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COURSE: INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL MACHINES PART 2 Prof Elisete Ternes Pereira, PhD BASIC CONCEPTS - REVIEW MAGNETIC MATERIALS CONCEPTS REVIEW MAGNETIC MATERIALS Ferromagnetic materials, typically composed of iron and alloys of iron with cobalt, tungsten, nickel, aluminum, and others metals, are by far the most common magnetic materials. When an external magnetizing force is applied to this material, the domain magnetic moments tend to align with the applied magnetic field. As a result, the domain magnetic moments add to the applied field, producing a much larger value of flux density than would exist due to the magnetizing force alone. Thus the effective permeability , equal to the ratio of the total magnetic flux density to the applied magnetic-field intensity, is large compared with the permeability of free space 0. As the magnetizing force is increased, this behavior continues until all the magnetic moments are aligned with the applied field; at this point they can no longer contribute to increasing the magnetic flux density, and the material is said to be fully saturated. CONCEPTS REVIEW MAGNETIC MATERIALS DC B-H magnetization curve for M-5 grain-oriented electrical steel 0.012 in thick. Then, the ferromagnetic core material has non-linear properties. CONCEPTS REVIEW MAGNETIC MATERIALS Steady-state AC operation of ferromagnetic materials: Hysteresis Loop. To produce magnetic flux in the core requires current in the exciting winding known as the exciting current, i. The nonlinear magnetic properties of the core require that the waveform of the exciting current differs from the sinusoidal waveform of the flux. A curve of the exciting current as a function of time can be found graphically from the magnetic characteristics of the core material, as illustrated in Fig.a Since Bc and Hc are related to and i by known geometric constants, the ac hysteresis loop of Fig.b has been drawn in terms of = BcAc and is i = Hclc/N. Sine waves of induced voltage, e, and flux, , in accordance with are shown in Fig.a. TRANSFORMERS 2 TRANSFORERS The essence of transformer action requires only the existence of time-varying mutual flux linking two windings. (58) Such action can occur for two windings coupled through air, but coupling between the windings can be made much more effectively using a core of iron or other ferromagnetic material, because most of the flux is then confined to a definite, high-permeability path linking the windings. Such a transformer is commonly called an iron-core transformer. Distribution transformer typical of sizes 2 to 25 kVA, 7200:240/120 V. 660-MVA three-phase 50-Hz transformer. Step up 20 kV: 405 kV. TRANSFORERS To reduce the losses caused by eddy currents in the core, the magnetic circuit usually consists of a stack of thin laminations. Two common types of construction: a) core type: the windings are wound around two legs of a rectangular magnetic core; b) shell type: the windings are wound around the center leg of a threelegged core. TRANSFORERS Silicon-steel laminations 0.014 in thick are generally used for transformers operating at frequencies below a few hundred hertz. Silicon steel has the desirable properties of low cost, low core loss, and high permeability at high flux densities (1.0 to 1.5 T). The cores of small transformers used in communication circuits at high frequencies and low energy levels are sometimes made of compressed powdered ferromagnetic alloys known as ferrites. Example: - The magnetic core made from laminations of M-5 grainoriented electrical steel. - Winding excited with a 60-Hz voltage to produce a flux density in the steel of B = 1.5 sin wt (T), where w = 260 ~ 377 rad/sec. - The steel occupies 0.94 of the core crosssectional area. - The mass-density of the steel is 7.65 g/cm 3. TRANSFORMERS: IDEAL In the AC excited transformer of the Figure: The magnetic path length is lc, and the cross-sectional area is Ac throughout the length of the core. We further assume a sinusoidal variation of the core flux (t); thus: The applied voltage is: v1 R1i e1 But the no-load resistance drop is very small and it can be assumed that the applied voltage is equal to the induced voltage: v1 e1 TRANSFORMERS: IDEAL Then, if : (t ) max sin t Ac Bmax sin t From Faraday`s law, in the equation: e1 N1 d d1 dt dt The induced voltage is found to be: e1 Nmax cos t Emax cos t Where: Emax Nmax 2 f N Ac Bmax TRANSFORMERS: IDEAL In steady-state AC operation we are more interested in the root-mean-square or rms values, given by: E1( rms) 2 f N Ac Bmax 2 f N Ac Bmax 2 If the resistive voltage drop is negligible, the counter emf equals the applied voltage. Under these conditions, if a sinusoidal voltage is applied to a winding, a sinusoidally varying core flux must be established whose maximum value, max satisfies the requirement that E1 in the above equation equal the rms value V1 of the applied voltage; thus: max V1 2 f N1 TRANSFORMERS: IDEAL The figure on the right shows a simplified representation of an ideal transformer, where v1 is the applied sinusoidal voltage, Z2 is the impedance of the load, The parameters are represented by the corresponding phasor: Vˆ1 ; Vˆ2 ; Iˆ1 ; Iˆ2 The dots indicate the polarity of the voltage and that both windings are wounded in the same direction TRANSFORMERS: IDEAL The impedance transformation properties of the ideal transformer in phasor form can be expressed as follows: - We have the relations: N Vˆ1 1 Vˆ2 N2 N Iˆ1 2 Iˆ2 N1 and and N Vˆ2 2 Vˆ1 N1 2 ˆ V1 N1 Vˆ2 ˆI N 2 Iˆ 1 2 From these we can write: ˆI N1 Iˆ 2 1 N2 Vˆ2 - The load impedance is complex, given by: Z 2 Iˆ2 - An impedance Z2 in the secondary circuit can be replaced by an equivalent impedance Z1 in the primary circuit, provided that: 2 N1 Z 2 Z1 N2 TRANSFORMERS: IDEAL Thus, the three circuits bellow are equivalent in their performance viewed from terminals ab: Load impedance referred to the primary To summarize, in an ideal transformer, voltages are transformed in the direct ratio of turns, currents in the inverse ratio, and impedances in the direct ratio squared; power and voltamperes are unchanged. Exercise! TRANSFORMERS: REACTANCES AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS The departures of an actual transformer from those of an ideal transformer must be included to a greater or lesser degree in most analyses of transformer performance. A more complete model must take into account the effects of winding resistances, leakage fluxes, and finite exciting current due to the finite (and indeed nonlinear) permeability of the core. In some cases, the capacitances of the windings also have important effects, notably in problems involving transformer behavior at frequencies above the audio range or during rapidly changing transient conditions such as those encountered in power system transformers as a result of voltage surges caused by lightning or switching transients. The analysis of these high-frequency problems is beyond the scope of the present treatment however, and accordingly the capacitances of the windings will be neglected. TRANSFORMERS: REACTANCES AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS Two methods of analysis by which departures from the ideal can be taken into account are: (1) an equivalent-circuit technique based on physical reasoning and (2) a mathematical approach based on the classical theory of magnetically coupled circuits. Both methods are in everyday use, and both have very close parallels in the theories of rotating machines. Because it offers an excellent example of the thought process involved in translating physical concepts to a quantitative theory, the equivalent circuit technique is presented here. TRANSFORMERS: REACTANCES AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS Resultant flux, The equivalent circuit technique: Lets first consider the primary winding. The total flux linking the primary winding can be divided into two: 1. the resultant mutual flux, confined to the iron core and produced by the combined effect of the primary and secondary currents, and 2. The primary leakage flux, which links only the primary. These components are identified in the schematic transformer shown in the figure, where for simplicity the primary and secondary windings are shown on opposite legs of the core. Primary leakage flux Secondary leakage flux TRANSFORMERS: REACTANCES AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS Resultant flux, In an actual transformer with interleaved windings, the details of the flux distribution are more complicated, but the essential features remain the same. The leakage flux induces voltage in the primary winding which adds to that produced by the mutual flux. Because the leakage path is largely in air, this flux and the voltage induced by it vary linearly with primary current Iˆ1 Primary leakage flux Secondary leakage flux It can therefore be represented by a primary leakage inductance L11 (equal to the leakage-flux linkages with the primary per unit of primary current). The corresponding primary leakage reactance X1 is found as: In addition, there will be a voltage X l1 2 f Ll1 drop in the primary resistance R1. TRANSFORMERS: REACTANCES AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS We now see that the primary terminal voltage, Vˆ1 , consists of three components: the ( Iˆ1 R1 ) drop in the primary resistance, the ( Iˆ1 X 1 ) drop arising from primary leakage flux, and the emf Ê1 induced in the primary by the resultant mutual flux. the figure shows an equivalent circuit for the primary winding which includes each of these voltages. TRANSFORMERS: REACTANCES AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS The resultant mutual flux links both the primary and secondary windings and is created by their combined mmf's. It is convenient to treat these mmf's by considering that the primary current must meet two requirements of the magnetic circuit: It must not only produce the mmf required to produce the resultant mutual flux, but it must also counteract the effect of the secondary mmf which acts to demagnetize the core. An alternative viewpoint is that the primary current: must not only magnetize the core, it must also supply current to the load connected to the secondary. TRANSFORMERS: REACTANCES AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS According to this, it is convenient to resolve the primary current into two components: an exciting component and a load component. The exciting component Iˆ is defined as the additional primary current required to produce the resultant mutual flux. It is a nonsinusoidal current of the nature picture in the graphic The load component Iˆ2 is defined as the component current in the primary which would exactly counteract the mmf of secondary current Iˆ2 ' TRANSFORMERS: REACTANCES AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS Since it is the exciting component which produces the core flux, the net mmf must equal N1 Iˆ and thus: N1Iˆ N1Iˆ1 N 2 Iˆ2 N1Iˆ N1 ( Iˆ Iˆ2' ) N 2 Iˆ2 from this last equation we see that: N Iˆ2' 2 Iˆ2 N1 And from this equation we see that the load component of the primary current equals the secondary current referred to the primary as in an ideal transformer. TRANSFORMERS: REACTANCES AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS If the exciting current is analyzed by Fourier-series methods, it is found to consist of : a fundamental component and a series of odd harmonics. The fundamental component can, in turn, be resolved into two components, one in phase with the counter emf and the other lagging the counter emf by 90 °. The in-phase component supplies the power absorbed by hysteresis and eddycurrent losses in the core. It is referred to as core-loss component of the exciting current. When the core-loss component is subtracted from the total exciting current, the remainder is called the magnetizing current. TRANSFORMERS: REACTANCES AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS The magnetizing current comprises a fundamental component lagging the counter emf by 90 °, together with all the harmonics. The principal harmonic is the third. For typical power transformers, the third harmonic usually is about 40 percent of the exciting current. Except in problems concerned directly with the effects of harmonic currents, the peculiarities of the exciting-current waveform usually need not be taken into account, because the exciting current itself is small, especially in large transformers. The exciting current can then be represented by an equivalent sinusoidal current which has the same rms value and frequency and produces the same average power as the actual exciting current. Such representation is essential to the construction of a phasor diagram, which represents the phase relationship between the various voltages and currents in a system in vector form. TRANSFORMERS: REACTANCES AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS In a phasor diagram each signal is represented by a phasor whose length is proportional to the amplitude of the signal and whose angle is equal to the phase angle of that signal as measured with respect to a chosen reference signal. In the figure, the phasors Ê1 and ˆ1 represent the rms values of the induced emf and the flux. The phasor Iˆ represents the rms value of the equivalent sinusoidal exciting current. It lags the induced emf Ê1 by a phase angle c TRANSFORMERS: REACTANCES AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS The core loss is given by: Pc E1I cos c Ê1 and ˆ1 Iˆ Iˆ : rms values of the induced emf and the flux. : rms value of the equivalent sinusoidal exciting current. lags Ê by a phase angle c 1 TRANSFORMERS: REACTANCES AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS Summarizing: The exciting current can be treated as an equivalent sinusoidal current and can be resolved into a core-loss component Iˆc In phase with the emf Ê1 and a magnetizing component Iˆm lagging Ê1 by 90o: TRANSFORMERS: REACTANCES AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS In the equivalent circuit the equivalent sinusoidal exciting current is accounted for by means of a shunt branch connected across Ê1 , comprising a core-loss resistance Rc in parallel with a magnetizing inductance Lm whose reactance, known as the magnetizing reactance, is given by: X m 2 f Lm 2 E1 In the circuit, the power Rc mutual flux. accounts for the core loss due to the resultant TRANSFORMERS: REACTANCES AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS Ê1 excitation branch Rc = magnetizing resistance or core-loss resistance Xm = magnetizing reactance Lm = magnetizing inductance Rc ; Xm => exciting impedance, Z 2 When Rc is assumed constant, the core loss is thereby assumed to vary as E1 or 2 2 (for sine waves) as max is the maximum value of the resultant f 2 , where max mutual flux. The magnetizing reactance Xm varies with the saturation of the iron. When Xm is assumed constant, the magnetizing current is thereby assumed to be independent of frequency and directly proportional to the resultant mutual flux. Both Rc and Xm are usually determined at rated voltage and frequency; they are then assumed to remain constant for the small departures from rated values associated with normal operation. TRANSFORMERS: REACTANCES AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS We now add to our equivalent circuit a representation of the secondary winding. ˆ We begin by recognizing that the resultant mutual flux induces an emf Ê 2 in the secondary, since this flux links both windings, the induced-emf ratio must equal the winding turns ratio, just as an ideal transformer: Eˆ1 N1 ˆ E2 N 2 TRANSFORMERS: REACTANCES AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS Just as with the primary winding, the emf Ê 2 is not the secondary terminal voltage. The secondary terminal voltage Vˆ2 differs from the induced voltage Ê 2 by the voltage drops due to secondary resistance R2 and secondary leakage reactance X l2 (corresponding to the secondary leakage inductance Ll2 ), as in the portion of the complete transformer equivalent circuit to the right of Ê 2 ˆ Ê 2 TRANSFORMERS: REACTANCES AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS The actual transformer therefore can be seen to be equivalent to an ideal transformer plus external impedances. By referring all quantities to the primary or secondary, the ideal transformer in the figure above can be moved out to the right or left, respectively, of the equivalent circuit. This is almost invariably done, and the equivalent circuit is usually drawn as in figure below, with the ideal transformer not shown and all voltages, currents, and impedances referred to either the primary or secondary winding. TRANSFORMERS: REACTANCES AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS For this case specifically: 2 N X 1 X l2 N2 ' l2 This circuit is called the equivalent-T circuit for a transformer, in which the secondary quantities are referred to the primary. In almost all discussions we deal with referred values, and the primes are omitted. 2 N1 ' R2 R2 N2 V2' N1 V2 N2 Exercise - example Exercise – example (continuation) Exercises In an ideal transformer the impedance of R2 jX 2 0.05 j 0,97 is connected in series with the secondary. The turns ratio is 14:1 a) Draw an equivalent circuit with the series impedance referred to the primary side b) For a primary voltage of 120 V rms and a short-circuit across the secondary terminals, calculate the primary current and the current flowing in the short. AUTOTRANSFORMERS In Fig.a, a two-winding transformer is shown with N1 and N2 turns on the primary and secondary windings respectively. Substantially the same transformation effect on voltages, currents, and impedances can be obtained when these windings are connected as shown in Fig.b. Note that, however, in (b), winding bc is common to both the primary and secondary circuits. This type of transformer is called an autotransformer. It is little more than a normal transformer connected in a special way. AUTOTRANSFORMERS In the autotransformer connection, winding ab must be provided with extra insulation since it must be insulated against the full maximum voltage of the autotransformer. Autotransformers have lower leakage reactances, lower losses, and smaller exciting current and cost less than twowinding transformers when the voltage ratio does not differ too greatly from 1:1. See the following example; it illustrates the benefits of an autotransformer for those situations where electrical isolation between the primary and secondary windings is not an important consideration. AUTOTRANSFORMERS - Exercise The 2400:240-V; 50-kVA transformer in Figure is connected as an autotransformer, in which ab is the 240-V winding and bc is the 2400-V winding. (It is assumed that the 240-V winding has enough insulation to withstand a voltage of 2640 V to ground.) a. Compute the voltage ratings VH and VL of the high- and low-voltage sides, respectively, for this autotransformer connection. b. Compute the kVA rating as an autotransformer. c. Data with respect to the losses are given in Example 2.6. Compute the full-load efficiency as an autotransformer operating with a rated load of 0.80 power factor lagging. AUTOTRANSFORMERS - Exercise Solution: a. Since the 2400-V winding bc is connected to the low-voltage circuit, VL = 2400 V. When Vbc = 2400 V, a voltage Vab = 240 V in phase with Vbc will be induced in winding ab (leakage-impedance voltage drops being neglected). The voltage of the high-voltage side therefore is VH Vab Vbc 2400 240 2640 V b. From the rating of 50 kVA as a normal two-winding transformer, the rated current of the 240-V winding is 50,000 208 A 240 Since the high-voltage lead of the autotransformer is connected to the 240-V winding, the rated current IH at the high-voltage side of the autotransformer is equal to the rated current of the 240V winding or 208 A. The kVA rating as an autotransformer therefore is: VH I H 2640(208) 550 kVA At first, this seems rather unsettling since the 2400-V winding of the transformer has a rated current of 50 kVA/2400 V = 20.8 A. Further puzzling is that fact that this transformer, whose rating as a normal two-winding transformer is 50 kVA, is capable of handling 550 kVA as an autotransformer. AUTOTRANSFORMERS - Exercise The higher rating as an autotransformer is a consequence of the fact that not all the 550 kVA has to be transformed by electromagnetic induction. In fact, all that the transformer has to do is to boost a current of 208 A through a potential rise of 240 V, corresponding to a power transformation capacity of 50 kVA. This fact is perhaps best illustrated by Fig. 2.18b which shows the currents in the autotransformer under rated conditions. Note that the windings carry only their rated currents in spite of higher ratings of the transformer. Exercices 1) A 120-V:2400-V, 60-Hz, 50-kVA transformer has a magnetizing reactance (as measured from the 120-V terminals) of 34.6 . The 120-V winding has a leakage reactance of 27.4 m and the 2400-V winding has a leakage reactance of 11.2 . a. With the secondary open-circuited and 120 V applied to the primary (120-V) winding, calculate the primary current and the secondary voltage. b. With the secondary short-circuited, calculate the primary voltage which will result in rated current in the primary winding. Calculate the corresponding current in the secondary winding. 2) A 460-V:2400-V transformer has a series leakage reactance of 37.2 as referred to the high-voltage side. A load connected to the low-voltage side is observed to be absorbing 25 kW, unity power factor, and the voltage is measured to be 450 V. Calculate the corresponding voltage and power factor as measured at the high-voltage terminals.