
fapt, un regret tardiv, exprimat foarte bine de constatarea consecinŃei acestei neîmpliniri. Aceasta
nouă frază este introdusă de ‘but…’ iar predicatele din ambele propoziŃii ale acesteia sunt la Past
Tense.
The Dean would have considered their proposal, if they had requested a meeting with him. (!but
/however they did not request a meeting with the Dean, therefore/ so, and consequently their
proposal was not reconsidered) (Decanul le-ar fi luat în considerare propunerea, dacă ei ar fi solicitat
o întrevededre cu el.)
She would be able to write much better (now), if she had practiced more. (!but she did not practice
enough, so she is not able to write any better now) (Acum ar fi în stare să scrie mult mai bine dacă
ar fi exersat mai mult.)
Often referred to as the ‘late regrets’ because it concerns only past situations with no fulfillable
perspectives.
Nothing can be done anymore to solve a past failure.)
TYPE III
PropoziŃia Principală
Main Clause
ConjuncŃia
PropoziŃia
Conjunction
CondiŃională
Conditional Clause
78
AcŃiunea nu a
fost efectuată - PAST CONDITIONAL
PAST PERFECT
condiŃie
You would have got a
you had checked in in
imposibilă
room
if
(but you did not check in
Impossibe
condition,
time.
not
in time, so/therefore/in
fulfilled
conclusion/consequently,
Sometimes
you did not get a room;
called a ‘late
but since you did not
regret’
check in in time, you did
or
a
‘missed chance’
not get a room)
(even if it is not
expressed,
we
feel there is an
implied ‘but’)
XII. 5. CondiŃionale mixte
Mixed conditionals
I + II
Mary will get the prize if she worked harder.
II + III Mary would be a winner now if she had worked harder.
XII. 6. Inversiunea în propoziŃia condiŃională
Inversion in Cconditional Clauses
Se foloseste cu scopul de a accentua condiŃia
It is used for emphatic purposes
Were she to come, I would talk to her. = If she were to come, I would talk to her.
Had we decided to leave sooner, we would have met Tom at the airport. + If we had decided to
leave sooner, we would have met Tom at the airport.
XII. 7. Alte moduri de a exprima o condiŃie
Other ways to express condition
79
1. Supposing
I might give Mina the book, supposing she drops by (which I hardly think will happen)
2. If it weren’t/wasn’t for/ If it hadn’t been for = but for
Type II
If it wasn’t for Michael, I would be lost! (daca n-ar fi Michael, as fi pierdut(a))
But for Michael, I would be lost
Type III
If it hadn’t been for Michael, I would be lost (NOW) /I would have been lost.
(THEN)
(daca n-ar fi fost Michael, as fi pierduta (acum)/as fi fost pierduta (atunci)
But for Michael, I would be lost (NOW) /I would have been lost. (THEN)
3. If so
Ken may refuse to substitute for me. If so, (= in this situation) else.
4. Should (= it is rather unlikely to happen)
If Ken should refuse to substitute for me, which I doubt it will happen, I’ll have to find someone
else.
(with inversion) Should Ken refuse to…, I’ll have to resort to someone else.
5. Happen to – expressing chance
Tell Ann I won’t be able to be there in time, if you (should) happen to see her.
XIII . Alte tipuri de PropoziŃii Subordonate
Other Types of Subordinate Clauses:
1.Noun Clauses are classified into: Subjective, Predicative,
Direct Object, Prepositional, Appositive
2. Adjective Clauses or Attributive
3. Adverb Clauses (the most important of them): of Time, of Place, of Purpose, of Reason, of
Result, of
Manner (Comparison), Conditional (see ch. XI),
of
Concession (Contrast), Relative, Participle
80
Type of clause
Function
Examples
it fulfills the function of a The results are misleading.
Direct Object
What the results report, is
misleading. (Subject) I do not
know his address. I do not
know where he lives.
it fulfills the function of the
Object of a preposition
Give the statistical part of the
project to
James. Give the
statistical part of the project to
whoever can manage it best.
1. Noun Clause
it fulfills the function of the That fact – the opposition’s
Apposition
success (the fact that the
- the conjunction that before a opposition won) discouraged
noun clause may be omitted many.
in some sentences
I know (that) she is right.
We need reliable employees
(= who are reliable).
We took the trodden path
(=which had been trodden).
2.
Adjective
There is no longer such a
Clauses
thing as a safe neighbourhood
- if it is not used as a subject, (= where people feel safe)
the relative pronoun in an John
adjective
clause
is the person I trust.
may (=whom I trust)
sometimes be omitted.
- may modify a verb, an Soon the lights went out.
adjective,
an
adverb,
infinitive,
a
gerund,
an When the windstorm hit, the
a lights went out.
81
participle, or even the rest of No alcoholic beverages are
the sentence in which it sold locally (=sold where I
appears. Many adverb clauses live.
3.
Clauses
Adverb can take various positions in a Speak distinctly. Speak so that
sentence. Adverb clauses are you can be understood.
ordinarily
introduced
by If I can save enough money,
subordinating conjunctions.
I’ll go to Alaska next summer.
Some adverb clauses may be If not, I’ll take a trip to St.
elliptical.
Louis.
Types of Adverb Clauses
3.1. Adverb Clauses of Characteristics
Examples
Time
John (had) made some
phone calls before he
- relate other actions to answered his e-mails.
the activity in the main
clause.
-
John answered his
e-mails talked to Anca
are introduced by after he (had) made some
adverbs of time such as phone calls.
before, after, while, as
John opened his
soon as, by, when, as mail box when he made
which indicate the time some phone calls.
when
something
happens.
John opened his
mail box while he made
some phone calls.
John had (already)
made some phone calls
by the time he started
reading his e-mails.
John
(already)
will
made
have
some
phone calls by the time he
82
checked his mail box.
3. 2. Adverb Clauses of
I remember where I put
Place
the book.
–
indicate
where
the
place You
will
something waiting
happens.
find
exactly
them
where
they are now.
I accept to live wherever
you decide (to).
3. 3. Adverb Clauses of - it states the purpose of I tried to buy the car to be
Purpose
the
action
in
the able to come into the city
independent clause.
more easily.
- the most common type
of purpose clause is a
The report was written
in order to give a brief
to-infinitive clause, but in presentation
of
the
formal writing, in order research results.
to and so as to, so that or
in
order
The lecturer came up
are with
that
preferred.
additional
explanations so that the
- the difference between students would be able
so and so that is that so to/could get the
implies
that
that
the
point more easily.
cause was deliberately
done by someone in order We offer new courses on
to get a specific result.
-
other
ways
cultural matters with a
of view to upgrading the
expressing purpose are: general
public’s
for the purpose of, with a knowledge in the domain.
view to, with the intention
of, with the object/aim of.
- with these phrases the
verb must be in the -ing
form.
83
3. 4. Adverb Clauses of Reason
they
why As
say
something happens
I
needed
information
- are introduced by the subject,
I
conjunctions because, as enroll
more
on
the
decided
to
for
an
extra
or since, when(!) or the semester.
prepositional
because
phrases
and
of
They didn’t
buy the
on house because it was too
deteriorated.
account of.
My
room
mate
was
unable to work on his
project on account of a
malfunction
in
the
computer. (because the
computer malfunctioned.)
3. 5. Adverb Clauses of
Cause and Effect
Because
They received a high
Notice how because can mark
on
their
exam
be used with a variety of because they had studied
tenses based on the time hard.
relationship between the I’m
studying
hard
two clauses.
because I want to pass
As
my exam/because I know
means
the
same
as too little.
because but is used in
more
formal,
written As the test is difficult,
English.
you had better get some
As long as
means
the
sleep.
same
as
because, but it is more As long as nobody will be
informal, spoken English. in this house for a while,
Since
means
the
why don’t you move in
as yourself?
same
because.
84
It tends to be used in
more
informal
spoken Since his application was
English. Important note: rejected , he decided to
Since when used as a apply soemhwere else.
conjunction is typically It’s clear we shall have
used to refer to a period get up earlier since work
of time, while because starts at 8.
implies a cause or reason
Due to the fact
that
means
the
as We will be staying for an
same
because but is generally extra week due to the fact
used
in
formal, that we haven not yet
very
finished.
written English.
Inasamuch as
means
the
as Inasmuch as the students
same
because and is used in had
very
succesfully
written completed their exams,
formal,
their parents rewarded
English.
their efforts by giving
them a trip to Paris.
3. 6. Adverb Clauses of - it is used with these Although/even
Contrast (Concession)
words or expressions:
we
are
if/though
loadsed
with
despite + noun/possessive work, you can leave for a
adjective + gerund,
in
spite
few days.
+ You can leave for a few
of
noun/possessive
days
adjective+ gerund
if/though we are loaded
(al)though,
if/though,
Although/even
even with work.
however, Despite the fact that we
whoever (and the rest of loaded with work, you
the words combined with
85
can leave… Despite our
–ever),
yet,
while, being loaded with so
whereas, at the same much
work,
you
can
time, all the same, or to leave…
inverted structures:
In spite of our being
adj. + as + S + may/might loaded with work, you
be/was
can…/In spite of the fact
that we are loaded with
work, you can…..
However
loaded
with
work we may be/are, you
can leave all the same.
Loaded with work as we
are/as we may be, you
can (still) leave….
We are loaded with work
indeed, yet/but you can
leave….
We are loaded with work,
all the same, you can
leave….
We are loaded with work,
yet you can leave…
We are loaded with work;
at the same time you can
leave……
We are loaded with work;
nonetheless
you
can
leave…..
3. 7. Adverb Clauses of - it tells us how to do The directions should be
Manner (Comparison)
something.
complied with as the
- its connectors (all have organizers indicated you
the same meaning): as, as to.
86
if, and as though.
Read the text aloud as if
- the comparison can be you were an actor on
either
realistic
or stage.
unrealistic.
Apply for that college as
though it was/were the
-
realistic ultimate solution.
in
comparisons, are used She looks at me as if it’s
normal
tenses
of
the a joke. (it’s possible that
verbs to agree with the it’s a joke.)
main clause (here , we The child trembles as
use the present tense to though he saw something
agree with the present terrible.
tense in the main clause.)
-
in
comparisons,
Maybe he really saw
unrealistic something terrible.
we
use He cries as though he
‘more past.
were stabbed.
Nobody stabbed him.
He dances as if you were
Nureev.
He’s not Nureev.
Note that as can be an As you refused to help
adverb clause connector me, I asked someone
of time, manner and else.. (reason)
reason.
We
will
keep
you
informed as the decision
is made. (time)
Behave as you were told
to. (manner)
3. 8. Adverb Clauses of - indicates the result of The lecture was boring
Result
an action or situation
-
and irrelevant, so some of
are introduced by the students began to fall
87
conjunctions such as so, asleep.
so... that, or such … that Peter
was
having
and some other words problems
that
have
the
with
same mathematics, so he went
semantic coverage, such to see his tutor to ask for
as: therefore, thus, in advice.
There
consequence,
were
so
many
consequently, for this/that books on the subject that
Cindy didn’t know where
reason
to begin.
There was such a lot of
material to cover that
Ivan found it difficult to
keep up with his studies.
- other ways of indicating
the result of an action or The lecture was boring
situation are and as a and irrelevant, and as a
result or with the result result
some
of
the
students began to fall
that.
asleep.
The lecture was
boring
and
irrelevant,
with the result that some
of the students began to
fall asleep. As a result
can also be used at the
beginning
of
a
new
sentence.
The lecture was
boring and irrelevant. As
a result, some of the
students began to fall
88
asleep.
Causal relations can be
expressed by ing-clauses
of result.
The government
increased the duty on
wine. As a result, there
was a fall in demand.
The government
increased the duty on
wine, resulting in a fall in
demand.
3. 9. Participial Clauses
-is used in writing, in
order to include as much
information as possible in
the same sentence:
- if we use a participle
construction
used
to
combine
or
shorten
clauses,
both
clauses
should have the same
subject.
- it uses the conjunctions
as, because, since and
relative pronouns who,
which are left out.
- the conjunctions before,
when are obligatory in
the
participle
clause,while
the
conjunctions after and, I smelled them (namely,
while are omissible.
my next door neighbours)
89
Participle Clauses with cooking roast.
different Subjects
- if the main clause Mary was writing an econtains
one
of
the mail,
following verbs:
when
her
entered
boss
the
see, notice, watch, smell, office.(correct)
feel, find, hear, listen to.
-
apart
from
exceptions
Writing an e-mail, her
the boss
entered
the
mentioned office.(wrong)
above, participle clause
and main clause should
have the same subject,
otherwise the sentences
might
sound
rather
strange.
3. 10. Subordonata Caracteristici
Relativă
Exemple
Features
Examples
The Relative Clause
- este introdusă de un cuvânt Students
relativ-interogativ:
who
can
develop
who, independent learning skills often
which, where, sau de that.
achieve good academic results.
it begins with a question word
There will be a new rule that
or the word that.
addresses immigrants who enter the
country after 2008.
A university is a place where people
pursue
advanced
knowledge
in
specific academic disciplines.
Anyone can tell the difference
between a public place or one in
- adverbe relative
which access is granted only by a
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special permit or membership card.
relative adverbs
when (= in/on which)
where (= in/at which)
why (= for which reason)
It was on the night when they
arrived.
- modifică un substantiv sau This is the shelf where I left the
un
pronume
aducând papers.
informaŃii suplimentare despre Tell them why (the reason why/for
acesta.
which) we have to meet.
it modifies a noun or pronoun
(it identifies or gives more
information about it).
- la combinarea propoziŃiilor
cu o relativă se câştigă în
fluenŃă şi se evită redundanŃa;
de asemenea, se pot introduce
informaŃii adiŃionale.
She asks for the file which contains
a text gains in fluency and the addresses reference information
avoids word redundancy if we of the candidate.
combine
sentences
with
a
relative clause. The insertion
of additional information can Ted was on the bus (which) I had
missed.
also be done in this way.
- deoarece nu este de sinestătătoare, relativa are nevoie
de propoziŃia principală
it does not have complete
autonomy
of
meaning,
therefore it is joined to the
main clause.
- who, which, that introduc atât
Pronumele Subiect (pronumele
91
relativ urmat de un verb) cât
şi
Pronumele
Obiect
(pronumele relativ urmat de un
substantiv)
who, which, that introduce
both the Subject and the
Object Pronoun; the relative
pronouns followed by a verb
are subject pronouns. They
are must always used. If they
are not followed by a verb (but
by a noun or pronoun), they
are object pronouns. Object
pronouns can be omitted in
defining
relative
clauses
(called Contact Clauses).
1.
- give details about the subject
The question which we usually
Restrictive/Defining/ - it is never put between avoid asking refer to personal
Identifying Relative commas
Clauses
matters.
. they are most often met in A personal question is a question
definitions
that we always avoid asking.
- Contact Clauses have a
relative clause without the The policeman (who/whom) we
relative pronoun
asked our way didn’t know English.
- if instead of a nonspecific
noun is used a specific one
instead, the relative clause
becomes nonessential and thus
requires commas to separate it Transportation (that is) arranged for
from the rest of the sentence.
conference members will be paid for
- to make the style more by the host country.
concise,
we
reduce
the The local members (who/whom) the
92
defining relative.
president asked to supervise the
proceedings of the conference are
paid extra.
The lecturer who teaches Portuguese
is absent today = The lecturer
teaching Portuguese is absent today.
-
Participles
can
contract
relative clauses:
To be sure about the righ departure
hour, the receptionist phoned the
railway station, which, was very
- the Infinitive is used in helpful for us all.
Relative Clauses
The city where I graduated is a well- sub-type relative clauses: known
essential
and
university
centre
in
non-essential Romania.
clauses. They dis- ambiguate a
noun (mention which one of Sibiu, where I graduated, is a wellmany elements are/is meant)
known
university
centre
in
- the same clause can become Romania.
non-restrictive.
2.
Non- - give additional information Policemen, who/whom we usually
Restrictive/NonDefining/
on something, but do not ask for direction, are indispensable
Non- define it
in crowded places.
Identifying Relative - are put between commas
Clauses
My highschool friend Lavinia, who
- that, which is not used in a lives in France, was promoted in
non-defining relative clauses
April. (‘who lives in France’ is not
- who and whose are used for essential, which means that I only
persons
have one highschool friend, whose
- which and whose are used for name is Lavinia,and she does not
things
need to be defined by the relative
- object pronouns must be used clause)
93
here.
-
unlike defining clauses,
these
clauses
cannot
be
reduced.
XIV. ConjuncŃii Subordonatoare care introduc PropoziŃii Adverbiale
Subordinating conjunctions Introducing Adverb Clauses
Temporală
Cauzală
Time
Cause
Contrastivă
CondiŃională Condition
and Opposition
XV.
Effect
Con
after, before, when, while, because,
since, although,
even if,
only
if,
unless,
as, by the time (that), as as, as long as, so though, though, whether (or not), even if,
soon
as,
since,
until, long as, due to whereas, while, providing (that), in case
whenever, the first time the fact that
in
spite
(that), the next time (that),
despite
of, (that), provided (that), in
the event (that)
cŃii
cu:
as
if/th
the last time (that), every
oug
time (that)
h;
‘wish’; I’d rather/sooner/better; I’d prefer; it’s (high/about) time;
Unreal Tenses
XV. 1. As if / as though + past tenses
Timpul
stru
de
ConstrucŃie
referire
Form
SituaŃie reală
SituaŃie nereală
Real
Unreal (implication)
Reference time
(implication)
Referire
She
la S + past tense
+
behaves
as She behaves as if/though she
prezent
S
was if/though she was were the boss (she is not)
Present
(real)/were
the boss. (she is) – Mike
reference
(unreal)
we use a regular if/though he owned the land.
predicate
speaks/sounds
as
(he owns it or he does not,
Se poartă de parcă/ according to the context)
ca şi când ar fi şefa we
94
use
the
Subjunctive
(chiar este).
‘were’ for all persons
Mike speaks/sounds
as
if/though
he
owned the land. (he
owns it or he does
not, according to the
context)
Referire
la The distinction She
behaved/ She behaved/ behaves as
trecut: S + Past between
the behaves as if/though if/though she had been the
Perfect
Real
the she had been the boss (she wasn’t)
Past refrence
Unreal situation boss (she was )she
and
is not marked wasn’t, according to
grammatically;
the context)
in
Se poarta/Se purta
both
situations
use
the
we de parc/ca si cand ar
Past fi/ar fi fost sefa. (in
functie de cerinta
Perfect
contextuala)
XV. 2. Wish
Meaning
wish and hope Formulaic
‘want’/’intend’
+ verb
function
Regrets
about Regrets
present
about
past situation
situation
Whoever wishes She never fails I wish you all Ted wishes he I wish (now) I
to speak first, is to wish me luck the
welcome
begin.
to when
I
best/many had a car right hadn’t
tackled
start returns of the now (he doesn’t) (before/then)
work.
day!
I no longer wish this subject in
She doesn’t wish (Moreover) She
I could be/ was/ the first place.
to
were different.
see
right now.
anyone says she hopes
that I have all
- with ‘will’ = the luck in the
-formal with Ist hadn’t
tackled
IIIrd (then)
this
and
95
I wished (then) I
‘be willing to’ :
world.
persons sg) :
subject in the
I wish you would The pilot always
I wish I were first place.
stop smokinh in wishes
(subjunctive)
the
here! (you are passengers
annoyed about a safe
a
The
manager
somewhere else! wishes
and
He wished he (now)/wished
habitual negative pleasant
flight,
had
behaviour/action) which
means
here!
not
been (then) he
had
hired more staff.
that he hopes
they will have a
safe
and
pleasant flight.
XV. 3. I’d prefer (it); I’d rather
4. It’s (high/about) time
I’d prefer/I’d prefer it; I’d rather
it’s (high/about) time
- preferences about oneself: would prefer It’s (high/about) time + Past Tense
to/ would rather do (I’d prefer to do/I’d - an urge/ a reproach/ a warning – present
rather do something)
reference:
Maybe you’d prefer to wait here/you’d rather an action should already have taken place
wait here.
I don’t believe you say it’s high time I was
I’d prefer to listen to you (rather than (to) ready with all this work!
someone else).
The board decided (that) it was high time
- negative forms
they (had) started working on the new
I’d rather not listen to someone else.
project.
I’d prefer not to work late tonight.
- a reproach - past reference: It is/it was
- to express preferences: prefer to (do) or (high/about) time + Past Perfect
prefer + verb in -ing
It’s/was high/about time Mark had taken on a
They say they prefer to study/studying about job.
this topic some other time.
- prefer something to something else
Many people prefer self-training to gym
96
training.
They prefer to train by themselves rather
than pay fortunes to personal trainers.
Preferences about someone else – present
reference: Past Tense is used
I’d rather + Past Tense/ would
I’d prefer it if + Past Tense/ would
I’d rather you wouldn’t/didn’t interrupt me!
I’d perefer it if you didn’t/wouldn’t interrupt
me so often!
Preferences about someone else – past
reference: Past Perfect is used
I’d prefer it if you hadn’t bought that car
(you did!)
XVI. Inversiunea şi accentuarea retorică
Inversion and Emphasis
1. Inversia în propoziŃii afirmative
Inversion in statements
1. Inversia subiect-verbeste o caracteristică a propoziŃiilor interogative, însă poate apărea şi în
propoziŃii afirmative împreună cu anumite forme (expresii) adverbiale.
Subject-verb inversion is typical of interrogative sentences, yet it may be used in affirmative
sentences too in combination with certain adverbials.
2. Inversia după expresii adverbiale la forma negativă
Inversion after negative adverbial expressions
Formele adverbiale negative apar la începutul frazei pentru a se obŃine un efect emfatic. Unele
expresii adverbiale negative pot apărea şi la începutul unei propoziŃii, îndeplinind astfel un rol
emfatic. Ele caracterizează comunicarea scrisă, mai degrabă formală. Alte forme similare acesteia
97
sunt: Never, Rarely/Seldom, Hardly /Scarcely… when, No sooner… than, precum şi unele forme
care îl conŃin pe ‘no’. Only se foloseşte în mod similar.
Some negative adverbial expressions can be put at the beginning of a sentence for emphasis. These
structures are usually found in formal, written contexts: Not only + auxiliary + subject (+ main
verb)
Not only do I possess a Computer Programming diploma, I also have one in Mathematics.
Other expressions that can be used in this way are Never, Rarely/Seldom, Hardly/Scarcely… when,
No
sooner… than, and a number of expressions including ‘no’. Only can also be used in this way.
Only much later could I get the meaning of his words.
Hardly/Scarcely had the film started when thjr transmission stopped.
No sooner are the forms handed out than everybody begins to fill them in(out).
Never will she (ever) return here.
Under no circumstances are you to arrive later than 1 p.m.
3. Inversia după neither, nor, so şi as.
Inversia dupa neither, nor si so indică faptul ca două lucruri sunt similare. Inversia subiectului cu
auxiliarul predicatiei se comportă astfel:
Inversion after neither, nor and so indicates that two things are the same.
Inversion of the subject and auxiliary is needed after these phrases when they are used in this way:
I can’t arrive in time and neither can you.
She doesn’t understand the indications. - Nor do I.
He was happy, and so were we.
They are very inquisitive, as tend to be most children nowadays.
4. În fraza condiŃională: ‘were’ şi ‘had’ sunt in deosebi utilizate în engleza cu caracter formal
pentru
a-l înlocui pe ‘if’.
In conditional sentences: inversion after ‘had’ or ‘were’, mostly in formal, written English, to
replace ‘if’:
Were you to meet Harry, tell him I’ll be expecting him on Friday morning.
Had I been able to attend the meeting, I would have presented that paper. (=If I had been able
to
attend the meeting, …)
98
5. Inversia după expresii ce indică locul (locaŃia)
Inversion after expressions of place
After expressions of place, inversion of the subject and the verb, not an auxiliary, is possible when
the expression starts the sentence:
Down there will you find a better parking place.
Off goes Mary. She’s in such a hurry!
2. Emphasis
In/when suggesting, expressing opinions or feelings such as irritation or annoyance, disagreement,
we resort to emphasis.
Some emphatic forms have already been treated. These are:
-
the use of the Passive Constructions where the stress falls on what happens to something
rather than who or what does something.-
-
Inversion.
-
the Present/Past Continuous + always/forwevr/continually to express annoyance.
Others possibilities are:
-
the use of (emphatic) do or did, often to express something contrary to what another person
believes.
I did call John last night. (Why don’t you believe me?)
- ‘cleft’ constructions
There are two forms of clefts: the It-cleft and the Wh-cleft. The It-clefts mark given information
that the listener is not necessarily thinking about, while with the Wh-clefts, we assume that the
listener is thinking about the given information
They are a form of embedded structures, which interpose noun phrases/adverb/prepositional phrases
between two clauses. They function as meaning indicators in a sentence ina an emphatic way, by
pointing out which element is new information and which is given information. One such examples
is the It-cleft. The clefted phrase stands for the new information
How did you (come to) meet your coordinator?
The
answer
to
the
question
(i.e
new
information)
is
clefted:
It was when I was loking for a topic that I chanced to meet prof. Emerson.
a.
It
is/was/will
be
+
S/Adv.of
Place/Time/Cause
…
(Ist part) It will be you who (IInd part) will present the report. (emphasis on you)
99
that
instrad of
You
will
present
the
report
It is now that I’m telling you!
instead of
I’m telling you now.
This is another way of expressing an It-cleft
The paper (which/that) she meant is about anthropology not medicine.
meaning
It is the paper about anthropology that she menat not (the one about) medicine
b. ‘wh’-cleft constructions, the new information comes after the verb be.
(’wh’-word - is/was/ will + be)
In such constructions, however, the clefted noun phrases, prepositional phrase, or adverb follows the
verb be, and the rest of the clause is placed between the two parts of the construction. They are nondefining relative clause versions.
The three students who were appointed to work on this project are X, Y and Z.
It is/was students X, Y and Z who were appointed to work on this project
The train where they met is not the Orient Express.
It was on the OE that they (had) met.
Where they (had) met was on the OE
Who your brother said he had given the money was Michael (and not (to)
someone else)
This is an alternative in Wh-constructiuon to an It-cleft:
When Peter said he would arrrive was at 3, not at 4.
Meaning: It was at 3 not at 4 when Peter said he would arrive.
100
XVII. Subjonctivul
The Subjunctive
În mare, construcŃia subjonctivală şi cea cu indicativul sunt identice, singurul indiciu fiind faptul că
la subjonctiv nu se adaugă terminaŃia –s pentru persoana III sg ; la timpul prezent verbul be ramâne
be pentru toate formele, în timp ce la trecut are forma were.
In most cases, subjunctive and indicative forms of a verb are the same - often you would not notice
whether a verb is used in subjunctive or indicative mood. The only indicator for subjunctive is that
no ‘s’ is added in 3rd person singular and that the verb be remains ‘be’ for all forms in present tense
and becomes ‘were’ for all forms in past tense.
XVII. 1. Utilizări
Uses
Subjonctivul apare în anumite expresii, cum ar fi formulele de felicitare (Subjonctivul formulaic)
Subjunctive is used in some fixed phrases (formulaic subjunctive).
Happy birthday/ Many (happy) returns of the day! ; Be that as it may; Cheers!; Bless you !
Anumite verbe (demand, insist, recommend, suggest) precum şi unele adjective (essential,
important, vital) sunt însoŃite de ‘that’ + subjunctive (subjonctivul instrucŃional) pentru a indica
faptul că ceva trebuie neapărat făcut (aspectul directiv).
Certain verbs (e.g. demand, insist, recommend, suggest) and adjectives (e.g. essential, important,
vital) are followed by ‘that’ + subjunctive (mandative subjunctive) to indicate that something must
be done (directive aspect).
Students demand that the hostel be opened before the start of the univeristy year.
It is important that everyone register.
Deoarece construcŃiile cu subjonctivul sună foarte formal, adesea se preferă construcŃia cu un
auxiliar. În
cazul în care aspectul directiv al propoziŃiei este suficient de clar şi fără auxiliarul respectiv, e
sufcient să
folosim forma de bază a verbului la modul indicativ.
Sentences in subjunctive sound very formal, however, so often an auxiliary is preferred. If the
directive aspect of the sentence is clear enough without an auxiliary, it is also possible to simply use
the main verb in indicative mood.
People demand that the troops are / should be withdrawn.
101
It is important that everyone registers.
AtenŃie : În următoarele exemple se observă diferenŃa între construcŃile cu subjonctivul şi cele cu
indicativul
Note the difference of subjunctive and indicative in the following example.
She insisted that she participate too = She wanted to participate too. (directive aspect;
subjunctive)
She insisted that Anna participated too. = She knew and wanted to persuade others of the
fact tha
Anna really was there. (observation; indicative)
În exemplul de faŃă, subonctivul instrucŃional se foloseşte întotdeauna la infinitiv, chiar dacă se
referire la o acŃiune trecută. În cazul propoziŃiilor negative, la subjonctiv nu se foloseste auxiliarul
do.
In the example above, you can also see that mandative subjunctive is always used in infinitive, even
if we talk about a situation in the past. Note that in negative sentences, the auxiliary ‘do’ is not used
for subjunctive mood.
She insisted that he not be present.
În cazul dorinŃelor şi speranŃelor nerealizabile (subjonctivul voliŃional), se foloseşte construcŃia de
trecut a subjonctivului. Pentru toate verbele (exceptând verbul be) forma de trecut a subjonctivului
este aceeaşi cu cea de la indicativ.
For wishes and hopes that cannot be fulfilled (volitional subjunctive), subjunctive is used in past
tense. For all verbs (except be) past tense in subjunctive mood is the same as in indicative mood.
Past tense, subjunctive mood for ‘be’ is ‘were’.
I wish I were better prepared for the exam.
XVIII. Phrasal and Prepositional Verbs
These are verbal constructions which consist of a base verb and particle which is either a preposition
or an adverb. The meaning of such a verbal construction can be a combination of the meanings of
the two words (come in, run away, go on, come through, fall apart).
Sometimes, the base meaning is conveyed the verb while the preposition or adverb functions as an
intensifier (put up (with), work out).
In other cases, the new two-part verb has quite a different meaning from the two separate parts: give
(renounce), take after (resemble), blow up (explode), carry out (finish), etc.
102
Type
of
verbal Characteristics
Examples
form
1. Phrasal verbs
- Components: verb + word or
phrase/particle (an adverbial, which
can be a preposition with adverbial
function)
- meaning most often different from
the initial meaning of the constituting
We must call off the
lexical elements
-
can
be
transitive
(the
two whole business as all our
constituting parts can be separated by plans
have
fallen
the direct object), e.g., bring up, call through/apart..
off, carry out/off, get over with, grow No, we just have to put it
up, lock up, look up, make out, make off for a while, that’s all.
up, turn on/off/up, put trough, put off, Look all the meanings up
put (smb.) up tell off, throw away, in
track down, try out, turn down, etc.
the
reference
bibliography.
Don’t throw these papers
away yet.
They were locked up in a
room for two weeks. The
kidnappers locked them
up.
- or intransitive:
break off, break The couple broke off last
down, bring abourt, bring up, count week.
on, come up, count on, drop in, end I’m afraid you can’t count
up, get along (with), get at, get on, on me in money matters;
hang around, look into, point out , set lately I’ve been as poor as
about, throw up, wear off/out, etc.
a
church
none.
103
mouse
have
It’s ahrd to understand
what you’re getting at. Be
more explicit, will you?
I’m sick. I think I’ll throw
up.
Just hang around for a
while till I come back.
The students all set about
working on te project.
2.
Prepositional Verb + preposition (it cannot be What is he thinking about?
Verbs
separated by the verb)
You
never
look
after
- always have objects (get over the yourself.
bridge)
She nearly fell off the
chair.
Will you get into the
house before you get wet?
- the meaning of this tandem (verb + The boy walked across the
classroom
preposition) varies:
to
the
- it can be a combination of the two blackboard.
words’ meanings.
I didn’t dare come in.
Moreover, I ran away
before he saw me.
- the
meaning of the verb is They can’t break up, they
intensified by the preposition
love each other too much.
(=separate completely)
- the new two-part verb has quite a We should have already
different meaning from the two checked in. It’s late!
104
separate parts
Mark doesn’t take after
his parents at all.
3.
Phrasal- verb + adverb + preposition
It’s always good to get on
Prepositional
look forward to = anticipate with with
Verbs
pleasure
(have
a
friendly
relationship)
your
verb + adverb +
colleagues, not just to put
preposition
up with (tolerate) them.
We look forward to our
next meeting.
We ran out of fuel/it.
XIX. TEXT ORGANISATION – STRUCTURE OF A TEXT
XIX.1. Linking words and phrases
Although some of these words have already been mentioned as sentence connectors, they can also
be used to develop coherence within a paragraph, that is linking one idea / argument to another.
Print off this page to keep as a reference of useful linking words and phrases.
Type of connector
Connecting word
Example
Sequence
first / firstly,
I shall have to make a
second / secondly,
rigorous plan regarding our
third / thirdly etc
enterprise.
next, last, finally
Firstly/First(of all) we will
in addition, moreover
sit down and find the best
further / furthermore
strategy… .
another
Next, we will appoint a
also
secretary… Then, we’ll find a
manager…
105
Another step would be to…
Result
in conclusion
It wasn’t so late to start it all
to summarise
over again. Therefore, we
so
agreed to meet as soon as
as a result
possible and …
hence
As a result, we managed to
consequently
get everything done in due
as a consequence (of)
time.
therefore
To
thus
conclusion, the merger turned
summarize
/
In
out to be a success.
Emphasis
undoubtedly
indeed
Their
suggestion
was
obviously
admittledly unsubstantial but
generally
Mary will undoubtedlycome
admittedly
up with a better one. In fact,
in fact
we have always relied on her.
particularly / in particular
especially
clearly
importantly
Addition
and
Mary’s report turned out to
in addition /additionally/
be exactly what we had all
an additional point
expected. In addition, she
furthermore
offered to write one for the
also
following session.
too
as well as
Reason
due to
Due to the board’s constant
because
refusal to look into my
since
proposals, I will not try again
106
as
because of
Example
for
These are not what we call
for example
constructive
for instance
such as, for instance, your
that is (ie)
colleague’s.
such as
I will have to take into
including
account the needs of all our
namely
member’s, including those of
contributions,
their families’.
Comparison
Similarity
Aviary flu is not at all similar
similarly
to any other viruses known si
likewise
far.
also
It likewise affects children
like
and adults, men and women
just as
alike.
just like
A protection campaign for
similar to
the population has already
same as
began.
compare
At the same time, a vaccine is
at the same time
expected to be put to use
both
soon.
also
too
as well as
Difference (contrast)
(as ) compare(d) to / with
… differs from
in contrast to/ in comparison
(to)
on the one hand/ on the other On the one hand, school
(hand)
children will be inoculated
107
not only...but also
with the latest vaccines on
while
the market, and on the other,
but
pregnant women will strictly
yet
be
still
basis.
monitored
on
weekly
whereas rather
though
Whereas/ While children will
although / even though
be inoculated with the latest
however nevertheless
vaccines
nonetheless
pregnant women, will strictly
contrary (to)/ in contra
be
on
monitored
the
on
market,
weekly
conversely despite / in spite basis.
of
In spite of/despite/contrary
the so far efforts, no definite
conclusion has been reached.
XX. Academic Language Skills
A. Introductory considerations
Using the academic register means achieving a formal, direct language and clear expression. When
approaching texts that use this register, one should equally be able to recognise (when reading a
text) and employ (when writing a text) certain stylistic ‘devices’ such as:
-
the use of the passive voice rather than the active and of nominalisation (nouns rather than
verbs)
The groups of researchers preferred an isolated venue (active voice) where they could
hold
(verbalization) the conference on inter- and outerspace contact exploration.
An isolated venue was preferred by the groups of researcher (passive voice) for the interand
outerspace contact exploration (nominalisation)
108
Also, the Centre for Independent Language Learning of Hong Kong Polytechnic University,
suggests the following:
-
the use of tentative rather than assertive language (possibly and pobably in front of verbs
and noun
phrases: This is possibly due to the use of …... or It will probably result in … .
-
using the modal verbs may and might: This may be the cause of …..
-
using appears to and seems to: This appears to have caused the extinction of … .
-
avoiding always and every, and replacing them with often and many/much
-
using formal vocabulary (employ rather than use)
-
using more formal grammar, for example: - avoiding short, disconnected sentences
- avoiding the use of personal pronouns such as
you and we
to address the reader using One, There, It as
the subject of
the statement:
One may rarely find a better facility than… .
There are some further issues to be discussed ...
;
It is highly convenient to...
-
avoiding the use of rhetorical questions : Can you imagine another means of reaching the
same result?
-
avoiding the use of contractions such as won’t, didn’t, we’ll
-
avoiding the overuse and misuse of certain logical connectors, especially besides,
furthermore and moreover. Besides is too informal, and both furthermore and moreover
mean that the following information is more important than the information before, which is
usually bad organisation. Use In addition or Also instead
-
ensuring that grammar is accurate, that ideas link together smoothly and that a full range of
grammatical structures is employed, such as relative clauses
-
referencing correctly, in both in-text references and bibliographical references.
(http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/cill/eap/academicstyle.htm)
B. Using the Academic Writing Style
109
When writing, information, evidence and ideas, but must be incorporated into your work carefully.
Quoting, paraphrasing and summarising are all different ways of including the works of others in
your assignments.
1. Summarising – an indicator of the degree of one’s understanding of the proposed text
Used lavishly in research activities, summarising is one of the most important academic skills, if
not, indeed, the most important one.
in note-taking ,in writing abstracts, an aid in writing both introductions and conclusions, in
Applications collecting and collected information management, when referring to original texts, in ma
frameworks (subject to further detailed analysis), for brief proposals or progress reports.
It is a text-shortening operation to a maximum number of words/ a 10th of the source text.
The gist of a (longer) text is preserved unaltered in its shortened version without copying e
statements from the original text.
- getting the the text’s main subject or purpose, usually in one sentence
Steps
- formulating the main ideas
- including them in brief paragraphs, each based on only one issue or topic.
- writing a paragraph to combine all the previous ideas/points.
- restoring the general idea (gist) concisely and accurately in the new shorter text
summary) without
copying out parts of the original.
Some
extra tips
Examples
- the layout should be easy to read, with spaces between each note
- always mention the source(s)
Original text
Summary
Everyone hoped that the weeks of planning and preparation would prove to A number of
be worthwhile. The summer fete was the most important fund raising activity attractions
in the school calendar. Last year’s event had raised over $ 1500 which had perfect
been spent on improiving the outside play area. This year, the organising weathercondi
committee had set an ambitious target of $1800 with the aim of purchasing helped make
muych needed sports equipment for the school.
year’s
Altogether fourty different stalls had been advertised. There were a fete
110
sum
the
number of exciting new activities, including pony rides and a bouncy castle, successful eve
both of which were to be introduced for the first time. It was hoped that they record amoun
would be as popular as some of the most traditional stalls like the coconut shy $1900 was ra
and tambola. A large number of parents and children had offered their help The proceeds
and the committee was confident that this would be the most successful fund be used to
raiser to date.
new
s
On the day of the fete the day was perfect. It was sunny, but not too hot, equipment fo
and best of all, no rain had been forecast. The new attractions went down very school.
well. There seemed to be a permanent queue of children waiting at the bouncy
[38words]
castle. The committee was absolutely delighted when the final takings were
counted and announced as a record of $ 1900, exceeding all expectations.
Following such an outstanding success, everyone agreed that it was worth all
hard work and effort.
(model
worksheets:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/skillswise/words/reading/summarising/worksheet.shtml)
[237 words]
C. Organising Text
Organisational patterns have various functions: they provide a framework for connecting the main
idea with details, provide variety to writing, and help writers assist their readers in understanding the
logical development of ideas, staying on target and avoiding digressions.
In academic writing, several organisational patterns can be used at the level of the paragraph and of
the essay.
1. Defining
Defining is one of the major functions in academic writing. Definitions of key words, phrases, as
well as of terms used in academic writing are necessary in order to avoid misinterpretation.
The general structure of a simple definition (used for concrete items) can be
111
Concept
An
anthropologist
general
is a/ an/ the
form of/ species of + relative
may be defined as
general class word
which/ who/ that
is
a person
who
special features
is called/is known as concept
studies people
is called
class relative
pronoun:
word
which/ who/ that
A person
who
pronoun:
special features
studies people
an
anthropologist
Relative clauses are often used to give more information.
On the other hand, in most academic pieces of writing, especially when dealing with abstract or
complex concepts, we need to resort to extended definitions of terms, by giving examples of their
use and/ or by stating their main characteristics. There will be obvious differences between a general
dictionary definition and a specialized one, for example
Sociology (n.) is the study and classification of human societies.
(Source: http://wordnet.princeton.edu)
Sociology is the study of human interaction and social organisation. (Consequently/ therefore) it is
the science that studies patterned, shared human behaviour.
Sociology is a social science that studies human societies, their interactions, and the processes that
preserve and change them. It does this by examining the dynamics of constituent parts of societies
such as institutions, communities, populations, and gender, racial, or age groups. Sociology also
studies social status or stratification, social movements, and social change, as well as societal
disorder in the form of crime, deviance, and revolution.
(Source:
sociology. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved October 25, 2008, from
Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/551887/sociology
112
General meanings
The term X has come to be used to refer Sociology has come to be used to refer to the
... study and classification of human societies.
to
The term X is generally understood to Sociology is generally understood to mean the
… study
mean
of
human
interaction
and
social
The term X has been applied to situations organisation.
The broad use of the term sociology is
where…
In broad sociological terms, X can be sometimes
defined
equated
with
the
study
and
as… classification of human societies.
The broad use of the term X is sometimes
equated
with ...
Indicating difficulties in defining a
term:
In the field of sociology, various definitions of
In the field of X, various definitions of Y media are found.
found. Media is a commonly used notion in journalism
are
Y is a commonly used notion in X’ and and yet it is a concept difficult to define
yet it is a concept difficult to define precisely.
A generally accepted definition of sociology is
precisely.
A generally accepted definition of Y is lacking.
lacking.
James (2006) identified four … that might
be subsumed under the term Y: a) ..
The term Y embodies a multitude of
concepts.
Stating terms that are used in an
essay/thesis:
In this essay the term media will be used in its
In this essay the term Y will be used in its broadest sense to refer to all means of
broadest
sense
to
refer
to
...... dissemination of fact, opinion, … such as…
113
Throughout this thesis, the term Y is used Throughout this thesis, the term media is used to
to
to… refer to what the general public terms as "the
refer
media,"…
While a variety of definitions of the term While a variety of definitions of the term media
X have been suggested, this paper will use have been suggested, this paper will use the
the definition first suggested by James definition suggested by McLuhan (1964) who
(1988)
who
saw
as… saw it as “extensions of man.”
it
In this paper, the term that will be used to In this paper, the term that will be used to
describe
this
phenomenon
is
X. describe
this
phenomenon
is
mass
In this dissertation, the terms X and Y are communication.
In this dissertation, the terms mass media and
used interchangeably to mean…
mass communication are used interchangeably to
mean a means of public communication reaching
a large audience.
Referring to authors’ definitions:
Smith (1954) was apparently the first to Marshall McLuhan (1967) was (apparently) the
use the
first to bring up the idea that “the medium is the
...... massage.”
term
X writes/ believes that “.....” (1957, p.11). G. L. Kreps and B. C. Thornton believe media
extend "people's ability to communicate, to
speak to others far away, to hear messages, and
to see images that would be unavailable without
media" (1992, p. 144).
According to a definition provided by X
(2001:23),
Y
is
„......”. According to a definition provided by G. L.
The term "…" is used by Smith (2001) to Kreps and B. C. Thornton (1992:144), media
refer
to
...... could be seen as an extension of "people's ability
X (2001) uses the term "…" to refer to to communicate, to speak to others far away, to
......
hear messages, and to see images that would be
For X (2001), … means/refers to ....... unavailable without media".
… is defined by Smith (2003: 119) as
114
"......................"
X defines … as "…."
Adapted from: http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/definitions.htm. Retrieved 22.08.2008
Sample paragraph: extended definition pattern (with signal words underlined)
The sociologist, however, thinks of institutions in a deeper and broader sense than any
meaning connoted in the examples cited. To him, an institution is an established pattern and
framework of collective behaviour that exists to fulfil some basic and abiding human need. A social
institution, as defined by Harry E. Moore, is an enduring, complex, integrated, organized behaviour
pattern through which social control is exerted and by means of which the fundamental social
desires or needs are met. Institutions are the major components of a culture and may be further
defined as a complex of social patterns, roles, and relations which persons enact in certain
standardized ways for the purpose of satisfying basic social needs. In this sense of the term, the
sociologist distinguishes between the family institution, the religious institution, the educational
institution, the government institution, and the economic institution
2. Describing1
I Position, weight, structure, colour, composition, size, shape, function
Position
The
adjacent to/ alongside/ below/ beyond/facing house
(diagonally)/ parallel to/underneath/ opposite/ in
road
is
The
tunnel
The
roof
1
the middle of/ on the right of/ on the left of/ near/
close to/ touching/ behind/ in front of/ under/ on
top of/ above/ below/ level with/ diagonally above/
vertically below
between/ equidistant from
B and C.
http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm
115
Examples
•
The road runs alongside the house.
•
The tunnel is under the road that is adjacent to the house.
•
The roof is on top of the house that is facing the road in front of it and also above the tunnel
that is vertically below the road above it.
Structure
is nailed/ screwed/ fixed/ fastened/ linked/ to
furniture by
staples
welded/ tied/ connected/ attached
Wood
nails
Metal
screws
consists of
Brick
iron ore
contains/ comprises/ includes
alloys, carbon
is held in place/ secured/ supported/ suspended
by concrete, cement
joined
to
mounted/ placed/ pivoted
on
Examples
•
Wood is generally fixed to furniture with joints; sometimes it may be nailed or screwed.
•
Metal cannot be nailed effectively; it is usually welded or screwed to other metals.
•
Bricks contain/ comprise clay and sometimes straw and mud only.
Colour
Black
Shade
Night
green.
is
dark/ light/ pale/ bright/ dull when
compared to…
blue.
red.
yellow.
116
Grass
Examples
•
At night the grass does not seem to be green as it is dark
•
In the shade, colours are not as bright as in sunlight; now they are dull.
•
Black is the darkest colour we know and yellow is one of the brightest.
Composition
A/An
blend
alloy
metal./ steel./ aluminium./ an alloy of A and B./ cloth./
is
made of
silk./
china./ wood./ plastic./ glass./ assortment.
mixture
Examples
•
Sometimes a metal is a blend of metals known as an alloy.
•
Plastic and glass are usually clear and come in an assortment of colours.
•
Most structures today are a mixture of metal, wood and glass or plastic.
Size and weight
A pencil is 6 cm long/ high/ wide
A cube is 6 cm in length/ height/ width/ diameter
6 Kg
The length/
weight
height/ of
width/ diameter
a small is
4 metres
car
weight
600 Kg.
A table has a length/ width/ height/ diameter
weight
of 90 cm.
60 Kg.
117
A bag of potatoes weighs 10 Kg
Shape
A/An … is square/
round/
rectangular/
triangular/ in shape
semi-circular/ conical/ spherical/ hexagonal/
octagonal/ oval/ circular/ irregular
A/An … is is shaped like a square/
circle/
rectangle/
triangle/
semi-circle
hexagon/ octagon
A/An … is cubical/
cylindrical/
pyramidal/
spherical/ in shape
tubular/ spiral/ hemispherical/ conical
A/An … is bulbous/ tapering/ concave/ convex
in shape.
diamond-shaped/ kidney-shaped/ U-shaped/ star-shaped/ bell-shaped/
dome-shaped/ mushroom-shaped/ X-shaped/ crescent-shaped/ egg-shaped/
pear-shaped/ Y-shaped.
Examples
•
A football is round and never square or triangular in shape.
•
A rectangle is measured in mass, and never shaped as tubular or like a pyramid.
•
An arc can take many shapes diamond, kidney, star or even bell shaped, arcs form arches for
us to pass through.
Function
The
function/
aim/ objective
purpose of
the
thermometer is to
measure
tripod
hold a beaker.
The thermometer is used for measuring temperatures.
tripod
holding beakers.
118
temperature.
Properties
Copp
light/ tough/ soft/ elastic/ malleable/ flexible/ (in)soluble/ a good (bad)
er
conductor
is
of
electricity
(heat)/
(not)
corrosion
resistant/
(non-
)combustible/ transparent/ smooth/ heavy/ brittle/ hard/ plastic/ ductile/
Lead
rigid/ opaque/ rough
Glass
II Describing Data
In academic writing, you may have to present data in various ways, such as charts, graphs, and
tables. Below, there is some of the basic vocabulary used to describe trends, express numerical
values, as well as the standard format for the structure of the data commentary. Finally, lexis
necessary in presenting data/ research findings in a cautious way is brought to attention.
Verbs
Adverbs
Up
Adjectives
Noun
increase, a rise, a
Showing degrees of
go up, take off, shoot change
Showing degrees of growth,
up, soar, increase, rise, dramatically,
change
improvement,
grow, rocket, improve, considerably,
dramatic,
upturn,
climb, escalate
sharply,
considerable, sharp, upsurge, upward
significantly,
significant,
substantially,
substantial,
Down
go/come down, fall, fall
off,
collapse,
crash,
drop, slump, plunge,
slide,
dip,
decrease,
slip, shrink
decline,
plummet,
surge,
trend
moderately, slightly moderate, slight
Showing speed of Showing
speed
change
change
abruptly, suddenly, abrupt,
rapidly,
of
sudden,
quickly, rapid, quick, steady,
steadily, gradually, gradual, slow
slowly
119
fall,
decrease,
decline,
drop,
downturn,
downturn trend
No
remain stable, level off, stay at the same level, flatten off, remain constant, stagnate,
change
stabilise, hold steady
At
the reach a peak/ high, peak, top out
top
At
the reach a low (point), bottom out
bottom
Recover pick up, bounce back, rally, recover
Prepositions
to increase by 50% / to fall by 30%
a rise from $10 to $12 /an increase of
7.5 per cent over last year
Examples of Describing Movement in
Graphs
1. The market is showing some signs of
growth.
2. The market is extremely volatile.
3. The pound slipped back against the
dollar.
4. The Swiss franc is staging a recovery.
5. The lira lost ground slightly.
6. There's been a dramatic downturn in
the market.
7. There's been an upsurge of interest in
gold.
8. The share price bottomed out at 115p.
9. Sugar peaked at $400 a tonne.
10. Profits will level off at around
$10,000.
11. Sales hit an all-time low.
12. There hasn't been much movement in
the price of tin
120
Numbers
The following table shows a number in different years (2000-2005):
2000
2005
2200
3300
You could describe the above table using numbers, fractions or percentages:
The number went up by 600, from 2200 to 3300. (Number)
The number went up by half, from 2200 to 3300. (Fraction)
The number went up by 50%, from 2200 to 3300. Percentage)
The number went up 150%, to 3300. (Percentage)
2002
2004
2006
2008
500
1000
3000
12000
Use "trebled," "-fold," and "times:"
The number doubled between 2002 and 2004.
The number trebled between 2004 and 2006.
The number quadrupled from 2006 to 2008
There was a twofold increase between 2002 and 2004.
The number went up sixfold between 2002 and 2006.
The figure in 2006 was three times the 2002 figure.
The figure in 2008 was four times the 2006 figure.
2002
2004
2006
2008
1000
800
400
100
Use Fractions:
Between 2002 and 2004, the figure fell by one-fifth.
Between 2004 and 2006, the number dropped by a half.
The figure in 2008 was one-tenth the 2002 total.
121
Structure of Data Commentary2
A. location elements and/or summary statements
B. highlighting statements
C. discussions of implications, problems, exceptions etc.
a. Location elements and/or summary statements
Starting a Data Commentary
Location
Summary
OR
a. Table 5 shows
Summary
are shown in Table 5.
The results
of
the results of the second
provided
in
the Table 2.
second
b. Table 2 provides experiment.
are
are given in Figure
experiment 4.2.
c. Figure 4.2 gives
Note 1: we can also use linking as-clauses. Pay attention to preposition use!
As shown in table 5, home disks are the most frequent source of infection.
As can be seen in figure 8, infant mortality is still high in urban areas.
As revealed by the graph, the defect rate has declined.
As shown by the data in table 1
As described on page 34
Note 2: Some of the most frequently used verbs are show, provide, give, present, summarise,
illustrate, reveal, display, demonstrate, indicate, suggest.
b. Highlighting Statements
Highlighting statements are the central sections of data commentaries. They are generalizations that
can be drawn from the details of the data display, such as trends or regularities in the data, more
important versus less important findings, or data on which you can make appropriate strength.
2
Swales and Feak 1994: 80
122
c. Describing data: Degrees of Certainty
In presenting data/ research findings or supporting arguments/ viewpoints, academic writers/
researchers need to be cautious and sometimes critical. Learning to become “confidently uncertain”
is a slow but necessary process.
Degree
of Verbs
Adverbs
+ It
is
+ There is a +
certainty/
adverbial
(determiner)
determiner
+
commitment
phrases
adjective
possibility
+
that
complete
Is (not)
Certainly
It is certain
Definitely
It
Clearly
that
is
clear
Will (not) Undoubtedly
Must
Actually
(not)
strong
partial
less
strong
can/cann
probably
It is almost There
ot
(is)
certain
could(not
likely/unlikely
It
)
presumably
(im)probable/
should
possibly
highly
(not)
perhaps
(un)likely
is
very possibility that
good
definite
may (not)
that
might
It is probable/ slight
(not)
likely
remote
for to a certain/ limited extent (degree)
introducing
to some extent (degree)
partially
in a way (sense)
correct
this is partly true (but) there is some truth in (this)
statements
in some cases
123
a
strong
It is possible
Phrases
is
up to a point
Dealing
with This discrepancy may be due to the small sample size.
“imperfect”
can be attributed to
data
can probably be accounted for by
is probably a consequence of
would seem to stem from
People seem to have less confidence in the economy.
appear to
It would seem/ appear that people have less confidence in the economy.
It is said that…
Impersonal
(i.e.
no
commitment of
self)
X reports that…
There is evidence to suggest that…
According to this preliminary study,…
people have less confidence
Based on informal observations (made by)…
in the economy.
In the view of some experts
On the limited data available
Generalisation
- the verb tend
People tend to have less confidence in the economy.
- qualifying the subject
A majority of
people have less confidence in the economy.
In most parts of the world
People in most walks of life
- adding exceptions
With the exception of
Apart from
the
administrative
confidence
Except for
in the economy.
- choosing a weaker verb
124
staff,
people
have
less
Caused (stronger) -> contributed to (weaker)
- various phrases
as a (general) rule, generally, in general, on the whole, by and large, in most
cases
Exception/
In the independent sentence
exclusion
Except (prep.) + NP/ Pron. (objective case) = with the exclusion of; other
than
No one except Laura knew about it.
Everyone had come except her.
Except (verb)
Present company excepted.
N.B. Except for= different from, apart from
But
I have finished all courses but one.
Save
I enjoyed the trip save the flight.
Apart from
Apart from her, I did not really enjoy the company.
With the exception of
With the exception of the children, all were told what to do.
Bar/Barring
The crop will be excellent bar/barring a disaster.
Otherwise than
Without
In the sentence
Except (conj.)=if it were not for the fact that; otherwise than
I would buy the suit, except that it costs too much.
They did not open their mouths except to complain
125
D. Classifying and Listing
Classifying is an operation of grouping and naming things according to previously established
criteria of what they have in common. Classification helps writers and readers alike to understand
shared qualities and features as well as the differences between things. Along with definitions and
listing (i.e. a series of items), classifications are used to present information systematically and/or in
the order of importance.
There are several ways of building up classifications and lists:
General Classifications
X may be (generally) three
classes/
sub-groups/
divided into
main
types/ sorts
X falls under
two
varieties/ headings
categories/
There are
of
The
X
consists of/
comprises/
can be divided into
X may be classified/ grouped
according to
Y (criterion/ criteria)
into X’ and
on the basis of
X’’
depending on
in terms of
Specific Classifications
In the U.S. system, X is graded
according
on
to
the
whether
.....
of
......
basis
in terms of
Smith (1966)
divided
Xs
into two broad types: Xi’s and Xii’s
classified
126
grouped
Thomas
Nelson
and four basic types of
validity: logical, content, criterion and construct.
(1996)
describe
Sample paragraphs: classifying pattern (with signal words underlined)
1. In almost every society, marriage is recognized as the beginning of a new social group. There are
three types of marriage: monogamy, polyandry, and polygyny. Monogamy is the marriage of one
man to one woman. Polyandry permits the marriage of one woman to several men. Polygyny allows
a man the option to take and maintain several wives.
2. The vast majority of children in Britain (87%) attend state schools, which provide compulsory
education from the age of 5 to 16 years. These schools can be classified according to the age range
of the pupils and the type of education provided. There are two types of school: primary and
secondary, although in some areas there are also middle schools. Primary schools cater for children
aged 5-11, and secondary schools for ages 11-16 (and in some areas up to 18). Primary schools can
be sub-divided into infant schools (for ages 5-7) and junior schools (for ages 7-11).(…)
When pupils reach the age of 16 there may be three choices open to them. Firstly, they may
leave school. Secondly, they may stay on at school for two more years if it has a Sixth Form.
Thirdly, they may transfer to a Sixth Form College or a Tertiary College.
E. Comparing and Contrasting
Identifying and understanding similarities and differences between two things usually involve a
process of analysis, in which we compare the specific parts as well as whole. Comparison may also
be a preliminary stage of evaluation so by comparing specific aspects of X and Y, we can decide
which is more useful or valuable.
This pattern may organise an essay as well as a paragraph.
Comparison: Similarities
Within sentence
X
is
exactly/
the same as
127
Y
with
X and Y
are
precisely/
respect/
just/
regard/
virtually/
reference to
practically/
almost/
in terms of
nearly about
quite
very
similar
to that/
comparable
those
Compared
with
X,
Both
X and Y
are
There
are
a
Y is
In
comparison
number similaritie
between
X and Y
in
X and Y
of/ several/ s
two
Numerous
have
studies
compared
Across sentences
X
is Similarly,/
expensive
Likewise,/
to produce.
Moreover,/
Y…
In addition,
/By
the
same token,
Y,
similarly,/
likewise,
Americans and French are quite similar with respect to cultural stereotypes regarding each other.
128
Numerous studies have compared the intercultural stereotypes in the Americans and the French and
found they are relatively similar.
Both Americans and French are adamant about each other being arrogant and conceited or
domineering, in the sense that they give lessons to others and do not take criticism.
Americans see the French as arrogant and conceited, always giving lessons to others. Similarly, the
French see the Americans as domineering, in other words not taking criticism from others.
Contrast: Differences
Within sentence
X
is
contrasts
unlike/
Y
with respect to cost/size
dissimilar/
etc
different from
with regard to/ in terms
Y
of price
in that X is larger than
with
Y
X and Y
differ
in many respects.
are
in every/each respect.
different/
dissimilar
X produces while/ whereas/ but/ although
500
in spite of
While/
X produced 500,
Y
produced 700.
producing 700
Y
produced 700.
whereas/
although/ in it is true that X produced 500,
spite of the it cannot be denied that X
fact that/
produced 500,
Even
though
The main difference/One of the main is
is that X...................., whereas
differences between X and Y
Y.............
129
X
is
a great deal
XX
are
considerably
bigger
than Y.
(very) much
somewhat
a little
slightly
hardly
Across sentences
X is difficult On the other hand,
to produce.
Y…
However,/ In contrast,/
Conversely,
On the contrary,/
Even so,/
Needless to say,
Introducing other people’s opposing arguments
Opponents of argue/ believe/ claim X…
Y
that
Others
oppose this viewpoint
Many people
strongly disagree
Americans and French differ in many respects, such as their attitude to past, language, and social
identity.
Americans are different from French with respect to their attitude to the past.
Whereas Americans base their social identity on the individual, the French prefer being members of
a group.
The French are more likely than Americans to value their past.
The French are more likely to value their past than Americans.
The main differences between Americans and French people come from education. According to
psychoanalyst Pascal Baudry, schools help American kids become independent and autonomous
while French kids learn the principle of authority.
130
According to psychoanalyst Pascal Baudry, schools help American kids become independent and
autonomous. Conversely/ In contrast, French kids learn the principle of authority.
Sample paragraph: Comparison and contrast pattern (with signal words underlined):
There are more similarities between the French and the Japanese than with the French and
Americans. In both France and Japan the relation with the authority principle, the individual and the
group, and others are very similar. Likewise, the two countries have a long feudal history and are
tradition-bound. On the other hand, the French and the American share a long-standing tradition of
cultural stereotyping and clichés.
F. Cause and Effect
Understanding and suggesting solutions to problems is at the heart of much academic work.
However, solutions cannot be suggested unless the problem is fully analysed, and this involves a
thorough understanding of the causes and the effects. The cause may show what lead up to the event
or idea – that is, what caused to become what it is now. The consequences of the event or idea are
the effects of it. Cause or effect paragraphs are sometimes written separately; in this case, one
paragraph will state the causes, and the other will give the effects. Often, though, both the cause and
the effect are combined into a single paragraph. Some of the language that you may find useful for
explaining causes and effects is listed below:
VERBS
Lack
of
adequate may
resources
cause/
can
lead
to poverty
and
injustice
can result in
can give rise to
Much of the instability
the
stems from
economic
effects of the war
Interpersonal
community violence
and caused by/ resulting from
produced by/ stemming from
poverty, ...
NOUNS
The most likely causes of X are poor diet and lack of health care.
A consequence of chronic deprivation is a feeling of insecurity.
Social advocacy is an important factor in helping people undo negative coping.
131
Many other variables have an influence on poverty levels.
Another reason why Xs are considered to be important is that ...
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
A great number of people owing
become poor
to/
because
as a result of/ due to
of wrong
economic
policies.
ADVERBIAL PHRASES
Wrong economic policies thus/ thereby
a great number of
are often applied,
people become poor.
perpetuating
the
poverty cycle.
SENTENCE CONNECTORS
Many people encounter Therefore,
they
chronic deprivation.
feeling
Consequently,
Because
develop
a
of
this, insecurity.
of
As a result (of this),
Sample paragraph: cause and effect pattern (with signal words underlined)
Until World War I, the United States had always been a debtor nation. The value of the goods and
services we imported often exceeded the value of the goods we sold to foreigners, and foreigners
were investing far more in the United States than Americans were investing in other countries. Thus
we had to pay interest and dividends to investors abroad. During World War I, the situation was
reversed. The war-torn nations of Europe needed U.S.goods, so our exports more than doubled,
while the value of the goods we imported declined, By 1919 we had become a creditor nation –
foreign nations owed more to the United States than the United States owed to them. This net credit
position continued until 1985, at which time the United States once again became a net debtor
nation. The value of our imports greatly exceeded the value of our exports, and foreigners were
investing heavily in U.S. securities, largely because of the relatively high interest rates here. [Note:
A chronological listing is also evident in this paragraph, but the cause and effect relationship of the
events is the major emphasis.]
132
(Gordon, S.D., and George G.Dawson. Introductory Economics. 7th
ed. Lexington:
D.C.Heath. 1991. 433
G. Exemplifying and Illustrating
Examples and illustrations are given to support the author’s claim (argument. They can also be used
to help the reader/ listener understand unfamiliar or difficult concepts, which are then easier to
remember. In their turn, students may be required to give examples to show they have understood a
complex problem or a concept.
In academic writing, many paragraphs show development from general statements to specific details
or examples.
Examples as the main information in a Examples
sentence
This is shown/ exemplified/ illustrated by…
This is shown/ exemplified/ illustrated by the
author’s choice of words.
For example/ instance,…
'There are a number of rules you must abide
by. For instance, you may not use the
swimming pool unsupervised.'
Several researchers wanted to prove this
thesis. For example, …
A
key experiment shows/ exemplifies/ ‘Compulsory activity for over 50s job
illustrates this.
seekers. Experiment shows good start.’
By way of illustration, X (2004) shows…
By way of concrete illustration Herbart
A classic/ well-known example of this is…
instances the common observation that the
An example of this is the study carried out by properties of things exist only under external
X (2005) in which…
conditions. (Wikipedia)
X illustrates this point/ shows this point
clearly.
This is shown by the following examples, …
The following are examples of this:
The following is a case in point:
This can be illustrated briefly by…
133
Another example of what is meant by X is…
… is a case in point.
… institutions such as the family…
Examples as additional information in a
sentence
..., such as…
…, for example…
…, including...
H. Clarifying/Explaining/Putting it in other words
The lecturer will try to explain the meaning of difficult concepts. To do this he or she may repeat the
information using different words. It is important to recognise that this is the same information
expressed differently and not new information.
In other words, /Or rather,/ That is to say,/
Basically/ To put it another way,/ If we put
that another way,/ By which I mean/ Or you Foreign policy is the total involvement of the
could say/ The point I'm making is /That is to American people with peoples and
say,/ That is, /Namely,/ i.e./ That means
am
What I
That means that, if we are to achieve a new
suggesting
am trying to say
meant
to
say
governments abroad.
standard of leadership, we must think in the
is
total context of our situation.
should have said
Let me put it another way.
The Argumentative/ Discursive Essay
134
The function of an argumentative essay is to show that a writer’s assertion (opinion, theory, and
hypothesis) about some issues is correct or more truthful than others' relating to the same/similar
topic.
Notice should be made that writers do not have to completely prove their point. Actually, they
should only convince reasonable readers that their argument or position has merit; i.e., that it is
somehow more accurate and complete than competing arguments.
There are two main types of argumentative essays, which are often organised in a 6-paragraph
format presented in the table below:
For and against
Opinion
Authors present both sides of an issue, Authors present their personal opinion,
discussing points in favour or against, clearly stated and supported by reasons and/or
or the advantages and disadvantages of examples.
a particular question.
Introduction
Introduction
Paragraph 1
Paragraph 1
State
topic
(without
stating
your State the topic and your opinion
opinion)
Main body
Main body
Paragraphs 2 – 3
Paragraphs 2 –4
Arguments
for
and
justifications, Viewpoints and reasons/examples
examples or reasons
Paragraphs 4 – 5
Paragraph 5
Opposing viewpoint and reason/example
Arguments against and justifications,
135
examples or reasons
Conclusion
Conclusion
Final paragraph
Balanced consideration or opinion
Final Paragraph
Summarise/restate your opinion
Useful Tips for Writing Essays
When writing a discursive essay, you should:
use formal, impersonal style
use topic sentences to introduce the subject of each paragraph
write well-developed paragraphs, giving reasons/examples
use generalisations
use sequencing (e.g. First/ly, Second/ly, etc) and linking words/phrases (e.g. however,
although, etc)
make references to other sources (e.g. Experts have proved that…)
use quotations, either word-for-word or in paraphrase, being careful to identify the source
You should not:
use short forms, informal/colloquial language, etc
use very emotional language (e.g. I absolutely hate people who…)
express personal opinions too strongly (e.g. I know…); instead, use milder expressions (e.g. All
politicians are…)
refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source (e.g. “A recent study
showed…” – which study?)
use clichés
use personal examples
Compare and contrast 3 essay-structures
2. First do one idea, and then Compare and contrast ideas by treating one idea thoroughly
1. First compare, then Focuses on the comparison and contrast instead of on the two
do the other.
before taking up the second one.
contrast (or vice versa).
ideas being compared and contrasted.
136
3. Only compare or only Writers who only compare two ideas sometimes briefly
contrast.
mention the contrast in the introduction and then move on so
that they do not lead readers to think they cannot make
relevant distinctions. Writers who only contrast ideas
sometimes briefly summarize similarities in the conclusion so
they do not leave the impression that they are thinking in
opposites.
Cause and Effect
Pattern
Introduction of general topic
Specific areas to be covered
Essay section A (Causes)
Cause
1
a)
subsection
b) subsection
Cause
2
a)
subsection
b) subsection
Essay section B (Effects)
Effect
1
a)
subsection
b) subsection
Effect
2
a)
subsection
b) subsection
Effect
3
a)
subsection
b) subsection
Conclusion
137
Summary of main points (and look to future)
Classification Essay
1. Sort things into useful categories.
2. Make sure all the categories follow a single organising principle.
3. Give examples that fit into each category.
138
Useful expressions and linking words/phrases
Conclusion expressing balanced considerations/opinion indirectly
it can/must be said/claimed that …
In conclusion,
it seems/appears that …
On balance,
it would seem that …
All things considered,
it is likely/unlikely/possible/foreseeable that
Taking everything into account/
it is clear/obvious that …
consideration,
there is no/little doubt that …
To conclude,
the best course of action would be to…
To sum up,
achieving a balance between … would be…
All in all,
it is true to say that …
Finally/Lastly,
although it must be said that …
it may be concluded/said that …
All things considered, the obvious conclusion to be drawn is that …
There is no absolute answer to the question of …
In the light of this evidence, it is clear/obvious that …
In conclusion,
clear/apparent
All in all,
it is
To sum up,
evident
above evidence
plain/obvious from the
foregoing
points
arguments
Conclusion expressing opinion directly
In conclusion,
On balance,
it is in my belief/opinion that …
All things considered,
I (firmly) believe/feel/think that …
Taking everything into account/
I am convinced that …
consideration,
I am inclined to believe that …
To conclude,
I (do not) agree that/with …
139
To sum up,
All in all,
Taking everything in to account, I therefore conclude/feel/believe (that) …
For the above-mentioned reasons, therefore, I (firmly) believe that …
*
Appendix:
* *
Lista Verbelor Neregulate cel mai frecvent utilizate
List of most frequently used Irregular Verbs
Infinitive (base form)
Past Simple
Past Participle
be
was/were
Been
become
became
become
begin
began
begun
bend
bent
bent
blow
blew
blown
break
broke
broken
bring
brought
brought
begin
began
begun
build
built
built
burn
burnt/burned
burnt/burned
buy
bought
bought
can
could
could/been able to
catch
caught
caught
choose
chose
chosen
come
came
come
cost
cost
cost
cut
cut
cut
do
did
done
140
draw
drew
drawn
dream
dreamt/dreamed
dreamt/dreamed
drink
drank
drunk/drunken
drive
drove
driven
eat
ate
eaten
fall
fell
fallen
feel
felt
felt
find
found
found
fly
flew
flown
forget
forgot
forgotten
get
got
got/gotten
give
gave
given
go
went
gone
grow
grew
grown
have
had
had
hear
heard
heard
hit
hit
hit
hold
held
held
hurt
hurt
hurt
keep
kept
kept
know
knew
known
lay
laid
laid
lead
led
led
learn
learnt
learnt
leave
left
left
lean
leant
leant
lend
lent
lent
let
let
let
lie
lay
lain
light
lit
lit
lose
lost
lost
make
made
made
141
mean
meant
meant
meet
met
met
must
had to
had to
pay
paid
paid
put
put
put
read
read
read
ring
rang
rung
run
ran
run
say
said
said
see
saw
seen
sell
sold
sold
send
sent
sent
show
showed
shown
sing
sang
sung
sink
sank
sunk/sunken
sit
sat
sat
sleep
slept
slept
spend
spent
spent
stand
stood
stood
steal
stole
stolen
swim
swam
swum
take
took
taken
teach
taught
taught
tear
tore
torn
tell
told
told
think
thought
thought
throw
threw
thrown
understand
understood
understood
wake
woke
woken
wear
wore
worn
weep
wept
wept
win
won
won
142
withdraw
withdrew
withdrawn
write
wrote
written
143