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Crusades
1
Crusades
The Crusades were a series of religiously sanctioned military
campaigns, called by the pope and waged by kings and nobles who
volunteered to take up the cross with the main goal of restoring
Christian control of the Holy Land. The crusaders came from all over
western Europe, and fought a series of disconnected campaigns
between 1095 and 1291; historians have given them numbers. Similar
campaigns in the Iberian Peninsula and Eastern Europe continued into
the 15th century. The Crusades were fought mainly by Roman
Catholics against Muslims and Greek Orthodox Christians in
Byzantium, with smaller campaigns waged against pagan Slavs, pagan
Balts, Mongols, and Christian heretics.[1] Orthodox Christians also
took part in fighting against Islamic forces in some Crusades.
Crusaders took vows and were granted a plenary indulgence by the
pope.[1] [2]
The Crusades originally had the goal of recapturing Jerusalem and the
Holy Land from Muslim rule and their campaigns were launched in
The Siege of Antioch during the First Crusade,
response to a call from the leaders of the Byzantine Empire for help to
miniature by Jean Colombe. (c. 1490)
fight the expansion of the Muslim Seljuk Turks into Anatolia. The term
is also used to describe contemporaneous and subsequent campaigns
conducted through to the 16th century in territories outside the Levant[3] usually against pagans, heretics, and
peoples under the ban of excommunication[4] for a mixture of religious, economic, and political reasons.[5] Rivalries
among both Christian and Muslim powers led also to alliances between religious factions against their opponents,
such as the Christian alliance with the Sultanate of Rûm during the Fifth Crusade.
The Crusades had some temporary successes, but the Crusaders were eventually forced out of the Holy Land.
Nevertheless the Crusades had major far-reaching political, economic, and social impacts on Europe. Because of
internal conflicts among Christian kingdoms and political powers, some of the crusade expeditions were diverted
from their original aim, such as the Fourth Crusade, which resulted in the sack of Christian Constantinople and the
partition of the Byzantine Empire between Venice and the Crusaders. The Sixth Crusade was the first crusade to set
sail without the official blessing of the Pope.[6] The Seventh, Eighth and Ninth Crusades resulted in Mamluk and
Hafsid victories, as the Ninth Crusade marked the end of the Crusades in the Middle East.[7]
Historical context
Further information: Battle of Ostia, Reconquista, Fraxinetum, Pisan–Genoese expeditions
(1015–1016), Norman conquest of southern Italy, War of Barbastro, and Mahdia campaign
“
to
Sardinia
It is necessary to look for the origin of a crusading ideal in the struggle between Christians and Muslims in Spain and consider how the idea
of a holy war emerged from this background.
”
—Norman F. Cantor
Crusades
Middle Eastern situation
The Holy Land is significant in Christianity because of the land's association as the place of nativity, ministry,
crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus, whom Christians regard as the Saviour or Messiah. By the end of the 4th
century, following the Roman Emperor Constantine's conversion to Christianity (313) and later the founding of the
Byzantine Empire after the partition of the Roman Empire, the Holy Land had become a predominantly Christian
region.[8] [9] Churches commemorating various events in the life of Jesus had been erected at key sites.
Jerusalem in particular holds a significance in Islam as it holds it to be the site of the ascension into heaven of the
prophet Muhammad whom Muslims believe to be the foremost prophet of Allah and Jerusalem is often regarded as
the third most sacred site in Islam. The Muslim presence in the Holy Land began with the initial Muslim conquest of
Syria in the 7th century under the Rashidun Caliphs. The Muslim armies' successes put increasing pressure on the
Eastern Orthodox Byzantine Empire which had originally claimed the region (part of the Eastern Roman Empire
which the Byzantines inherited) as their territory – this included eventual incursions by the Seljuk Turks. Jerusalem
also holds historical and religious importance for Jews as it is the site of the Western Wall, the last remaining piece
of the Second Temple. Jews consider Jerusalem as their ancestral homeland, and had been visiting the city since its
destruction in 70 CE[10] and its occupation in AD 136. Another factor that contributed to the change in Western
attitudes towards the East came in the year 1009, when the Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ordered the
destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. In 1039 his successor, after requiring large sums be paid for the
right, permitted the Byzantine Empire to rebuild it.[11] Pilgrimages were allowed to the Holy Lands before and after
the Sepulchre was rebuilt. The Muslims eventually realized that much of the wealth of Jerusalem came from the
pilgrims; for this reason and others, the persecution of pilgrims eventually stopped. However, the damage was
already done, and the violence of the Seljuk Turks became part of the concern that spread support for the Crusades
across the Christian world.[12]
Western European situation
The origins of the Crusades lie in developments in Western Europe earlier in the Middle Ages, as well as the
deteriorating situation of the Byzantine Empire in the east caused by a new wave of Turkish Muslim attacks. In
1063, Pope Alexander II had given his blessing to Iberian Christians in their wars against the Muslims, granting both
a papal standard (the vexillum sancti Petri) and an indulgence to those who were killed in battle. Pleas from the
Byzantine Emperors, now threatened by the Seljuks, thus fell on ready ears. These occurred in 1074, from Emperor
Michael VII to Pope Gregory VII and in 1095, from Emperor Alexios I Komnenos to Pope Urban II.
The Crusades were, in part, an outlet for an intense religious piety which rose up in the late 11th century among the
lay public. A crusader would, after pronouncing a solemn vow, receive a cross from the hands of the pope or his
legates, and was thenceforth considered a "soldier of the Church". This was partly because of the Investiture
Controversy, which had started around 1075 and was still on-going during the First Crusade. As both sides of the
Investiture Controversy tried to marshal public opinion in their favor, people became personally engaged in a
dramatic religious controversy. The result was an awakening of intense Christian piety and public interest in
religious affairs, and was further strengthened by religious propaganda, which advocated Just War in order to retake
the Holy Land from the Muslims. The Holy Land included Jerusalem (where the death, and resurrection of Jesus had
taken place according to Christian theology) and Antioch (the first Christian city). Further, the remission of sin was a
driving factor and provided any God-fearing man who had committed sins with an irresistible way out of eternal
damnation in hell. It was a hotly debated issue throughout the Crusades as what exactly "remission of sin" meant.
Most believed that by retaking Jerusalem they would go straight to heaven after death. However, much controversy
surrounds exactly what was promised by the popes of the time. One theory was that one had to die fighting for
Jerusalem for the remission to apply, which would hew more closely to what Pope Urban II said in his speeches.
This meant that if the crusaders were successful, and retook Jerusalem, the survivors would not be given remission.
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Crusades
Reconquista in the Iberian Peninsula
When the First Crusade was preached in 1095, the Christian princes of
northern Iberia had been fighting their way out of the mountains of
Galicia and Asturias, the Basque Country and Navarre, with increasing
success, for about a hundred years. The fall of Moorish Toledo to the
Kingdom of León in 1085 was a major victory, but the turning points
of the Reconquista still lay in the future. The disunity of Muslim emirs
was an essential factor.[13]
While the Reconquista was the most prominent example of European
reactions against Muslim conquests, it is not the only such example.
The Norman adventurer Robert Guiscard had conquered Calabria in
Map of the Iberian Peninsula at the time of the
1057 and was holding what had traditionally been Byzantine territory
Almoravid arrival in the 11th century– Christian
Kingdoms included Aragón, Castile, Leon,
against the Muslims of Sicily. The maritime states of Pisa, Genoa and
Navarre, and Portugal
Catalonia were all actively fighting Islamic strongholds in Majorca,
freeing the coasts of Italy and Catalonia from Muslim raids. Much
earlier, the Christian homelands of Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Egypt, and so on had been conquered by Muslim
armies. This long history of losing territories to a religious enemy created a powerful motive to respond to Byzantine
Emperor Alexius I's call for holy war to defend Christendom, and to recapture the lost lands starting with Jerusalem.
Just war doctrine
The papacy of Pope Gregory VII had struggled with reservations about the doctrinal validity of a holy war and the
shedding of blood for the Lord and had, with difficulty, resolved the question in favour of justified violence. More
importantly to the Pope, the Christians who made pilgrimages to the Holy Land were being persecuted. Saint
Augustine of Hippo, Gregory's intellectual model, had justified the use of force in the service of Christ in The City of
God, and a Christian "Just War" might enhance the wider standing of an aggressively ambitious leader of Europe, as
Gregory saw himself. The northerners would be cemented to Rome, and their troublesome knights could see the only
kind of action that suited them. Previous attempts by the church to stem such violence, such as the concept of the
"Peace of God", were not as successful as hoped. To the south of Rome, Normans were showing how such energies
might be unleashed against both Arabs (in Sicily) and Byzantines (on the mainland). A Latin hegemony in the
Levant would provide leverage in resolving the Papacy's claims of supremacy over the Patriarch of Constantinople,
which had resulted in the Great Schism of 1054, a rift that might yet be resolved through the force of Frankish arms.
Byzantine weakness
In the Byzantine homelands, the Eastern Emperor's weakness was revealed by the disastrous defeat at the Battle of
Manzikert in 1071, which reduced the Empire's Asian territory to a region in western Anatolia and around
Constantinople. A sure sign of Byzantine desperation was the appeal of Alexios I to his enemy, the Pope, for aid. But
Gregory was occupied with the Investiture Controversy and could not call on the German emperor, so a crusade
never took shape.
For Gregory's more moderate successor, Pope Urban II, a crusade would serve to reunite Christendom, bolster the
Papacy, and perhaps bring the East under his control. The disaffected Germans and the Normans were not to be
counted on, but the heart and backbone of a crusade could be found in Urban's own homeland among the northern
French.
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4
Pope Urban II
The immediate cause of the First Crusade was the Byzantine emperor
Alexios I's appeal to Pope Urban II for mercenaries to help him resist
Muslim advances into territory of the Byzantine Empire. In 1071, at
the Battle of Manzikert, the Byzantine Empire was defeated, which led
to the loss of all of Asia Minor (modern Turkey) save the coastlands.
Although attempts at reconciliation after the East–West Schism
between the Catholic Church in western Europe and the Eastern
Orthodox Church had failed, Alexius I hoped for a positive response
from Urban II.
Pope Urban II defined and launched the crusades at the Council of
Clermont in 1095. He was a reformer worried about the evils which
th
had
hindered the spiritual success of the church and its clergy and the
15 century illumination of Pope Urban II at the
Council of Clermont, where he preached an
need for a revival of religiosity. He was moved by the urgent appeal
impassioned sermon to take back the Holy Land.
for help from Byzantine Emperor Alexius I. Urban's solution was
announced on the last day of the council when the pope suddenly
proclaimed the Crusade against the infidel Muslims. He called for Christian princes across Europe to launch a holy
war in the Holy Land. He contrasted the sanctity of Jerusalem and the holy places with the plunder and desecration
by the infidel Turks. He exited outrage by vividly describing attacks upon the Christian pilgrims. He also noted the
military threat to the fellow Christians of Byzantium. He charged Christians to take up the holy cause, promising to
all those who went remission of sins and to all who died in the expedition immediate entry into heaven.[14]
Then Urban raised secular motives, talking of the feudal love of tournaments and warfare. He urged the barons to
give up their fratricidal and unrighteous wars in the West for the holy war in the East. He also suggested material
rewards, regarding feudal fiefdoms, land ownership, wealth, power, and prestige, all at the expense of the Arabs and
Turks. He said they could be defeated very easily by the Christian forces. When he finished, his listeners shouted
"Deus volt" (God wills it). This became the battle cry of the crusaders. Urban put the bishop of Le Puy in charge of
encouraging prelates and priests to join the cause.[15] Word spread rapidly that war against unbelief would be fused
with the practice of pilgrimage to holy sites, and the pilgrims' reward would be great on earth, as in heaven.
Immediately thousands pledged themselves to go on the first crusade.Pope Urban's speech ranks as one of the most
influential speeches ever made: it launched the holy wars which occupied the minds and forces of western Europe
for two hundred years.[16]
After the First Crusade
On a popular level, the first crusades unleashed a wave of impassioned, personally felt pious Christian fury that was
expressed in the massacres of Jews that accompanied the movement of the Crusader mobs through Europe, as well as
the violent treatment of "schismatic" Orthodox Christians of the east.
In the 13th century, Crusades never expressed such a popular fever, and after Acre fell for the last time in 1291 and
the Occitan Cathars were exterminated during the Albigensian Crusade, the crusading ideal became devalued by
Papal justifications of political and territorial aggressions within Catholic Europe.
The last crusading order of knights to hold territory were the Knights Hospitaller. After the final fall of Acre, they
took control of the island of Rhodes, and in the 16th century, were driven to Malta, before being finally unseated by
Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798.
Crusades
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List
A traditional numbering scheme for the crusades totals nine during the 11th to 13th centuries. This division is
arbitrary and excludes many important expeditions, among them those of the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. In
reality, the crusades continued until the end of the 17th century, the Battle of Lepanto occurring in 1571, that of
Hungary in 1664, and the crusade to Candia in 1669.[17] The Knights Hospitaller continued to crusade in the
Mediterranean Sea around Malta until their defeat by Napoleon in 1798. There were frequent "minor" Crusades
throughout this period, not only in the area the crusaders called Outremer but also in the Iberian Peninsula and
central Europe, against Muslims and also Christian heretics and personal enemies of the Papacy or other powerful
monarchs.
First Crusade 1095–1099
In March 1095 at the Council of Piacenza,
ambassadors sent by Byzantine Emperor
Alexius I called for help with defending his
empire against the Seljuk Turks. Later that
year, at the Council of Clermont, Pope
Urban II called upon all Christians to join a
war against the Turks, promising those who
died in the endeavour would receive
immediate remission of their sins.[18]
The official crusader armies set off from
France and Italy on the papally ordained
date of 15 August 1096. The armies
journeyed eastward by land toward
Route of the First Crusade through Asia
Constantinople, where they received a wary
welcome from the Byzantine Emperor.
Pledging to restore lost territories to the empire, the main army, mostly French and Norman knights under baronial
leadership--Godfrey of Bouillon (1060-1100)[19] , Baldwin of Flanders, Raymond of Toulouse, Robert of Normandy,
Bohemond of Taranto, marched south through Anatolia. They captured Antioch (June 3, 1098) and finally Jerusalem
(July 15, 1099) in savage battles. They created four crusader states along the Syrian and Palestinian coast.[20]
Campaigns
The Crusader armies fought the Turks. The lengthy Siege of Antioch began in October 1097 and endured until June
of 1098. Once inside the city, as was standard military practice when an enemy had refused to surrender,[21] the
Crusaders massacred the Muslim inhabitants, destroyed mosques and pillaged the city.[22] However, a large Muslim
relief army under Kerbogha immediately besieged the victorious Crusaders within Antioch. Bohemund of Taranto
led a successful break-out and defeat of Kerbogha's army on 28 June. The starving crusader army marched south,
moving from town to town along the coast, finally reaching the walls of Jerusalem on 7 June 1099 with only a
fraction of their original forces.[23]
Crusades
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Siege of Jerusalem
The Jews and Muslims fought together to defend Jerusalem against the invading
Franks. They were unsuccessful though and on 15 July 1099 the crusaders
entered the city.[22] They proceeded to massacre the remaining Jewish and
Muslim civilians and pillaged or destroyed mosques and the city itself.[24] One
historian has written that the "isolation, alienation and fear"[1] felt by the Franks
so far from home helps to explain the atrocities they committed, including the
cannibalism which was recorded after the Siege of Ma'arra in 1098.[25] As a
result of the First Crusade, several small Crusader states were created, notably
the Kingdom of Jerusalem. In the Kingdom of Jerusalem at most 120,000 Franks
(predominantly French-speaking Western Christians) ruled over 350,000
Muslims, Jews, and native Eastern Christians who had remained since the Arab
occupation began in 638 AD.[26]
The Crusaders also tried to gain control of the city of Tyre, but were defeated by
the Muslims. The people of Tyre asked Zahir al-Din Atabek, the leader of
Damascus, for help defending their city from the Franks with the promise to
surrender Tyre to him. When the Franks were defeated the people of Tyre did not
surrender the city, but Zahir al-Din simply said “What I have done I have done
only for the sake of God and the Muslims, nor out of desire for wealth and
kingdom.”[27]
Godfrey of Bouillon, a French
knight, leader of the First Crusade
and founder of the Kingdom of
Jerusalem.
After gaining control of Jerusalem the Crusaders created four Crusader states: the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the County
of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch and the County of Tripoli.[24] Initially, Muslims did very little about the
Crusader states due to internal conflicts.[28] Eventually, the Muslims began to reunite under the leadership of Imad
ad-Din Zengi. He began by re-taking Edessa in 1144. It was the first city to fall to the Crusaders, and became the
first to be recaptured by the Muslims. This led the Pope to call for a second Crusade.
Crusaders' perspectives
Crusades
The story of the first crusade from the crusaders' perspective
recounts the struggles of the first wave of crusaders to reach the
hinterlands of Byzantium, of Islamic Syria, and then of Jerusalem;
of the terrible slaughters of Jewish populations committed by a
second wave as it marched through the Rhineland [29] ; of finding
food and facing starvation; of the "miracles" associated with the
alleged finding of the Holy Lance in Antioch; of the competition
between European princes for leadership; and of the eventual
taking of Jerusalem itself. It was an achievement to coordinate
crusaders with sharply different languages, styles of leadership,
and modes of fighting. That such a band even made it to Jerusalem
is remarkable, and was possible, first, because of divisions within
the realm of Islam, and second, because Muslims in the various
provinces misinterpreted the presence of the crusading army. They
seem to have regarded the Christian forces as renegades, escapees
from the poverty and oppression of the "territory of war." This
interpretation led to a low estimate of the threat posed to Muslim
security by an army that, despite weaknesses, was motivated by a
profound religious fervor.[30]
7
The crusader states after the First Crusade
Scholarly debates
According to the interpretation of historian Steven Runciman (1951),
the First Crusade was like a barbarian invasion of the civilized and
sophisticated Byzantine empire and ultimately brought about the ruin
of Byzantine civilization.[31] The crusade was unwittingly triggered by
the Byzantine emperor, Alexius I Comnenus, when he had sent
ambassadors to the pope in 1095 to ask for mercenary soldiers to enroll
in his armies. The emotive appeal made in response by Pope Urban II,
however, had the effect of sending thousands of Frankish knights to
Constantinople under their own leaders, quite a different outcome from
what Alexius had expected. There had been long-distance intellectual
disputes between Byzantium and the West in the past, but since contact
between the two societies was sporadic, there was little open hostility.
A medieval image of Peter the Hermit, leading
knights, soldiers and women toward Jerusalem
Now that the westerners arrived in the center of the empire in large
during the First Crusade
numbers, those differences became a serious matter. Especially
important, Runciman argues, was tension between the Byzantine
patriarch and the pope, and the more tolerant attitude of the Byzantines towards Muslim powers. Although
Runciman lays some of the blame at the door of the Byzantine emperors who reigned after 1143, the sack of
Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in April 1204 was the culmination of the mounting dislike and suspicion that
all western Christendom now felt towards the Byzantines.
Ever since Runciman published his interpretation in 1951, it has been under challenge by scholars. They say he was
too uncritical in accepting the main Byzantine source, the narrative by Anna Comnena (the daughter of Emperor
Alexius I), which presents Alexius I’s actions as motivated solely by superhuman charity and places the blame
entirely on the crusaders, particularly on the Norman, Bohemond of Taranto. Critics say Runciman takes at face
value Anna Comnena’s descriptions of some of the crusaders as uncouth louts and this is largely the basis for belief
that the two peoples were mutually estranged from the start. Scholars argue that the classicising literary genre in
Crusades
which Comnena wrote dictated that foreign peoples be presented as ‘barbarians’ and that this did not necessarily
mean that the entire populations of the two halves of Christendom were in a constantly increasing state of mutual
antipathy.[32]
Among recent scholars, Paul Magdalino’s and Ralph-Johannes Lilie’s close studies of Byzantine policies towards the
crusader states of Syria show not steadily mounting tension, but periods of animosity interspersed with co-operation
and alliance.[33] Jonathan Shepard re-examines the whole question of Byzantine involvement with the genesis of the
First Crusade in two influential articles. Adopting a more critical stance towards Anna Comnena, Shepard argues
that there was far more to the episode than an innocent Byzantine emperor taken aback by the turn of events and that
Alexius was cleverly exploiting the situation for his own ends. While Runciman denounces Bohemond, the Norman
leader, as a "villain" whose greed soured relations with the Byzantines, Shepard argues that this picture depends on
an uncritical reading of Anna Comnena, who glorified her own family and vilified Bohemond mercilessly. In reality
in 1096-7, Alexius viewed Bohemond as a potential tool, ally and recruit, a kind of imperial agent to oversee the
re-conquest of Asia Minor.[34]
Harris (2003) rejects the "clash of civilizations" model. He argues that trouble arose because the West misunderstood
Byzantine foreign policy. That policy was narrowly focused on three goals which the West did not accept:
acceptance of the theory that the Roman inheritance had shifted from Rome to Constantinople (called translatio
imperii), that the suzerainty of Byzantine emperors ought to be recognized by the West, and commitment to the
security of the Oikumene (that is, the civilized, Christian world centered around Constantinople). Although the
Byzantines employed many high-ranking Latins in their government, Harris finds repeated instances of Byzantine
hostility toward Latins, based on deep-rooted and long-standing antipathy that was rooted in a conviction of
Byzantine cultural and religious superiority, and perhaps heightened by a growing fear of Byzantium's military
inferiority and political weakness.[35]
Crusade of 1101
Following this crusade there was a second, less successful wave of crusaders, in which Turks led by Kilij Arslan
defeated the Crusaders in three separate battles in a well-managed response to the First Crusade.[36] This is known as
the Crusade of 1101 and may be considered an adjunct of the First Crusade.
Norwegian Crusade 1107–1110
Sigurd I of Norway was the first European king who went on a crusade and his crusader armies defeated Muslims in
Al-Andalus, the Baleares, and in The Holy Land where they joined the king of Jerusalem in the Siege of Sidon.
Second Crusade 1147–1149
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Crusades
9
After a period of relative peace in which Christians
and Muslims co-existed in the Holy Land, Muslims
conquered the town of Edessa. A new crusade was
called for by various preachers, most notably by
Bernard of Clairvaux. French and South German
armies, under the Kings Louis VII and Conrad III
respectively, marched to Jerusalem in 1147 but failed
to win any major victories, launching a failed
pre-emptive siege of Damascus, an independent city
that would soon fall into the hands of Nur ad-Din
Zangi, the main enemy of the Crusaders.[37] On the
other side of the Mediterranean, however, the Second
Europe and the Christian States in the East in 1142
Crusade met with great success as a group of
Northern European Crusaders stopped in Portugal,
allied with the Portuguese King, Afonso I of Portugal, and retook Lisbon from the Muslims in 1147.[37] A
detachment from this group of crusaders helped Count Raymond Berenguer IV of Barcelona conquer the city of
Tortosa the following year.[38] In the Holy Land by 1150, both the kings of France and Germany had returned to
their countries without any result. St. Bernard of Clairvaux, who in his preachings had encouraged the Second
Crusade, was upset with the amount of misdirected violence and slaughter of the Jewish population of the
Rhineland.[4] North Germans and Danes attacked the Wends during the 1147 Wendish Crusade, which was
unsuccessful as well.
Third Crusade 1187–1192
The Muslims had long fought among themselves, but they were finally
united by Saladin, who created a single powerful state.[39] Following
his victory at the Battle of Hattin he easily overwhelmed the disunited
crusaders in 1187 and all of the crusader holdings except a few coastal
cities. The Byzantines, fearful of the crusaders, made an alliance with
Saladin.
Saladin's victories shocked Europe. To reverse this disaster Emperor
Frederick I Barbarossa (r. 1152-1190) of Germany, King Philip II of
France, (r. 1180-1223), and King Richard the Lion-Hearted (r.
1189-1199) of England established a crusade; the pope's role was
minor. Frederick died en route and few of his men reached the Holy
A statue of king Richard I of England (Richard
Land. The other two armies arrived but were beset by political
the Lionheart), outside the Palace of Westminster
quarrels. King Philip feigned illness and returned to France, there
in London.
scheming to win back the duchy of Normandy from Richard's control.
Richard captured the island of Cyprus from the Byzantines in 1191.[37] Cyprus served as a Crusader base for
centuries to come, and remained European hands until 1571.[37] After a long siege, Richard the Lionheart recaptured
the city of Acre and captured the entire Muslim garrison under captivity (they were executed after a series of failed
negotiations). The Crusader army headed south along the Mediterranean coast. They defeated the Muslims near
Arsuf, recaptured the port city of Jaffa, and were in sight of Jerusalem.[37] However, Richard did not believe he
would be able to hold Jerusalem once it was captured, as the majority of Crusaders would then return to Europe, and
the crusade ended without the taking of Jerusalem.[37] Richard left the following year after negotiating a treaty with
Crusades
10
Saladin. The treaty allowed unarmed Christian pilgrims to make pilgrimages to the Holy Land (Jerusalem), while it
remained under Muslim control.
Richard the Lion-Hearted was the sole leader of the Third Crusade. His exploits gave rise to the legends of the
Lion-Hearted, and, through them, Richard acquired a greatly exaggerated posthumous prestige. More showman than
statesman, a brave knight but a bad king, his stature was measured by Winston Churchill" "His life was one
magnificent parade which, when ended, left only an empty plain." Richard did regain Acre and Jaffa for the
Christians, but that was all. The agreement he finally reached with Saladin gave pilgrims free access to Jerusalem
and little else. The city itself and the adjoining kingdom, except for some coastal cities, were still subject to the same
law--that of the Koran, not the Holy Bible. [40] [41]
Fourth Crusade 1202–1204
The Fourth Crusade was initiated in
1202 by Pope Innocent III, with the
intention of invading the Holy Land
through Egypt. Because the Crusaders
lacked the funds to pay for the fleet
and provisions that they had contracted
from the Venetians, Doge Enrico
The Latin Empire and the Partition of the Byzantine Empire after the Fourth Crusade. (c.
Dandolo enlisted the crusaders to
1204)
restore the Christian city of Zara
(Zadar) to obedience. Because they
subsequently lacked provisions and time on their vessel lease, the leaders decided to go to Constantinople, where
they attempted to place a Byzantine exile on the throne. After a series of misunderstandings and outbreaks of
violence, the Crusaders sacked the city in 1204, and established the so-called Latin Empire and a series of other
Crusader states throughout the territories of the Greek Byzantine Empire. This is often seen as the final breaking
point of the Great Schism between the Eastern Orthodox Church and (Western) Roman Catholic Church.
Albigensian Crusade
The Albigensian Crusade was launched
in 1209 to eliminate the heretical
Cathars of Occitania (the south of
modern-day France).[42] It was a
decade-long struggle that had as much
to do with the concerns of northern
France to extend its control southwards
as it did with heresy. In the end, both
the Cathars and the independence of
southern France were exterminated.[43]
Pope Innocentius III excommunicating the Albigensians (left), Massacre against the
Albigensians by the crusaders (right)
Children's Crusade
A spontaneous youth movement in France and Germany in 1212 attracted large numbers of peasant teenagers and
young people (few were under age 15). They were convinced they could succeed where older and more sinful
crusaders had failed: the miraculous power of their faith would triumph where the force of arms had not. Many
parish priests and parents encouraged such religious fervor and urged them on. The pope and bishops opposed the
attempt but failed to stop it entirely. A band of several thousand youth and young men led by a German named
Crusades
Nicholas set out for Italy. About a third survived the march over the Alps and got as far as Genoa; another group
came to Marseilles. The luckier ones eventually managed to get safely home, but many others were sold as lifetime
slaves on the auction blocks of Marseilles slave dealers. The sources are scattered and unclear and historians are still
not sure exactly what happened.[44]
Fifth Crusade 1217–1221
By processions, prayers, and preaching, the Church attempted to set another crusade afoot, and the Fourth Council of
the Lateran (1215) formulated a plan for the recovery of the Holy Land. In the first phase, a crusading force from
Austria and Hungary joined the forces of the king of Jerusalem and the prince of Antioch to take back Jerusalem. In
the second phase, crusader forces achieved a remarkable feat in the capture of Damietta in Egypt in 1219, but under
the urgent insistence of the papal legate, Pelagius, they then launched a foolhardy attack on Cairo in July of 1221.
The crusaders were turned back after their dwindling supplies led to a forced retreat. A night-time attack by the ruler
of Egypt, the powerful Ayyubid Sultan Al-Kamil, resulted in a great number of crusader losses and eventually in the
surrender of the army. Al-Kamil agreed to an eight-year peace agreement with Europe.
Al-Kamil had put a bounty of a Byzantine gold piece for every Christian head brought to him during the war. During
1219, St. Francis of Assisi crossed the battle lines at Damietta in order to speak with Al-Kamil. He and his
companion Illuminatus were captured and beaten and brought before the Sultan. St. Bonaventure, in his Major Life
of St. Francis, says that the Sultan was impressed by Francis and spent some time with him. Francis was given safe
passage and although he was offered many gifts, all he accepted was a horn for calling the faithful to prayer. This act
eventually led to the establishment of the Franciscan Custody of the Holy Land.
Sixth Crusade 1228–1229
Emperor Frederick II had repeatedly vowed a crusade but failed to live up to his words, for which he was
excommunicated by Pope Gregory IX in 1228. He nonetheless set sail from Brindisi, landed in Saint-Jean d'Acre.
There were no battles as Frederick made a peace treaty with Al-Kamil, the ruler of Egypt. This treaty allowed
Christians to rule over most of Jerusalem and a strip of territory from Acre to Jerusalem, while the Muslims were
given control of the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa Mosque. Thus he achieved unexpected success. In 1225 he
married Yolanda, the young heiress to the kingdom of Jerusalem; upon her death in 1228, Frederick crowned himself
king of Jerusalem.[45] The peace lasted for about ten years. Many of the Muslims though were not happy with
Al-Kamil for giving up control of Jerusalem. In 1244, following the siege of Jerusalem, the Muslims regained
control of the city.[28]
Seventh Crusade 1248–1254
The papal interests represented by the Templars brought on a conflict with Egypt in 1243, and in the following year a
Khwarezmian force summoned by the latter stormed Jerusalem. The crusaders were drawn into battle at La Forbie in
Gaza. The crusader army and its Bedouin mercenaries were completely defeated within forty-eight hours by Baibars'
force of Khwarezmian tribesmen. This battle is considered by many historians to have been the death knell to the
Kingdom of Outremer.
Louis IX of France organized a crusade against Egypt from 1248 to 1254, leaving from the newly constructed port of
Aigues-Mortes in southern France. The crusaders were decisively defeated en-route to Cairo and King Louis was
captured; the Arabs demanded and received a huge ransom for the release of the hapless king.[46]
11
Crusades
12
Eighth Crusade 1270
Ignoring his advisers, in 1270 King Louis IX again attacked the Arabs in Tunis in North Africa. He picked the
hottest season of the year for campaigning and his army was devastated by disease. The king himself died, ending
the last major attempt to free the Holy Land.[47] The numbering of crusades is problematical. The Eighth Crusade is
sometimes counted as the Seventh, if the Fifth and Sixth Crusades are counted as a single crusade. The Ninth
Crusade is sometimes also counted as part of the Eighth.
Ninth Crusade 1271–1272
The future Edward I of England undertook another expedition against
Baibars in 1271, after having accompanied Louis on the Eighth
Crusade. Louis died in Tunisia. The Ninth Crusade was deemed a
failure and ended the Crusades in the Middle East.[48]
In their later years, faced with the threat of the Egyptian Mamluks, the
Crusaders' hopes rested with a Franco-Mongol alliance. The Ilkhanate's
Mongols were thought to be sympathetic to Christianity, and the
Frankish princes were most effective in gathering their help,
engineering their invasions of the Middle East on several occasions.[49]
Although the Mongols successfully attacked as far south as Damascus
on these campaigns, the ability to effectively coordinate with Crusades
from the west was repeatedly frustrated most notably at the Battle of
Ain Jalut in 1260. The Mamluks, led by Baibars, eventually made good
their pledge to cleanse the entire Middle East of the Franks. With the
fall of Antioch (1268), Tripoli (1289), and Acre (1291), those
Christians unable to leave the cities were massacred or enslaved and
the last traces of Christian rule in the Levant disappeared.[50] [51]
Christian states in the Levant
Aftermath
The island of Ruad, three kilometers from the Syrian shore, was occupied for several years by the Knights Templar
but was ultimately lost to the Mamluks in the Siege of Ruad on September 26, 1302. The Armenian Kingdom of
Cilicia, which was not itself a crusader state, and was not Latin Christian, but was closely associated with the
crusader states and was ruled by the Latin Christian Lusignan dynasty for its last 34 years, survived until 1375. Other
echoes of the crusader states survived for longer, but well away from the Holy Land itself. The Knights of St John
carved out a new territory based on the Aegean island of Rhodes, which they ruled until 1522. Cyprus remained
under the rule of the House of Lusignan until 1474/89 (the precise date depends on how Venice's highly unusual
takeover is interpreted – see Caterina Cornaro) and subsequently that of Venice until 1570. By this time the Knights
of St John had moved to Malta – even further from the Holy Land – which they ruled until 1798.[52]
Crusades
13
Northern Crusades
Crusades of the Teutonic Order
A German religious and military order originally founded during the
siege of Acre in the Third Crusade and modeled after the Knights
Templars and Hospitalers, the Teutonic Knights moved to eastern
Europe early in the 13th century.[53] There, under their grand master,
Hermann von Salza, they became powerful and prominent. In 1198, the
Teutonic Order started the Livonian Crusade. Despite numerous
setbacks and rebellions, by 1290, Livonians, Latgalians, Selonians,
Estonians (including Oeselians), Curonians and Semigallians had been
all gradually subjugated. Denmark and Sweden also participated in
fight against Estonians.
The Livonian Knights
In 1229, responding to an appeal from the Duke of Poland, they began a crusade against the pagan Slavs of Prussia.
They became sovereigns over lands they conquered over the next century. In a series of campaigns, the Teutonic
Knights gained control over the whole Baltic coast, founding numerous towns and fortresses and establishing
Christianity.[54]
The Teutonic Order's attempts to conquer Orthodox Russia (particularly the Republics of Pskov and Novgorod), an
enterprise endorsed by Pope Gregory IX, can also be considered as a part of the Northern Crusades. One of the major
blows for the idea of the conquest of Russia was the Battle of the Ice in 1242. With or without the Pope's blessing,
Sweden also undertook several crusades against Orthodox Novgorod.
Swedish Crusades
The Swedish conquest of Finland in the Middle Ages has traditionally been divided into three "crusades": the First
Swedish Crusade around 1155 AD, the Second Swedish Crusade about 1249 AD and the Third Swedish Crusade in
1293 AD.
The First Swedish Crusade is purely legendary, and according to most historians today, never took place as described
in the legend and did not result in any ties between Finland and Sweden. For the most part, it was made up in the late
13th century to date the Swedish rule in Finland further back in time. No historical record has also survived
describing the second one, but it probably did take place and ended up in the concrete conquest of southwestern
Finland. The third one was against Novgorod, and is properly documented by both parties of the conflict.
According to archaeological finds, Finland was largely Christian already before the said crusades. Thus the
"crusades" can rather be seen as ordinary expeditions of conquest whose main target was territorial gain. The
expeditions were dubbed as actual crusades only in the 19th century by the national-romanticist Swedish and Finnish
historians.
Other
Wendish Crusade
Contemporaneous with the Second Crusade, Saxons and Danes fought against Polabian Slavs in the 1147 Wendish
Crusade.
Stedinger Crusade
Between 1232 and 1234, there was a crusade against the Stedingers. This crusade was special, because the
Stedingers were not heathens or heretics, but fellow Roman Catholics. They were free Frisian farmers who resented
attempts of the count of Oldenburg and the archbishop Bremen-Hamburg to make an end to their freedoms. The
Crusades
14
archbishop excommunicated them, and Pope Gregory IX declared a crusade in 1232. The Stedingers were defeated
in 1234.
Aragonese Crusade
The Aragonese Crusade, or Crusade of Aragón, was declared by Pope Martin IV against the King of Aragón, Peter
III the Great, in 1284 and 1285.
Alexandrian Crusade
The Alexandrian Crusade of October 1365 was a minor seaborne crusade against Muslim Alexandria led by Peter I
of Cyprus. His motivation was at least as commercial as religious.
Norwich Crusade
See Norwich Crusade.
Mahdian Crusade
The Mahdian Crusade of Summer 1390 was a French-Genoese enterprise against Muslim pirates in North Africa and
their main base at Mahdia led by Louis II, Duke of Bourbon.
Crusades in the Balkans
To counter the expanding Ottoman Empire, several crusades were
launched in the 15th century. The most notable are:
• the Crusade of Nicopolis (1396) organized by Sigismund of
Luxemburg, king of Hungary, culminated in the Battle of Nicopolis
• the Crusade of Varna (1444) led by the Polish-Hungarian king,
Władysław Warneńczyk, ended in the Battle of Varna
• and the Crusade of 1456 organized to lift the Siege of Belgrade led
by John Hunyadi and Giovanni da Capistrano
Crusade against the Tatars
In 1259, Mongols led by Burundai and Nogai Khan ravaged the
principality of Halych-Volynia, Lithuania and Poland. After that Pope
Alexander IV tried without success to create a crusade against the Blue
Horde (see Mongol invasion of Poland).
In the 14th century, Khan Tokhtamysh combined the Blue and White
Hordes forming the Golden Horde. It seemed that the power of the
Golden Horde had begun to rise, but in 1389, Tokhtamysh made the
disastrous decision of waging war on his former master, the great
Tamerlane. Tamerlane's hordes rampaged through southern Russia,
crippling the Golden Horde's economy and practically wiping out its
defenses in those lands.
The Siege of Belgrade in 1456
After losing the war, Tokhtamysh was then dethroned by the party of Khan Temur Kutlugh and Emir Edigu,
supported by Tamerlane. When Tokhtamysh asked Vytautas the Great for assistance in retaking the Horde, the latter
readily gathered a huge army which included Lithuanians, Ruthenians, Russians, Mongols, Moldavians, Poles,
Romanians and Teutonic Knights.
Crusades
In 1398, the huge army moved from Moldavia and conquered the southern steppe all the way to the Dnieper River
and northern Crimea. Inspired by their great successes, Vytautas declared a 'Crusade against the Tatars' with Papal
backing. Thus, in 1399, the army of Vytautas once again moved on the Horde. His army met the Horde's at the
Vorskla River, slightly inside Lithuanian territory.
Although the Lithuanian army was well equipped with cannon, it could not resist a rear attack from Edigu's reserve
units. Vytautas hardly escaped alive. Many princes of his kin—possibly as many as 20—were killed (for example,
Stefan Musat, Prince of Moldavia and two of his brothers, while a fourth was badly injured ), and the victorious
Tatars besieged Kiev. "And the Christian blood flowed like water, up to the Kievan walls," as one chronicler put it.
Meanwhile, Temur Kutlugh died from the wounds received in the battle, and Tokhtamysh was killed by one of his
own men.
Hussite Crusade
The Hussite Crusade(s), also known as the "Hussite Wars," or the "Bohemian Wars," involved the military actions
against and amongst the followers of Jan Hus in Bohemia in the period 1420 to circa 1434. The Hussite Wars were
arguably the first European war in which hand-held gunpowder weapons such as muskets made a decisive
contribution. The Taborite faction of the Hussite warriors were basically infantry, and their many defeats of larger
armies with heavily armoured knights helped affect the infantry revolution. In the end, it was an inconclusive war.
Role of women
Most writings stress the crusades as a masculine movement symbolic of honour and male courage. But women were
also involved behind the scenes, and as direct victims.
Women at home were intricately connected whether aware of it or not in the recruitment of crusading men. Their
encouragement and familial ties would present men friendly connections which made the prospect of taking the cross
more appealing for those risking their lives. Arguably the most significant role that women played in the West during
the crusades was their preservation of the home. The best known example is of Adela of Blois, wife of Stephen of
Blois whose correspondence with her husband while he was on Crusade and she was at home managing his fief has
survived in part. It appears she was rather more keen on his crusading than he was. Men could journey to The Holy
Land without having to worry about their home because their wives were in charge of their estates and families.[55]
Even though most women showed their support for the crusades at home, some women took the cross themselves to
go on the crusade. Aristocratic women who joined the movement often found that they had new positions of
authority they did not have in the West. Eleanor of Aquitaine, the wealthy queen of France and the wife of king
Louis VII, took the cross from St. Bernard of Clairvaux on Easter Sunday 1145 to join her husband.[56] Another
woman who had ultimate political power in the East was Melisende of Jerusalem, who under law gained hereditary
rights to the crown upon her husband’s death. Like Eleanor, Melisende never led troops into battle, but she did
participate in acts of political diplomacy. Less successful was her granddaughter Sibylla of Jerusalem, whose choice
of husband had been a crucial political issue since her childhood. Her second marriage to Guy of Lusignan made him
the king-consort on the death of Baldwin IV, with disastrous results. While most women were there to help and care
for the crusading men by bringing them water or raising their spirits by offering emotional support, there were
women who had specific tasks which defined their feminine characteristics like the washerwoman.[57]
The permanent residents of the Crusader kingdoms, if born in Europe, had usually come unmarried. Very many
married women from Apulia in Southern Italy, where living conditions were often harsh, encouraged young women
to take ship for Palestine in the knowledge that many men there were looking for wives.
The most controversial role that women had in the crusades was of course the role which threatened their femininity,
actual militancy. When analyzing the primary documentation of female militancy, one must be cautious. The
accounts of women fighting come mostly from Muslim historians whose aim was to portray Christian women as
barbaric and ungodly because of their acts of killing. The contrasting view from Christian accounts portray women
15
Crusades
16
fighting only in emergency situations for the preservation of the camps and their own lives. In these cases women are
seen as more feminine while behaving like ‘proper women’.[58] Virtually all crusade writings came from men, and
women would have been interpreted subjectively no matter what roles they played.
Criticism
Elements of the Crusades were criticized by some from the time of their inception in 1095. For example, Roger
Bacon felt the Crusades were not effective because, "those who survive, together with their children, are more and
more embittered against the Christian faith."[59] In spite of such criticism, the movement was widely supported in
Europe long after the fall of Acre in 1291.
Historians agree that St. Francis of Assisi crossed enemy lines to meet the Sultan of Egypt. Hoeberichts cast doubt
on the intentions most Christian historians assign to Francis.
From the fall of Acre forward, the Crusades to recover Jerusalem and the Christian East were largely lost. Later, 18th
century Enlightenment thinkers judged the Crusaders harshly. Likewise, some modern historians in the West
expressed moral outrage. In the 1950s, Sir Steven Runciman wrote a resounding condemnation:
"High ideals were besmirched by cruelty and greed ... the Holy War was nothing more than a long act of
intolerance in the name of God".[59]
Ibn Jubayr's described the Muslims living under the Christian crusaders' Kingdom of Jerusalem:
We left Tibnin by a road running past farms where Muslims live who do very well under the Franks-may
Allah preserve us from such a temptation! ... The Muslims own their own houses and rule themselves in their
own way. This is the way the farms and big villages are organized in Frankish territory. Many Muslims are
sorely tempted to settle here when they see the far from comfortable conditions in which their brethren live in
the districts under Muslim rule. Unfortunately for the Muslims, they have always reason for complaint about
the injustices of their chiefs in the lands governed by their coreligionists, whereas they can have nothing but
praise for the conduct of the Franks, whose justice they can always rely on.[60]
Historical perspective
Western and Eastern historiography present variously different views on the crusades, in large part because
"crusade" invokes dramatically opposed sets of associations—"crusade" as a valiant struggle for a supreme cause,
and "crusade" as a byword for barbarism and aggression.
Legacy
Politics and culture
The Crusades had an enormous influence on the European Middle Ages. At times, much of the continent was united
under a powerful Papacy, but by the 14th century, the development of centralized bureaucracies (the foundation of
the modern nation state) was well on its way in France, England, Spain, Burgundy, and Portugal, and partly because
of the dominance of the church at the beginning of the crusading era.
Crusades
17
Although Europe had been exposed to Islamic culture for centuries
through contacts in Iberian Peninsula and Sicily, much knowledge in
areas such as science, medicine, and architecture was transferred from
the Islamic to the western world during the crusade era.
The military experiences of the crusades also had a limited degree of
influence on European castle design; for example, Caernarfon Castle,
in Wales, begun in 1283, directly reflects the style of fortresses Edward
I had observed while fighting in the Crusades.[61]
Crusader society in the Kingdom of Jerusalem was also characterized
by a culture of innovation, including in economic and social structures,
governance and taxation, social mobility, and agricultural technology.
In addition, the Crusades are seen as having opened up European
culture for the world, especially Asia:
19th century depiction of a victorious Saladin
“
The Crusades brought about results of which the popes had never dreamed, and which were perhaps the most, important of all. They
re-established traffic between the East and West, which, after having been suspended for several centuries, was then resumed with even
greater energy; they were the means of bringing from the depths of their respective provinces and introducing into the most civilized Asiatic
countries Western knights, to whom a new world was thus revealed, and who returned to their native land filled with novel ideas... If, indeed,
the Christian civilization of Europe has become universal culture, in the highest sense, the glory redounds, in no small measure, to the
[4]
Crusades."
”
Along with trade, new scientific discoveries and inventions made their way east or west. Arab and classical Greek
advances (including the development of algebra, optics, and refinement of engineering) made their way west and
sped the course of advancement in European universities that led to the Renaissance in later centuries
The invasions of German crusaders prevented formation of the large Lithuanian state incorporating all Baltic nations
and tribes. Lithuania was destined to become a small country and forced to expand to the East looking for resources
to combat the crusaders.[62] The Northern Crusades caused great loss of life among the pagan Polabian Slavs, and
they consequently offered little opposition to German colonization (known as Ostsiedlung) of the Elbe-Oder region
and were gradually assimilated by the Germans, with the exception of Sorbs.[63]
The First Crusade ignited a long tradition of organized violence against Jews in European culture.[64]
The Albigensian Crusade was initiated by the Catholic Church to eliminate the Cathar heresy in Languedoc. The
violence led to France's acquisition of lands with closer cultural and linguistic ties to Catalonia. The Albigensian
Crusade also had a role in the creation and institutionalization of both the Dominican Order and the Medieval
Inquisition.[65]
Trade
The need to raise, transport and supply large armies led to a flourishing of trade throughout Europe. Roads largely
unused since the days of Rome saw significant increases in traffic as local merchants began to expand their horizons.
This was not only because the Crusades prepared Europe for travel, but also because many wanted to travel after
being reacquainted with the products of the Middle East. This also aided in the beginning of the Renaissance in Italy,
as various Italian city-states from the very beginning had important and profitable trading colonies in the crusader
states, both in the Holy Land and later in captured Byzantine territory.
Crusades
Increased trade brought many things to Europeans that were once unknown or extremely rare and costly. These
goods included a variety of spices, ivory, jade, diamonds, improved glass-manufacturing techniques, early forms of
gun powder, oranges, apples, and other Asian crops, and many other products.
From a larger perspective, and certainly from that of noted naval/maritime historian Archibald Lewis, the Crusades
must be viewed as part of a massive macrohistorical event during which Western Europe, primarily by its ability in
naval warfare, amphibious siege, and maritime trade, was able to advance in all spheres of civilization.[37]
Recovering from the Dark Ages of AD 700–1000, throughout the 11th century Western Europe began to push the
boundaries of its civilization.[37] Prior to the First Crusade the Italian city-state of Venice, along with the Byzantine
Empire, had cleared the Adriatic Sea of Islamic pirates, and loosened the Islamic hold on the Mediterranean Sea
(Byzantine-Muslim War of 1030–1035).[37] The Normans, with the assistance of the Italian city-states of Genoa and
Pisa, had retaken Sicily from the Muslims from 1061–1091.[37] These conflicts prior to the First Crusade had both
retaken Western European territory and weakened the Islamic hold on the Mediterranean, allowing for the rise of
Western European Mediterranean trading and naval powers such as the Sicilian Normans and the Italian city-states
of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa.[37]
During the Middle Ages, the key trading region of Western Europe was the Black Sea-Mediterranean Sea-Red
Sea.[37] It was the aforementioned pre-First Crusade actions, along with the Crusades themselves, which allowed
Western Europe to contest the trade of the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea, for a period which began in the 11th
century and would only be ended by the Turkish Ottoman Empire beginning in the mid-to-late 15th century.[37] This
Western European contestation of vital sea lanes allowed the economy of Western Europe to advance to previously
unknown degrees, most obviously as regards the Maritime Republics of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa.[37] Indeed, it is no
coincidence that the Renaissance began in Italy, as the Maritime Republics, through their control of the Eastern
Mediterranean and Black Seas, were able to return to Italy the ancient knowledge of the Greeks and Romans, as well
as the products of distant East Asia.[37]
Combined with the Mongol Empire, Western Europe traded extensively with East Asia, the security of the Mongol
Empire allowing the products of Asia to be brought to such Western European controlled ports as Acre, Antioch,
Kaffa (on the Black Sea) and even, for a time, Constantinople itself.[37] The Fifth Crusade of 1217–1221 and the
Seventh Crusade of 1248–1254 were largely attempts to secure Western European control of the Red Sea trade
region, as both Crusades were directed against Egypt, the power base of the Ayyubid, and then Mameluke,
Sultanates.[37] It was only in the 14th century, as the stability of trade with Asia collapsed with the Mongol Empire,
the Mamelukes destroyed the Middle Eastern Crusader States, and the rising Ottoman Empire impeded further
Western European trade with Asia, that Western Europeans sought alternate trade routes to Asia, ultimately leading
to Columbus's voyage of 1492.[37]
Caucasus
In the Caucasus Mountains of Georgia, in the remote highland region of Khevsureti, a tribe called the Khevsurs are
thought to possibly be direct descendants of a party of crusaders who got separated from a larger army and have
remained in isolation with some of the crusader culture intact. Into the 20th century, relics of armor, weaponry and
chain mail were still being used and passed down in such communities. Russian serviceman and ethnographer
Arnold Zisserman who spent 25 years (1842–1867) in the Caucasus, believed the exotic group of Georgian
highlanders were descendants of the last Crusaders based on their customs, language, art and other evidence.[66]
American traveler Richard Halliburton saw and recorded the customs of the tribe in 1935.[67]
18
Crusades
Etymology and usage
The crusades were never referred to as such by their participants. The original crusaders were known by various
terms, including fideles Sancti Petri (the faithful of Saint Peter) or milites Christi (knights of Christ). They saw
themselves as undertaking an iter, a journey, or a peregrinatio, a pilgrimage, though pilgrims were usually forbidden
from carrying arms.
Like pilgrims, each crusader swore a vow (a votus), to be fulfilled on successfully reaching Jerusalem, and they were
granted a cloth cross (crux) to be sewn into their clothes. This "taking of the cross", the crux, eventually became
associated with the entire journey; the word "crusade" (coming into English from the Medieval French croisade and
Spanish cruzada)[68] developed from this.
Footnotes
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Oxford History of the Crusades New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0192853643.
Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The First Crusaders, 1095–1131 Cambridge University Press, 1998. ISBN 0521646030.
Such as Muslim territories in Al-Andalus, Ifriqiya, and Egypt, as well as in Eastern Europe
Crusades in The New Catholic Encyclopedia, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1966, Vol. IV, p. 508. (http:/ / www. newadvent.
org/ cathen/ 04543c. htm)
[5] e.g. the Albigensian Crusade, the Aragonese Crusade, the Reconquista, and the Northern Crusades.
[6] Halsall, Paul (December 1997). "Philip de Novare: Les Gestes des Ciprois, The Crusade of Frederick II, 1228–29" (http:/ / www. fordham.
edu/ halsall/ source/ 1228frederick2. html). Medieval Sourcebook. Fordham University. . Retrieved 2008-02-08.—"Gregory IX had in fact
excommunicated Frederick before he left Sicily the second time"
[7] The Gospel in All Lands By Methodist Episcopal Church Missionary Society, Missionary Society, Methodist Episcopal Church, pg. 262
[8] Shaye I.D. Cohen. "Legitimization Under Constantine" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ pages/ frontline/ shows/ religion/ why/ legitimization.
html). PBS. . Retrieved 2007-08-11.
[9] " HISTORY: Foreign Domination (http:/ / www. mfa. gov. il/ MFA/ Facts+ About+ Israel/ History/ HISTORY-+ Foreign+ Domination.
htm)"
[10] Gonen, Rivka, Contested holiness: Jewish, Muslim, and Christian perspectives on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, KTAV Publishing
House, 2003, p.77
[11] Denys Pringle, "Architecture in Latin East" in The Oxford History of the Crusades ed. Jonathan Riley-Smith (New York: Oxford University
Press,1999) 157
[12] Thomas F. Madden, The New Concise History of the Crusades (2005) p. 8
[13] Joseph F. O'Callaghan, Reconquest and Crusade in Medieval Spain (2004)
[14] Early crusading popes used gendered language that excluded women's military participation, but after the loss of Jerusalem, popes used
neutral and even inclusive language, thus inviting women's participation. In any case women "camp followers" accompanied the armies,
usually to handle cooking and cleaning chores. Susan B. Edgington and Sarah Lambert, eds. Gendering the Crusades. (2002)
[15] Spanish Christians were exempt because they were busy expelling the Moors from Spain.
[16] Dana Carleton Munro, "The Speech of Pope Urban II at Clermont, 1095," The American Historical Review, Vol. 11, No. 2 (Jan., 1906), pp.
231-242 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 1834642)
[17] "Crusades" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
[18] Fulcher of Chartres (http:/ / www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ source/ urban2-5vers. html#Fulcher), Medieval Sourcebook.
[19] See Catholic Encyclopedia (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 06624b. htm)
[20] Christopher Tyerman, God's War: A New History of the Crusades (2006) pp. 106–124
[21] Barbara W. Tuchman, A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century (1978) p 279
[22] Arab Historians of the Crusades, trans. F. Gabrieli, trans. E. J. Costello. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984.
[23] Tyerman, pp. 146–153
[24] Trumpbour, John. “Crusades.” In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. , edited by John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies
Online, http:/ / www. oxfordislamicstudies. com/ article (accessed February 17, 2008).
[25] "Les Croisades, origines et consequences", p.62, Claude Lebedel, ISBN 2737341361
[26] Benjamin Z. Kedar, "The Subjected Muslims of the Frankish Levant", in The Crusades: The Essential Readings, ed. Thomas F. Madden,
Blackwell, 2002, pg. 244. Originally published in Muslims Under Latin Rule, 1100–1300, ed. James M. Powell, Princeton University Press,
1990. Kedar quotes his numbers from Joshua Prawer, Histoire du royaume latin de Jérusalem, tr. G. Nahon, Paris, 1969, vol. 1, pp. 498,
568–72.
[27] The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades, Extracted and translated from the chronicle of Ibn Al-Qalanisi, translated by H.A.R. Gibb
(London: Luzac & Co., 1932).
[28] “Crusades” In The Islamic World: past and Present. , edited by John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online, http:/ / www.
oxfordislamicstudies. com/ article (accessed February 17, 2008).
19
Crusades
[29] Jeremy Cohen, Sanctifying the Name of God: Jewish Martyrs and Jewish Memories of the First Crusade. (2004) examines Hebrew accounts
of how crusader bands in 1096 forced Jews in Mainz, Speyer, and other towns to convert and murdered or drive to suicide many who refused
summary baptism, and how some Jewish leaders killed their followers and mothers killed their children.
[30] Thomas Asbridge, First Crusade: A New History (2004)
[31] John M. Riddle, A history of the Middle Ages, 300-1500 (2008) p. 315
[32] Steven Runciman, A history of the Crusades (Volume 1, 1951)
[33] R-J. Lilie, Byzantium and the Crusader States 1095-1204 (1993); Paul Magdalino, The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos 1143-1180 (1993),
pp. 66-108.
[34] Jonathan Shepard, "Cross-purposes: Alexius Comnenus and the First Crusade," in The First Crusade Origins and Impact, ed. Jonathan
Phillips (1997), pp. 107-29, and Shepard, "When Greek meets Greek: Alexius Comnenus and Bohemond in 1097-98", Byzantine and Modern
Greek Studies, 12 (1988), 185-277.
[35] Jonathan, Harris, Byzantium and the Crusades. (2003)
[36] Contesting the Crusades By Norman Housley, pg. 42
[37] Lewis, Archibald (January 1988). Nomads and Crusaders: AD 1000–1368.. Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253206527.
[38] Villegas-Aristizábal, L. (2009), "Anglo-Norman involvement in the conquest of Tortosa and Settlement of Tortosa, 1148–1180", Crusades
8, pp. 63–129
[39] P. M. Holt, "Saladin and His Admirers: A Biographical Reassessment," Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of
London, Vol. 46, No. 2 (1983), pp. 235-239 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 615389)
[40] Charles M. Brand, "The Byzantines and Saladin, 1185-1192: Opponents of the Third Crusade," Speculum, Vol. 37, No. 2 (Apr., 1962), pp.
167-181 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 2849946)
[41] A recent popular account is James Reston, Jr., Warriors of God: Richard the Lionheart and Saladin in the Third Crusade (2005)
[42] " Massacre of the Pure (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,897752-1,00. html)." Time. 28 April 1961.
[43] Crusades of the 13th century (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 144695/ Crusades/ 235534/ Crusades-of-the-13th-century).
Britannica Onlince Encyclopedia.
[44] Dana C. Munro, "The Children's Crusade," The American Historical Review, Vol. 19, No. 3 (Apr., 1914), pp. 516-524 in JSTOR (http:/ /
www. jstor. org/ pss/ 1835076); and Norman P. Zacour, "The Children's Crusade," in R. L. Wolff, and H. W. Hazard, eds., The later
Crusades, 1189-1311 (1969) pp. 325-342, esp. 330-37 online edition (http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc. edu/ cgi-bin/ History/
History-idx?type=article& did=HISTORY. CRUSTWO. I0023& isize=M)
[45] Ernest Kantorowicz, Frederick the 2nd: 1194-1250 (1957)
[46] Joseph R. Strayer, "The Crusades of Louis IX," in R. L. Wolff and H. W. Hazard, eds., The later Crusades, 1189-1311 (1969) pp. 487-521
online edition (http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc. edu/ cgi-bin/ History/ History-idx?type=goto& id=History. CrusTwo& isize=M& submit=Go+
to+ page& page=487); Peter Jackson, The Seventh Crusade, 1244-1254 (2007) excerpt and text search (http:/ / www. amazon. com/
Seventh-Crusade-12441254-Texts-Translation/ dp/ 0754657221/ ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8& s=books& qid=1205399558& sr=8-5)
[47] Joseph R. Strayer, "The Crusades of Louis IX," in R. L. Wolff and H. W. Hazard, eds., The later Crusades, 1189-1311 (1969) pp. 487-521
online edition (http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc. edu/ cgi-bin/ History/ History-idx?type=goto& id=History. CrusTwo& isize=M& submit=Go+
to+ page& page=487)
[48] Dore's Illustrations of the Crusades By Gustave Dore, Dore
[49] David Nicolle, Crusader Warfare Volume II: Muslims, Mongols and the Struggle against the Crusades (2007)
[50] Hetoum II (1289‑1297) (http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Gazetteer/ Places/ Asia/ Armenia/ _Texts/ KURARM/ 30*. html)
[51] "Third Crusade: Siege of Acre" (http:/ / www. historynet. com/ wars_conflicts/ ancient_medieval_wars/ 3028006. html?showAll=y& c=y).
Historynet.com. . Retrieved 2010-04-18.
[52] William Lannin, Historic review of the order of the knights hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes, and Malta (1922) online edition
(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3w4MAAAAYAAJ)
[53] Charles Moeller, "Teutonic Order," Catholic Encyclopedia (1912) vol 14 online (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 14541b. htm)
[54] Edgar N. Johnson, "The German Crusade on the Baltic," in H. W. Hazard, ed. The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries (http:/ / digicoll. library.
wisc. edu/ cgi-bin/ History/ History-idx?type=article& did=HISTORY. CRUSTHREE. I0028& isize=M) (1975) pp 545-85
[55] Jonathan Riley-Smith. The First Crusaders 1096–1131, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press 1997, 99.
[56] Roy Douglas Davis Owen. Eleanor of Aquitaine : queen and legend, Oxford, UK; Cambridge, Mass: Blackwell Publishing 1993, 22.
[57] Susan B. Edington and Sarah Lambert ed. Gendering the Crusades, New York: Columbia University Press 2002, 98.
[58] Helen Nicholson. “Women on the Third Crusade. Journal of Medieval History (23) no.4 (1997) pp. 337.”
[59] Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Atlas of the Crusades New York: Facts on File, 1990. ISBN 0-8160-2186-4.
[60] " The crusaders (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=YdzpSO1_Pm8C& pg=PA172& dq& hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false)". Régine
Pernoud (2003). p.172. ISBN 0898709490.
[61] "Caernarfon Castle" (http:/ / uktv. co. uk/ blighty/ listing/ aid/ 582330). Uktv.co.uk. 2007-03-12. . Retrieved 2010-04-18.
[62] (Lithuanian) Tomas Baranauskas. Prūsų sukilimas—prarasta galimybė sukurti kitokią Lietuvą (Prussian rebellion—the lost chance of
creating different Lithuania). 20 September 2006 (http:/ / www. omni. lt/ ?i$9359_70693$z_373522)
[63] Wend (people) (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 639735/ Wend). Britannica Online Encyclopedia.
[64] Crusades (Christian Warfare with Islam in Palestine) (http:/ / www. jewishvirtuallibrary. org/ jsource/ History/ crusadetime. html).
Jewishvirtuallibrary.org.
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Crusades
[65] Joseph Reese Strayer (1992). " The Albigensian Crusades (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=lskGFVtySXsC& pg=PA143& dq&
hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false)". University of Michigan Press. p.143. ISBN 0472064762
[66] Images from the Georgia–Chechnya Border, 1970–1980 (http:/ / hearstmuseum. berkeley. edu/ exhibitions/ photo2/ photo2_intro. html),
Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology.
[67] Sword and Buckler Fighting among the Lost Crusaders (http:/ / www. swordhistory. com/ excerpts/ crusaders. html). Excerpts of
Halliburton's observations
[68] American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2009
Further reading
Introductions
• Andrea, Alfred J. Encyclopedia of the Crusades. (2003).
• Asbridge, Thomas. The First Crusade: A New History: The Roots of Conflict between Christianity and Islam
(2005) excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/First-Crusade-History-Conflict-Christianity/dp/
0195189051/ref=pd_bbs_9/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192595071&sr=8-9)
• Asbridge, Thomas. The Crusades: The Authoritative History of the War for the Holy Land (2011) excerpt and text
search (http://www.amazon.com/Crusades-Authoritative-History-Holy-Land/dp/0060787295/)
• France, John. Western Warfare in the Age of the Crusades, 1000-1300 (1999) online edition (http://www.
questia.com/read/109099963)
• Hillenbrand, Carole. The Crusades, Islamic Perspectives. (2000). excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.
com/Crusades-Islamic-Perspectives-Car-Hillenbrand/dp/1579582109/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&
qid=1205278657&sr=8-1)
• Holt, P.M. The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517. (1986).
• Madden, Thomas F. The New Concise History of the Crusades. (2005).
• Phillips, Jonathan. Holy Warriors: A Modern History of the Crusades (2010)
• Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Crusades: A History (2005) excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/
Crusades-History-Jonathan-Riley-Smith/dp/0300101287/ref=pd_bbs_7/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&
s=books&qid=1192595071&sr=8-7)
• Riley-Smith, Jonathan, ed. The Oxford History of the Crusades. (1995). online edition (http://www.questia.
com/read/72527140); excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/
Oxford-Illustrated-History-Crusades-Histories/dp/0192854283/ref=pd_bbs_12/
103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192595071&sr=8-12)
• Riley-Smith, Jonathan, ed. The Atlas of the Crusades (1991)
• Runciman, Steven. A History of the Crusades, Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundations of the Kingdom
of Jerusalem.; Volume II: The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East 1100-1187. and Volume III: The
Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades (1951-53), the classic narrative history; hostile toward the crusaders
• Tyerman, Christopher. God's War: A New History of the Crusades (2006)
Specialized studies
• Abulafia, David. Frederick II: A Medieval Emperor (1988)
• Baldin, M. W., ed. The first hundred years (A History of the Crusades, volume, I) 1969 online (http://digicoll.
library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?id=History.CrusOne)
• Boas, Adrian J. Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades: Society, Landscape, and Art in the Holy City under
Frankish Rule (2001) online edition (http://www.questia.com/read/107613849)
• Bréhier, Louis. "Crusades," Catholic Encyclopedia (1908) vol 4. online (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/
04543c.htm)
• Bréhier, Louis. "Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (1099-1291)," Catholic Encyclopedia (1910) vol 8. online (http://
www.newadvent.org/cathen/08361a.htm)
21
Crusades
• Bull, Marcus, and Norman Housley, eds. The Experience of Crusading Volume 1, Western Approaches. (2003)
323pp)
• Butler, R. Urban. "Urban II," Catholic Encyclopedia (1911) online (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/
15210a.htm)
• Constable, Giles. "The Historiography of the Crusades" in Angeliki E. Laiou, ed. The Crusades from the
Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World (2001); major overview of scholarship online (http://www.
doaks.org/Crusades/CR01.pdf)
• Edbury, Peter, and Jonathan Phillips, eds. The Experience of Crusading Volume 2, Defining the Crusader
Kingdom. (2003) 326pp; specialized articles by scholars
• Edgington, Susan B., and Sarah Lambert, eds. Gendering the Crusades. (2002) 232pp essays by scholars.
• Florean, Dana. "East Meets West: Cultural Confrontation and Exchange after the First Crusade." Language &
Intercultural Communication, 2007, Vol. 7 Issue 2, pp144-151 in EBSCO
• Folda, Jaroslav. Crusader Art in the Holy Land, From the Third Crusade to the Fall of Acre (2005) excerpt and
text search (http://www.amazon.com/Crusader-Holy-Land-Third-Crusade/dp/0521835836/
ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205436596&sr=8-3)
• France, John. Victory in the East: A Military History of the First Crusade (1996)
• Harris, Jonathan. Byzantium and the Crusades. (2003). Pp. 276pp
• Hillenbrand, Car. The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (1999) excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/
exec/obidos/ASIN/1579582109)
• Housley, Norman. The Later Crusades, 1274-1580: From Lyons to Alcazar (1992) online edition (http://www.
questia.com/read/65567896)
• James, Douglas. "Christians and the First Crusade." History Review (Dec 2005), Issue 53; online at EBSCO
• Kagay, Donald J., and L. J. Andrew Villalon, eds. Crusaders, Condottieri, and Cannon: Medieval Warfare in
Societies around the Mediterranean. (2003) online edition (http://www.questia.com/read/109303998)
• Lane-Poole, Stanley. Saladin and the Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem (1898) full text online (http://books.
google.com/books?id=sb4bAAAAMAAJ)
• Maalouf, Amin. Crusades Through Arab Eyes (1989) excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/
Crusades-Through-Arab-Eyes-Maalouf/dp/0805208984/)
• Madden, Thomas F. ed. The Crusades: The Essential Readings (2002) ISBN 0-631-23023-8 284pp, articles by
scholars
• Madden, Thomas F. et al, eds. Crusades Medieval Worlds in Conflict (2010), essays by specialists
• Munro, Dana Carleton. "War and History,' American Historical Review 32:2 (January 1927): 219–31. On
medieval histories of the crusades. online edition (http://www.historians.org/info/AHA_history/dcmunro.
htm)
• Munro, Dana Carleton. The Kingdom of the Crusaders (1936) online edition (http://www.questia.com/read/
3840921)
• Peters, Edward. Christian Society and the Crusades, 1198-1229 (1971) online edition (http://www.questia.com/
read/14405191)
• Powell, James M. Anatomy of a Crusade, 1213-1221, (1986) online edition (http://www.questia.com/read/
3123539)
• Queller, Donald E., and Thomas F. Madden. The Fourth Crusade: The Conquest of Constantinople (2nd ed.
1999) excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/Fourth-Crusade-Conquest-Constantinople-Middle/dp/
0812217136/)
• Richard, Jean. Saint Louis: Crusader King of France (1992)
• Riley-Smith, Jonathan.The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading. (1986).
• Runciman, Steven. A History of the Crusades, Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundations of the Kingdom
of Jerusalem.; Volume II: The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East 1100-1187. and Volume III: The
22
Crusades
•
•
•
•
23
Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades (1951-53), the classic history; very hostile toward the crusaders
Setton, Kenneth ed., A History of the Crusades. (1969-1989), the standard scholarly history in six volumes,
published by the University of Wisconsin Press complete text online (http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/
History/History-idx?type=browse&scope=History.HistCrusades).
Smail, R. C. "Crusaders' Castles of the Twelfth Century" Cambridge Historical Journal Vol. 10, No. 2. (1951),
pp. 133-149. in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/pss/3021083)
Stark, Rodney. God's Battalions: The Case for the Crusades (2010) excerpt and text search (http://www.
amazon.com/Gods-Battalions-Crusades-Rodney-Stark/dp/0061582603/)
Tyerman, Christopher. England and the Crusades, 1095-1588. (1988). 492 pp.
Primary sources
• Barber, Malcolm, Bate, Keith (2010). Letters from the East: Crusaders, Pilgrims and Settlers in the 12th-13th
Centuries (Crusade Texts in Translation Volume 18, Ashgate Publishing Ltd). ISBN 9780754663560
• Housley, Norman, ed. Documents on the Later Crusades, 1274-1580 (1996)
• Krey, August C. The First Crusade: The Accounts of Eye-Witnesses and Participants (1958).
• Shaw, M. R. B. ed.Chronicles of the Crusades (1963) online edition (http://www.questia.com/read/58956484)
• Villehardouin, Geoffrey, and Jean de Joinville. Chronicles of the Crusades ed. by Sir Frank Marzials (2007)
excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/Chronicles-Crusades-Dover-Value-Editions/dp/
0486454363/ref=pd_bbs_sr_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205270195&sr=8-8)
Villehardouin's Conquest of Constantinople is a standard reference work on the Fourth Crusade; it is the first
work in medieval French prose. Joinville's life of St. Louis is a classic description of the life and times of King
Louis IX; it is written in Old French and is considered perhaps the best biography written in the Middle Ages.
External links
• The Crusades Wiki
• The Crusades (http://crusades.boisestate.edu/), a virtual college course through Boise State University ed. by
E. L. Knox.
• links to resources on crusades (http://historymedren.about.com/od/crusades/Crusades.htm)
• "All About All Crusades" by Hans Doeleman; with timeline, maps, bibliography (http://historymedren.about.
com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?zi=1/XJ/Ya&sdn=historymedren&cdn=education&tm=82&
gps=96_366_766_489&f=10&tt=14&bt=0&bts=0&zu=http://www.allcrusades.com/index-2.html)
• Crusades: A Guide to Online Resources (http://www.the-orb.net/encyclop/religion/crusades/crusade.html),
Paul Crawford, 1999.
• The Society for the Study of the Crusades and the Latin East (http://www.staff.u-szeged.hu/~capitul/sscle/
)—an international organization of professional Crusade scholars
• De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History (http://www.deremilitari.org)—contains articles and
primary sources related to the Crusades
• Resources > Medieval Jewish History > The Crusades (http://www.dinur.org/resources/
resourceCategoryDisplay.aspx?categoryid=453&rsid=478) The Jewish History Resource Center – Project of the
Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
• The Crusades Encyclopedia (http://www.crusades-encyclopedia.com/index.html) – articles, primary and
secondary sources, and bibliographies
• An Islamic View of the Battlefield (http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=952797) an article
that provides indepth analysis of the theological basis of human wars
• A History of the Crusades (http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/History.HistCrusades)
Article Sources and Contributors
Article Sources and Contributors
Crusades Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=441332825 Contributors: (aeropagitica), -Midorihana-, 1029384k, 10987sa, 1812ahill, 192.146.101.xxx, 1mike12, 99of9, A Child
of the Snows, A bit iffy, A purple wikiuser, AAA22PI, ADM, AJR, AQUIMISMO, AVand, Abdulka, Acalamari, Achsenzeit, Adam Bishop, AdamJacobMuller, Adambro, Adamrce, Adashiel,
AdrianTM, Aervanath, AgainErick, AgentPeppermint, Agnes Nitt, Ahmadnisarsayeedi, Ahoerstemeier, Ahussains, Ahxlv, Akaloc, Akamad, Alan Millar, Alereon, AlexFear, Alexf,
AlexiusHoratius, Almafeta, Alonades, AlphaEta, Alphax, Alrasheedan, Altes, Alton.arts, Amazonien, Amillar, Amity150, Amorim Parga, Amoruso, Anders.Warga, Andonic, Andr987, Andre
Engels, Andres, Andrew c, Andrewpmk, Anger22, Angmering, Angusmclellan, Animum, Ann Stouter, Anonymous Dissident, Anonymous editor, Anss123, Antandrus, Antantant, Ante Aikio,
Anthony Appleyard, Anupam, Apoc2400, Appleboy, Aquillion, Aranel, Aremith, ArielGold, Aristophanes68, Arjun01, Arthurian Legend, Ascidian, Asidemes, Astronautics, Atlant, Atrix20,
Auntof6, Austin Hair, Autosol, Avb, Awayforawhile, Axe84, Aymatth2, Az1568, AzaToth, Bachrach44, Bamber Gascoigne, Bandofgold, Banes, Barak181, Barbatus, Barneyboo, Bbik,
Beamathan, Beardo, Beary605, Beezhive, Bellatores, Belligero, Ben-Zin, Benqish, Berserker79, Beryllium, Big Bird, Bigjake, Bill37212, Black Falcon, Blanchette, Blobbs, Blue Dream, Blueski,
Bmicomp, BoH, Bob Burkhardt, Bobo192, Bobo55, Boffob, Bogey97, Bongwarrior, Bookandcoffee, Brain, Brain40, Brandmeister (old), Briaboru, BrianGV, British, Brunnock, Bryan Duggan,
Brythain, Budhen, Budija, Budo, Burntsauce, Bwmcadams, Bwnichol, Bylescla, C.Fred, C6541, CALR, CJWilly, Cacycle, Calanon, Caltas, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanDo, Canderson7,
CanisRufus, Caribbean H.Q., Carl Logan, Carlaude, Casewicz, Catholicchivalry, CattleGirl, Cautious, Cazedessus, Celebration1981, Centrx, Cessator, Chanting Fox, ChaosNil, Charles
Matthews, CharlesMartel, Chensiyuan, Chevinki, Chewka, Chiefchess, Chill doubt, Chinfo, Choalbaton, Cholmes75, Chris Roy, Chrisfjordson, Chrislk02, Christian Historybuff, Christinawiki,
Chromega, Chuckstar, Civil Engineer III, Clasqm, Cleanser, Clemwang, Cnyborg, Coelacan, Conscious, Conti, Conversion script, Cool Blue, Coolth, Cor1314, Coredesat, Corvus cornix, Cow
plop, Cplakidas, Craig Pemberton, Crazyeddie, Crazyvas, Creidieki, Crevox, Crusader2146, Crusader4372, Crusadesninja, Cryptic, Crystallina, Crzrussian, Ctbolt, Curps, CzarB, D6, DJ Sturm,
DO'Neil, DSRH, DVD R W, Da best editor, Daanschr, DabMachine, Daniel563, Danielbannoura, Danieldaglish, Danski14, DarbyAsh, DarkFalls, Darrendeng, Darry2385, Darth Anne Jaclyn
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Devohat, Dex65165165, Dickybird9000, DiiCinta, Dijxtra, Dimitri602, Dinnerbone, Dinurcenter, Dipics, Discospinster, Dlohcierekim's sock, Dmerrill, Dmyersturnbull, DnJames, Doc glasgow,
Docu, Dogface, Dolive21, Dominick, Domr, Dori, Dpodoll68, Dpv, Drieakko, Dskluz, Dsmdgold, DuO, Dunganb, Durova, Dysepsion, Dysprosia, EamonnPKeane, Ecthelion83, Editor2020,
Edivorce, Edward Waverley, Effomatus, Efghij, Eiko-sama, EikwaR, El C, El Otro, Electriceel, Eleutherius, ElinorD, Eliz81, Elkduds, Elkman, Elonka, Eloquence, Elpucko17, Emersoni,
Emildebil, Energyfreezer, Engineman, Epbr123, Epolk, Ericamick, Error, EscapingLife, Esperant, Eternal Pink, EugeneZelenko, Everyguy, Everyking, Everytime, Evil jedi, Evil saltine, Evil
scholarship, Ewlyahoocom, Examssuck, Excirial, FF2010, Fajtaylor, Fakhredinblog, Fanra, Faraxabnefarax, Fargat, Fatzebra, FayssalF, Ferkelparade, Ffaker, Fifo, FileMaster, Firien, Firstorm,
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