Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Plant virus wikipedia , lookup
Virus quantification wikipedia , lookup
Microorganism wikipedia , lookup
Introduction to viruses wikipedia , lookup
Triclocarban wikipedia , lookup
Human microbiota wikipedia , lookup
Molecular mimicry wikipedia , lookup
History of virology wikipedia , lookup
Magnetotactic bacteria wikipedia , lookup
Bacterial cell structure wikipedia , lookup
Biology 11 Notes Part II- Viruses, Bacteria, Protists and Fungi Elgin Park Secondary 2016-2017 Student Name: ____________________________________________________ Teacher: ______________________________ Block: ___ 1 TRENDS IN COMPLEXITY As we continue learning in this course, we will be taking a closer look at trends in complexity in the evolution of life. In particular, we will focus on the following. Body transport o How do organisms transport materials inside the body? o Diffusion? Osmosis? Transport vessels? Gas exchange o How do organisms obtain oxygen? o How do organisms release carbon dioxide? o How does this process change as organisms move from water to land and become larger? Cephalization o Why is the development of a head so important? o What advantages does having a brain bring to the table? Reproduction o What form is used? Asexual? Sexual? Both? o How does this connect to the type of environment lived in by the organism? Symmetry o Radial? Bilateral? Non-uniform? o How does symmetry connect to the type of environment lived in by the organism? o How does symmetry affect mobility? Coelom o Does the organism have a coelom? Pseudocoelom? None? o Why is the coelom so important? Tissue development o Does the organism have tissue? How many layers? Vascularization o Does the organism have a blood vessel system Consider each of these concepts as we move from the most primitive living thing (bacteria) through the other Kingdoms. 2 TEXTBOOK READING- Section 19-2 Viruses (pages 478-483) Key Concepts • What is the structure of a virus? • How do viruses cause infection? What Is a Virus? (pages 478-479) 1. What are viruses? 2. What do all viruses have in common? 3. Is the following sentence true or false? Most viruses are so small that they can be seen only with the aid of a powerful electron microscope. 4. What is the structure of a typical virus? 5. Complete the illustration of a T4 bacteriophage by labeling the parts. 6. A virus’s protein coat is called a(an) 7. How does a typical virus get inside a cell? 3 8. What occurs when viruses get inside cells? 9. Why are most viruses highly specific to the cells they infect? 10. What are bacteriophages? Viral Infection (pages 480-481) 11. Why is a lytic infection given that name? 12. Circle the letter of each sentence that is true about a lysogenic infection. a. The virus lyses the host cell immediately b. The virus embeds its DNA into the host’s DNA. c. The virus’s DNA is replicated along with the host cell’s DNA. d. A host cell makes copies of the virus indefinitely. 13. Complete the flowchart about a lytic infection. The bacteriophage attaches to the bacterium’s _______________ . The bacteriophage injects its _______________ into the cell. The cell makes mRNA from the bacteriophage’s _____________ . The virus wrecks the cell, causing it to ______________ The bursting of the cell releases new bacteriophage ______________ . 14. What is a prophage? 4 Retroviruses (page 482) 15. What are retroviruses? 16. What happens when retroviruses infect a cell? Viruses and Living Cells (pages 482-483) 17. Circle the letter of each reason why some biologists do not consider viruses to be alive. a. They can’t infect living cells. b. They can’t evolve. c. They can’t regulate gene expression. d. They can’t reproduce independently. 18. Complete the table comparing viruses and cells. Virus and Cells Characteristic Virus DNA or RNA core, capsid Structure Reproduction Genetic Code Growth and Development Cell membrane, cytoplasm; eukaryotes also contain nucleus and Independent organelles cell division either asexually or sexually DNA No Obtain and Use Energy Response to the Environment Cell Yes No Change Over Time 5 VIRUS NOTES 1. SIZE Nanometers in length. 1000um = 1mm and 100nm = 1um 2. SHAPES Icosahedron – 20 sided shape HELICAL or corkscrew SPHERICAL Complex or Spaceship – bacteriophage 3. STRUCTURE Outer capsid – made out of PROTEIN Genome: DNA or RNA (=RETROVIRUS!) Single strand 10-100 genes vs 30,000 in humans Genome can MUTATE 4. REPRODUCTION Requires a HOST cell to replicate (a key “non-living” feature of viruses) Two main types of infection: LYTIC –fast, causes immediate disease (= VIRULENT) LYSOGENIC- has a dormant period (= LATENT), activated by stress 5. OTHER FEATURES The word “virus” comes from Latin, meaning POISON No cytoplasm, CELL MEMBRANE, mitochondria, chloroplasts or any other ORGANELLES Does not grow over its “lifetime” No metabolic reactions occur, no FEEDING, no RESPIRATION, no excretion etc. Are inert particles (they do nothing) when in ISOLATION from living cells OBLIGATE parasites on living cells Exhibit specificity – one type of virus can only infect ONE type of cell usually in one species. E.g. Flu virus only attacks the cells lining the respiratory system and the rabies virus only attacks nerve cells. Keywords Organelles obligate cell membrane poison isolation virulent helical 10-100 one feeding Spherical mutate RNA protein latent 1000um respiration Host 6 Virus Diversity Poster Instructions: Using your textbook or the internet, find images of 4 morphologicaly different viruses and sketch them into the boxes below . Label each the diagram with the following terms: i. Capsid ii. Genetic material (RNA or DNA) iii. Host cell membrane (if present) Provide the name of the virus and the host, if possible, then answer the questions below. Sketch of virus with labelled parts Name of virus Host of virus Questions 1. Did you notice any patterns about the naming of viruses? Was binomial nomenclature used? 2. Are there any viruses that don’t have a host? Why do you suppose this is? 3. Some scientists propos that viruses evolved from bits of DNA or RNA that “escaped” from the genes of ancient cells (the Escape Hypothesis), while others propose that viruses could have evolved from complex molecules of protein and nucleic acid at the same time as cells first appeared on Earth (the Virus-First Hypothesis). Do some research and argue for or against each. 7 VIRAL REPLICATION 1. LYTIC INFECTION of a bacterium cell by a bacteriophage Description: Virus destroys host DNA, takes over cell function and produces many 10-100’s of new viruses which are released by destroying the host cell through a process called lysis Fast, causes immediate symptoms of disease, virulent Examples: ___________________ _______________ ___________________ The Cycle: Instructions: Arrange and rewrite the following steps in the correct sequence. Then, label the steps in the diagram above with the corresponding letter. Lytic Infection- Unscramble the Steps! a) Hundreds of copies of the viral DNA are synthesized. _________ b) Host cell lyses. Bacteria burst releasing hundreds of viral particles. _________ c) The host cell cannot tell the difference between its own DNA and the DNA of the virus. ____ d) Virus injects its DNA or RNA into the host cell. _________ e) Hundreds of viral particles are assembled using newly synthesized viral DNA and capsids. _______ f) Bacteriophage T4 attaches to a bacteria host cell. _________ g) Hundreds of new viral particles are ready to infect more bacteria. _________ h) The cell begins to manufacture Bacteriophage capsid proteins from the genes of the virus. _______ i) Host cell is filled with hundreds of viral particles. _________ 8 2. LYSOGENIC INFECTION of a bacterium cell by a bacteriophage Description: Viral DNA merges with host cell DNA and does not immediately destroy the cell Can be slow, has a dormant stage with no immediate symptoms of disease, latent Host cell continues to replicate with viral DNA in its genome! STRESS can active the virus to start replicating (lytic cycle), but by now there may be 10-100’s of cells that are infected! Examples: ________________ ____________________ The Cycle: Instructions: Arrange and rewrite the following steps in the correct sequence. Then, label the steps in the diagram above with the corresponding letter. Lysogenic Infection- Unscramble the Steps! a) The viral DNA that is embedded into the host’s DNA is called a prophage. _________ b) Virus injects its DNA or RNA into the host cell. _________ c) Eventually, any one factor may activate the DNA of the prophage , which will then remove itself from the host cell DNA. _________ d) Virus attaches to host cell. _________ e) Lysogenic cycle ends and lytic cycle begins. _________ f) Lysogenic virus remains inactive for a long period of time. _________ h) New viral particles are synthesized. _________ 9 REVIEW of LYTIC vs LYSOGENIC REPLICATION PATHWYS Review Quesitons 1. Decide whether the description below refers to the lytic cycle, lysogenic cycle, both cycles or neither of the cycles. Lytic or Lysogenic? Description Host cell is killed immediately Virus incorporates its DNA into the host cell’s DNA Symptoms are immediate Results in the production of more viral particles Infectious or virulent stage of the disease. Chicken pox Recognize pathogen Patient may not be aware of the infection Plasmid “hides” within the host cell’s DNA for thirty years. Shingles is a disease caused by the chicken pox virus 40 or more years after the patient was initially infected with the chicken pox virus. Latent stage of the disease. 2. Using the Venn diagram below, compare and contrast the lytic and lysogenic life cycles of a bacteriophage. 10 Effect of VIRUSES on ORGANISMS A Brief History Viruses couldn’t be seen until the invention of the electron microscope in the 1930s. Edward Jenner (1796) developed a smallpox vaccine by using puss from cowpox. He did not know both diseases were caused by viruses. He created the name “vaccinus” from the Latin word “vaccus” for cow. Berijeernck (1897) coined the Latin name “virus” meaning poison for the substance infecting tobacco plants Wendell Stanley (1935) crystallized sap from tobacco leaves infected with Tobacoo Mosaic Virus (TMV). He was the first person to “see” a virus using an x-ray crystallization teachnique, and he concluded they were made of nucleic acids and protein Symptoms of Viral Infection Differnet viruses cause different symptoms Symptoms may include skin rashes, a runny nose, fever, fatigue, and loss of appetite More specific symptoms may include swelling of the liver (hepatitis) or brain (encephalitits), meningitis, etc. The common cold is caused by a virus Treatment for viral infections include rest and staying hydrated- antibiotics DO NOT help treat viral infections. Spread of viral infections can be reduced by washing hands, sneezing and coughing in your elbow, and by staying home when you are sick Keywords reduced fatigue symptoms virus Electron microscope virus see antibiotics vaccine 11 The COMMON COLD- IT’S A VIRUS! Why is it futile to use antibiotics to fight the common cold? Why is doing so potentially more harmful than good? 12 TEXTBOOK READING- Section 19-3 Diseases Caused by Bacteria and Viruses (pages 485-490) Key Concepts • How do bacteria cause disease? • How can bacterial growth be controlled? • How do viruses cause disease? Bacterial Disease in Humans (pages 485-486) 1. What are pathogens? 2. What are the two general ways that bacteria cause disease? 3. What kind of tissue do the bacteria that cause tuberculosis break down? 4. What are antibiotics? 5. What do you think is one of the major reasons for the dramatic increase in life expectancy during the past two centuries? Controlling Bacteria (pages 486-487) 6. What is sterilization? 7. A chemical solution that kills pathogenic bacteria is called a(an) 8. Why will food stored at low temperatures keep longer? Viral Disease in Humans (page 488) 9. What are some human diseases that viruses cause? 13 Viral Disease in Animals (page 489) 10. What is one example of a viral disease in animals? 11. Cancer-causing viruses are known as Viral Disease in Plants (page 489) 12. Why do plant viruses have a difficult time entering the cells they infect? 13. How are most plant viruses spread? Viroids and Prions (page 490) 14. What are viroids? 15. A disease-causing particle that contains only protein and not DNA or RNA is called a(an) 14 The Immune System – Non-specific and Specific Defenses The word pathogen means any DISEASE-CAUSING organism. A pathogen could be a virus, BACTERIUM, PROTOZOAN or fungus. Typically pathogens are microscopic. The function of the immune system is 3 fold: Recognize pathogens DESTROY pathogens Remember pathogens -The two main types of defence are: specific (1st and 2nd lines of defence) and non-specific (3rd line of defence) 1. Non-Specific Defences -these help prevent foreign substances from entering the body -this defence works against all types of pathogens (e.g. viruses) and infections (e.g. wooden splinter) A. Barriers- 1st Line of Defence includes skin, oil and sweat, which provides acids to kill possible invaders damage to the skin (e.g. a cut) can allow a pathogen entry into the body pathogens also enter the body through “holes”: eyes, nose, mouth mucus and hairs in the nose can trap invaders cilia inside the trachea help brush dirt and mucous out of the body stomach acid (HCl) and digestive enzymes protect the stomach the enzyme lysozyme is found in mucous, saliva, sweat and tears and helps to break down the cell wall of invading bacteria and some other organisms if the pathogen(s) do enter the body, the second line of non-specific defence begins keywords destroy skin foreign remember bacterium hairs protozoan diseasecausing Stomach acid Pathogens second 15 16 B. Phagocytes and the Inflammatory Response- 2nd Line of Defence when infection occurs, fluid and a type of white blood cells/lymphocytes called phagocytes leak out of the blood vessels into the infected tissue phagocytes engulf (“eat”) and then destroy the invading pathogen if the infection is in a small area, the area will become swollen and red, or inflamed if the infection is serious and spreads, then the body will release more white blood cells (phagocytes and other types) and chemicals that will cause the body temperature to increase (=fever). A fever helps: o increase WBC activity o increase heart rate so phagocytes arrive at infected site more quickly o decreases the replication of a pathogen or kills the pathogen another chemical called interferon is produced by virus infected cells. This chemical is passed on to healthy cells where it inhibits the manufacture of viral proteins once the healthy cells become infected. Did you know? PUS is actually a build up of white blood cells ! keywords pus replication phagocytes inflamed interferon proteins engulf quickly fever activity 17 2. Specific Defences- 3rd Line of Defence called “specific” because a new immune response arises each time a new pathogen is introduced. Also known as the acquired immune response. if non-specific defences fail, specific defences begin. If successful, the 3rd line of defence leads to acquired immunity many foreign invaders have specific proteins, carbohydrates (sugars), or lipids (fats) found on their outer surfaces. These act as species specific markers and are called antigens Antigens are proteins on the surface of cells that our body responds to. Every different individual and every different type of cell in every individual has a different antigen. Antigens allow the body to recognize itself, recognize different types of cells within the body and identify invaders (pathogens). every time a new species invades a host, a new defence must be developed by the host to fight the invader The body uses several WBCs in this response: 1. MACROPHAGES phagocytize (englulf and destroy) bacteria, viruses and dead cells also display the pathogen’s antigen on the surface of their membrane. This is then read by another WBC (helper T-cells) to help with the process of making an antibody. keywords phagocytize specific antigen antigens antibody Acquired immunity 18 2. B CELLS AND ANTIBODIES Certain WBC called Plasma B Cells are able to produce antibodies. Antibodies are Y-shaped proteins that have a binding site that attaches to a matching antigen. The antibody-antigen connection is very specific, much like a key is very specific to a particular lock. This is sometimes called the Lock and Key Fit. It can take days or weeks for the body to make the precisely shaped antibody to attach to the invading pathogen’s antigen Once the antibody attaches to the antigen, two things occur: o The pathogen is flagged for destruction by macrophages o With many antibodies, agglutination or clumping occurs, essentially disarming the pathogen keywords proteins flagged matching agglutination antibodies Lock and key fit 19 3. MEMORY B CELLS Plasma B cells die off as soon as the infection has been controlled. Memory B cells remain in the body for the life of the individual. If the body is explosed to the same pathogen again the memory B cells will immediately produce vast numbers of antibodies against that pathogen so that the disease will never be felt by the person. The person now is immune to the disease. 4. T CELLS Respond to cancerous cells, cells invaded by viruses, fungi and protozoa. a) Helper T cells i) With the help of the macrophage, identifies the antigen of the pathogen ii) Activates Killer T cells iii) Produces memory B cells that remain in the hosts body for many years b) Killer T cells i) Bind to infected cells and kill them (see pg.1040) c) Suppressor T cells i) Once infection is under control suppressor T cells reduce the number of other T cells keywords remain antigen memory immediately Kill Die off immune 20 IMMUNE SYSTEM POSTER Objective: To illustrates the role of the many types of immunity cells. For each cell, you should include an image/drawing and a brief (1 sentence) description. Try to be creative. Perhaps make a “help wanted” poster with all of the immunity cells on it, or design your project more like a “guess who” game. If you are musically inclined, you can make a song. Poetry? A short video clip or short story? Anything goes- as long as you cover all the information below… Cells/Other Macrophage Job #1 Macrophage Job #2 B Lymphocyte Antibodies Agglutination B Memory Cells Helper T Cells Killer T Cells Suppressor T Cells Pathogen Antigen x2 /2 /2 /2 /2 /2 /2 /2 /2 /2 /2 /4 Presentation Colour, neatness Creativity Captions and labels /2 /2 /2 TOTAL: /30 Due Date: __________________________ IMMUNE SYSTEM REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. What is the primary line of defence? Give 4 examples. What is a phagocyte and what is its main function? What is inflammation and why does it happen? What is pus? Why do you sometimes get a fever when you are sick? (3 reasons) If you are sick and have a slight fever, should you take medicine to stop the fever? Why or why not? If you are sick and have a high fever, should you take medicine to stop the fever? Why or why not? Why is the 3rd line of defence called the acquired immune response? What is specificity? Why do we use it to describe antibody-antigen interactions? What is the lock and key fit? Why is it you can only have a disease caused by one particular pathogen once? If the common cold is caused by a virus, why do people get it more than once? AIDS, or acquired immune deficiency syndrome, weakens the immune system. What do you think this does to the person suffering from an HIV infection? 14. Shingles is a painful skin rash caused by the same virus responsible for chicken pox: the varicella zoster virus. If you have ever had chicken pox, the virus is still in your body. Give a possible explanation why some people get shingles. 21 VACCINES Overview: In the past 60 years, vaccines helped eradicate one disease (smallpox) and are close to eradicating another (polio). Vaccines prevent more than 2.5 million deaths each year. Scientific studies and reviews continue to show no relationship between vaccines and autism. Vaccines cause “herd immunity,” which means if the majority of people in a community have been vaccinated against a disease, an unvaccinated person is less likely to get sick because others are less likely to get sick and spread the disease. There are two types of vaccines: 1. Vaccines that give rise to Active Immunity Dead or weakened pathogenic bacteria/virus is injected into a person The bacteria/virus still has unaltered antigens on their surface Antibodies and B memory cells against the unique antigens from the pathogen are produced by the person getting the vaccination If the vaccinated person comes in contact with the pathogen then they will produce antibodies so fast they do not feel any symptoms and will not become contagious Can take weeks to months to work, and may require booster shots Immunity lasts a long time/lifetime keywords unvaccinated autism eradicate antibodies weakened contagious 2.5 million Long time antigens symptoms Herd immunity 22 2. Vaccines that give rise to Passive Immunity Already produced antibodies are injected into the person Antibodies are collected from an animal (human, rabbits, and now GE’d bacteria) Starts working right away but immunity is not long term Often used preventively e.g. You get a malaria shot before going to places with malaria Here is a list of some of the vaccinations most B.C. children have had: Booster Shots A single dose of some vaccines provides lifelong immunity to most people, while other vaccines require additional doses (boosters) in order to maintain immunity. vaccine boosters are sometimes needed, because the immune response 'memory' weakens over time. keywords animal weakens lifelong produced preventively boosters Not long term 23 Take some time now to research each of the diseases listed below that are preventable with vaccinations. What are the symptoms? What were the mortality rates before vaccinations were used? Chicken Pox (Varicella) Diphtheria Tetanus Symptoms/mortality rates: Symptoms/mortality rates: Symptoms/mortality rates: Pertussis (Whooping cough) Hepatitis A & B Polio Symptoms/mortality rates: Symptoms/mortality rates: Rubella Mumps Mengingococcal C Symptoms/mortality rates: Symptoms/mortality rates: Symptoms/mortality rates: Symptoms/mortality rates: 24 Name: ___________________ Date: ________________ Block: ____ Infectious Disease Flyer Being informed is a really great way to not get sick! After doing research on a viral or bacterial disease that is preventable by vaccination, come up with an informative flyer to describe your disease. Possible Diseases Include: Chicken pox Diptheria Tetanus Pertussis Hepatitis B Polio Haemophius influenza type B Influenza (Flu) Measles Mumps Rubella Varicella Meningococcal C Pneumonococcal Rotavirus A template for your flyer is provided on the next page. You must include all the information on the flyer for full marks. Marking Rubric: CATEGORY Information from the template 5 All the criteria are present Picture(s) The picture is exceptionally accurate. Content – Accuracy Content – Accuracy (it’s here twice because it’s twice as important!) Writing and Proofreading TOTAL 4 1-2 of the criteria are missing The picture is accurate. 3 3-4 of the criteria are missing The picture is not accurate, or is difficult to understand. 2 5 of the criteria are missing All facts in the flyer are accurate. 90-99% of the facts in the flyer are accurate. 80-89% of the facts in the flyer are accurate. All facts in the flyer are accurate. 90-99% of the facts in the flyer are accurate. 80-89% of the facts in the flyer are accurate. 70-79% of the facts in the flyer are accurate. Capitalization, punctuation are correct , and there are no spelling or grammatical errors No more than 1 capitalization, punctuation, or grammar errors throughout the flyer There are 2-3 capitalization and/or punctuation and/or grammar errors in the flyer There are more than 3 errors in capitalization/ punctuation/ grammar errors in the flyer The picture does not represent the pathogen well, or is irrelevant. 70-79% of the facts in the flyer are accurate. 0 More than 5 of the criteria are missing No pictures are present. Fewer than 70% of the facts in the flyer are accurate. Fewer than 70% of the facts in the flyer are accurate. The flyer is difficult to read because of the number of errors. /50 Due Date: _______________________ 25 Infectious Disease Flyer TEMPLATE Common Name:________________________________________ Scientific name: _____________________________ Type of organism: Virus or Bacteria (circle one) PICTURE OF PATHOGEN: Disease details: a. How is it transmitted? (how do you get it?) b. What are the symptoms and how long does it stay? c. Where in the body does it attack? PICTURE OF PERSON WITH DISEASE: What is the treatment, if possible? Where in the world is it common? Two interesting facts: At least 2 sources: 1.___________________________________________________________________ 2. __________________________________________________________________ 26 THE SIX KINGDOMS 27 Name ____________________________ Class __________________ Date _______________ Textbook Section 7-1 Life Is Cellular (pages 169-173) Key Concepts • What is the cell theory? • What are the characteristics of prokaryotes and eukaryotes? • What are the functions of the major cell structures? Introduction (page 169) 1. What is the structure that makes up every living thing? _____________________________ The Discovery of the Cell (pages 169-170) 2. What was Anton van Leeuwenhoek one of the first to see in the 1600s? _________________ 3. What did a thin slice of cork seem like to Robert Hooke when he observed it through a microscope? ________________________________________________________ 4. What did the German botanist Matthias Schleiden conclude? _________________________ 5. What did the German biologist Theodor Schwann conclude? _________________________ 6. How did Rudolph Virchow summarize his years of work? ___________________________ 7. What are the three concepts that make up the cell theory? a. _________________________________________________________________________ b. ________________________________________________________________________ c. ________________________________________________________________________ Exploring the Cell (pages 170-172) 8. Why are electron microscopes capable of revealing details much smaller than those seen through light microscopes? _______________________________________________ 28 Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes (pages 172-173) 9. Circle the letter of each sentence that is true about prokaryotes. a. They grow and reproduce. b. Many are large, multicellular organisms. c. They are more complex than cells of eukaryotes. d. They have cell membranes and cytoplasm. 10. Are all eukaryotes large, multicellular organisms? _________________________________ 11. Complete the table about the two categories of cells. TWO CATEGORIES OF CELLS Category Definition Examples Organisms whose cells lack nuclei Organisms whose cells contain nuclei Comparing a Cell to a Factory (page 174) 1. What is an organelle? 2. Label the structures on the illustrations of the plant and animal cells. 29 Match the organelle with its description. Organelle ______ 28. Ribosome ______ 29. Endoplasmic reticulum ______ 30. Golgi apparatus ______ 31. Lysosome ______ 32. Vacuole ______ 33. Chloroplast ______ 34. Mitochondrion Description a. Uses energy from sunlight to make energy-rich food b. Stack of membranes in which enzymes attach carbohydrates and lipids to proteins c. Uses energy from food to make highenergy compounds d. An internal membrane system in which components of cell membrane and some proteins are constructed e. Saclike structure that stores materials f. Small particle of RNA and protein that produces protein following instructions from nucleus g. Filled with enzymes used to break down food into particles that can be used Reading Skill Practice A flowchart can help you remember the order in which events occur. On a separate sheet of paper, create a flowchart that describes how proteins are made in the cell. You will find that the steps of this process are explained on pages 176-178. For more information about flowcharts, see Organizing Information in Appendix A in your textbook. 30 Textbook Section 7-1 Life Is Cellular (pages 169-173) Key Concepts • What is the cell theory? • What are the characteristics of prokaryotes and eukaryotes? • What are the functions of the major cell structures? Introduction (page 169) 7. What is the structure that makes up every living thing? _____________________________ The Discovery of the Cell (pages 169-170) 8. What was Anton van Leeuwenhoek one of the first to see in the 1600s? _________________ 9. What did a thin slice of cork seem like to Robert Hooke when he observed it through a microscope? _______________________________________________________ 10.What did the German botanist Matthias Schleiden conclude? _________________________ 11.What did the German biologist Theodor Schwann conclude? _________________________ 12.How did Rudolph Virchow summarize his years of work? ___________________________ 7. What are the three concepts that make up the cell theory? a. ________________________________________________________________________ b. ________________________________________________________________________ c. ________________________________________________________________________ Exploring the Cell (pages 170-172) 8. Why are electron microscopes capable of revealing details much smaller than those seen through light microscopes? _______________________________________________ 31 Instructions: Cut out organelles Paste in appropriate places on 11x17 paper cut into shape of an animal cell Label parts, and functions of organelles Add extra details, organelles Colour Show the cell in the process of producing protein 32 Name Class Date Textbook Reading Section 19-1 Bacteria (pages 471-477) Key Concepts • How do the two groups of prokaryotes differ? • What factors are used to identify prokaryotes? • What is the importance of bacteria? Introduction (page 471) 1. What are prokaryotes? 2. Is the following sentence true or false? Prokaryotes are much smaller than most eukaryotic cells. Classifying Prokaryotes (pages 471-472) 3. What are the two different groups of prokaryotes? a. b. 4. Which is the larger of the two kingdoms of prokaryotes? 5. Where do eubacteria live? 6. What protects a prokaryotic cell from injury? 7. Circle the letter of what is within the cell wall of a prokaryote. a. another cell wall c. archaebacteria b. cell membrane d. pili 8. What is peptidoglycan? 9. Some eubacteria have a second outside the cell membrane. 10. Circle the letter of each sentence that is true about archaebacteria. a. Their membrane lipids are different from those of eubacteria. b. They lack a cell wall. c. They lack peptidoglycan. d. They look very similar to eubacteria. 11. What is significant about the DNA sequences of key archaebacterial genes? 12. How are archaebacteria related to eukaryotes? 33 13. What are methanogens, and where do they live? Identifying Prokaryotes (page 473) 14. Use the following labels to complete the illustration of a typical prokaryote: cell membrane, cell wall, DNA, flagellum. 15. What are four characteristics used to identify prokaryotes? a. b. c. d. 16. What are each of the differently shaped prokaryotes called? a. The rod-shaped are called b. The spherical-shaped are called c. The corkscrew-shaped are called 17. A method of telling two different types of eubacteria apart by using dyes is called 18. What colors are Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria under the microscope when treated with Gram stain? 19. What are flagella? 34 Metabolic Diversity (pages 473-474) 21. Complete the table about prokaryotes classified by the way they obtain energy. GROUPS OF PROKARYOTES Group Description Organism that carries out photosynthesis in a manner similar to that of plants Chemoautotroph Organism that takes in organic molecules and then breaks them down Photoheterotroph 22. Members of which group of photoautotrophs contain a bluish pigment and chlorophyll a? 23. How do the chemoautotrophs that live near hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor obtain energy? 24. Complete the table about prokaryotes classified by the way they release energy. GROUPS OF PROKARYOTES Group Description Organisms that require a constant supply of oxygen Obligate anaerobes Facultative anaerobes 25. Facultative anaerobes can switch between cellular respiration and Growth and Reproduction (page 475) 26. What occurs in the process of binary fission? 27. What occurs during conjugation? 28. Is the following sentence true or false? Most prokaryotes reproduce by conjugation. 35 29. What is an endospore? Importance of Bacteria (pages 476-477) 30. How do decomposers help the ecosystem recycle nutrients when a tree dies? 31. What would happen to plants and animals if decomposers did not recycle nutrients? 32. Why do plants and animals need nitrogen? 33. How does nitrogen fixation help plants? 34. What kind of relationship do many plants have with nitrogen-fixing bacteria? 35. How can bacteria be used to clean up an oil spill? 36. What have biotechnology companies begun to realize about bacteria adapted to extreme environments? Reading Skill Practice Writing a summary can help you remember the information you have read. When you write a summary write only the most important points. Write a summary of the information under the green heading Decomposers. Your summary should be shorter than the text on which it is based. Do your work on a separate sheet of paper. 36 BACTERIA Kingdoms Archaebacteria and Eubacteria (Previously known as Kingdom Moneran) 1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS a. are all prokaryotic b. single-celled organisms, some are found in colonies of clumps or filaments c. have a cell wall but no membrane-bound organelles d. mostly asexual reproduction BUT some use a primitive form of sexual reproduction e. are the smallest, simplest organisms and are found EVERYWHERE! f. They exist in three basic shapes: i. Cocci - spherical ii. Bacilli - rod-shaped iii. Spirilla – spiral g. Some bacteria are able to move using special cell structures called cilia and flagella. i. Hair-like cilia (singular, cilium) and tail-like flagella (singular, flagellum) are projections from the cell. ii. By repetitive beating (like a bending motion), they cause the cell to move. Think of oars in a boat. Flagella can propel the cell by waving back and forth. iii. If a cell is fixed in place, they can also cause water to move across the surface of a cell. 2. STRUCTURE Diagram Labels: Ribomes Flagellum Pilus Cell wall Cell membrane DNA keywords asexual flagella cilia cocci Single-celled across rod beating Cell wall prokaryotic 37 BACTERIAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION REVIEW ASSIGNMENT Draw a diagram of a typical bacterium, then label the parts and give the functions. In addition, you should include all the following statements and descriptions. Some of these terms we have covered in class, some of them will require a bit of research on your part. Colour code descriptions one colour (e.x. blue) and functions another colour (e.x. green). Remember description includes analogies, composition, adjectives that describe the look of the structure. Functions are only verbs. Functions in protein synthesis Helps to protect cell from phagocytosis from macrophages X2 Made of peptidoglycan Contains all necessary genes for the bacterium Are used for movement Made of phospholipid and protein Small extra loop of DNA Made of protein Involved in DNA transfer during conjugation Is hypertonic (very salty) Used for attachment to surfaces X2 Look like small dots in the cytoplasm May be gram negative or gram positive Produces a slime layer Site of translation Protects against lysis Controls the flow of substances in and out of the cell Made of RNA and protein Mostly composed of water Protection against drying out Contains extra genes for useful characteristics like antibiotic resistance Is sticky ALTERNATIVE BACTERIAL ASSIGNMENT- A 3-D MODEL! You will design a 3-D model of a typical bacterial cell. You must also label the capsule, cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, pili (if present), flagella (if present) and the DNA. Your model must be no smaller than half a sheet of letterhead and no bigger than a full sheet of letterhead. You may use any material (lego, clay, wood, Styrofoam etc) except for food. Food tends to go rotten or fall apart. In addition to providing a model, you will also write a paragraph (5-8 sentences) describing the characteristics of your bacteria. In your paragraph, be sure to include the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. A physical description- is it round, rod or spiral? Does it have pili or flagella? Does it stain gram negative or gram positive? Explain WHY. Would your bacteria best be categorized in Archaeobacteria or Eubacteria? Explain WHY? Where does your bacteria live? What environmental conditions does it need? (oxygen or no oxygen, acidic or neutral, hot or not hot?) 5. The name of your bacteria. This is your bacteria, so you get to name it. Just make sure you use the rules for taxonomic nomenclature. MARKING RUBRIC: 1. Model- 3D, intact, correct size, colourful, neat /5 2. Model labels- all included, all correct /10 3. Written description- answers all points, correct grammar, neat, written by the student /15 TOTAL /30 38 3. NUTRITION and RESPIRATION– the process of obtaining carbon, often in the form of glucose (C6H1206) and breaking it down into energy in the form of ATP. Bacteria are a lot more diverse than we are. We only have one way of getting glucose (we have to eat it) and we only have one way of breaking it down (aerobic respiration). Bacteria have several ways of both getting the glucose and breaking it down. These processes reflect bacteria’s evolutionary history. Step1- obtaining glucose a. Most are heterotrophs- obtain food from other organisms i. Some are parasites which live on a living host. ii. Some are decomposers, feeding on dead organisms and waste (saprophytes) b. Some are autotrophs- make their own food. They either: i. use chemicals as a source of energy (chemoautotrophs) H2S + CO2 --------> C6H12O6 + H2O + S or NH4 + CO2 --------> C6H12O6 + H2O + NO3 ii. use sunlight as a source of energy via photosynthesis (photoautotrophs). Sunlight + CO2 + H2O --------> C6H12O6 + H2O Step 2- breaking down glucose into energy a. Respiration i. aerobic respiration (oxygen present) -obligate aerobes must have oxygen to survive! C6H12O6 + O2 --------> H2O + CO2 + ATP (lots!!) ii. anaerobic respiration (no oxygen) -obligate anaerobes cannot survive in the presence of oxygen -facultative anaerobes will use oxygen if present, but don’t need it to survive b. Fermentation (usually use oxygen, but ran out!) -produces lots of interesting products- we use it to make soy sauce, cheese, beer, etc! -In humans: C6H12O6 --------> lactic acid + H2O + ATP (very little!) keywords aerobic anaerobic Glucose energy autotrophs facultative heterotrophs Ran out photoautotrophs parasites chemoautotrophs saprophytes 39 REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR BACTERIAL NUTRITION and RESPIRATION 1. Below is a list of examples of various reactions and descriptions. Your job is to match the examples below with the processes outlined above. Write the process on the left hand side. Aerobic respiration a. C6H12O6 + O2 --------> H2O + CO2 + ATP b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. H2S + CO2 --------> C6H12O6 + H2O + S Salmonella bacteria require raw meat for survival. Sunlight + CO2 + H2O --------> C6H12O6 + H2O Clostridium botulism lives in canned food and releases a lethal poison. NH4 + CO2 --------> C6H12O6 + H2O + NO3 Parasitic bacteria – these organisms absorb nutrients from the body fluids of living hosts. C6H12O6 --------> lactic acid + H2O + ATP (this reaction occurs in skeletal muscle cells) Some bacteria are used to make vinegar, alcohol, and cheese. Nitrogen fixing bacteria only need light energy, CO2, N2, and water to grow. These organisms fix N2 into NH3 which is a form of nitrogen plants can use. Without NH3 being available plants would not be able to make proteins. k. Saprophytic bacteria use enzymes to break down food outside of the cell and then absorb the nutrients. l. Methanogens live where oxygen does not exists and produce methane gas. m. Glucose --------> ethanol + carbon dioxide + ATP n. Oxidize free sulfur into sulphates, producing energy for themselves and providing compounds of sulfur that can be used by plants. 2. According to the theory of evolution, bacteria evolved into protists, which then evolved into plants, animals and fungi. The reactions above show great similarity to many reactions we see in today’s organisms. Which descriptions or reactions are found in: a) fungi b) plants c) animals 3. Bacteria, being the first to colonize the earth, needed to survive in harsh environments. Such organisms lived in hot water at the openings of deep sea vents where no light was available and hydrogen sulphide was prevalent.Which reaction reflects this ability? 4. Without bacteria we would all be knee deep in dead rats, trees, etc. Explain why. What are these type of bacteria called? 5. Which reaction reflects what happen in your muscles when you are late for class- which you never are, by the way. You are always on time, right? 7. Several bacteria have been described above. Make two headings: beneficial and harmful. Place the descriptions of bacteria described above under the appropriate heading. Look up 5 other examples of harmful and helpful bacteria. 8. The planet Mars is a very harsh place. Research the environmental conditions (temp., sunlight, water, O2 etc) and determine where primitive bacterial-like life, if there is life yet to be discovered, would most likely be found. 40 5. REPRODUCTION For a species to continue, the species needs to do three things: 1. it needs to be able to self- replicate or make copies of itself 2. it needs to be able to change genetically, 3. it needs to occasionally survive harsh conditions. Mammals satisfy the first 2 requirements with just one process: sexual reproduction. Simpler organisms like bacteria tend to have more options for reproduction. These are: 1. Asexual reproduction via binary fission (splits in two) a. Uses only one parent b. Offspring are identical clonesthere is no genetic variation except by mutation c. Works well for constant, nonchanging environments 2. Sexual reproduction via conjugation (uses a bridge like structure called a pilus) a. Requires two parents b. Offspring are a mixture of the parents genetic information- there is variation! c. Works well for environments where there is constant or occasional change- hopefully one or more of the offspring will have an adaptive trait and survive! 3. Endospores (survival mechanism, NOT reproduction!) i. Some bacteria form endospores when environmental conditions become unfavorable. ii. An endospores contains the DNA and a small amount of cytoplasm enclosed in a tough cell wall. They are resistant to extremes in temperature, drying, and harsh chemicals. 4. Transformation -is the uptake of DNA fragments or a plasmid by a bacterium and the incorporation of the new genetic material into the bacteria’s genome. -can occur across species and allow for “sharing” of antibiotic resistant genes! FORM OF REPRODUCTION ASEXUAL OR SEXUAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS Keywords variation two transformation one pilus clones sharing conjugation endospores Self-replicate Non-changing INCREASES VARIATION Binary fision Harsh conditions AID IN SURVIVAL OF HARSH CONDITIONS genetically DNA resistant 41 REPRODUCTION: BACTERIAL CONTINUITY Review Questions 1. Rewrite in the correct order and draw diagrams (using colour where appropriate) to describe the process of binary fission. a) Cell elongates causing the two chromosomes to separate. b) Binary fission is complete. The 2 cells, barring mutations, are genetically identical to each other. c) 2 DNA strands separate completely d) New cell wall and cell membrane grow transversely from the middle of the cell e) DNA replicates. An exact copy of the original chromosome is made. 2. Rewrite in the correct order and draw diagrams (using colour where appropriate) to describe the process of conjugation. a) A narrow bridge of cytoplasm is formed between cells. b) The extra copy of the sex factor plasmid is transferred from the donor cell to recipient cell through a bridge made of cytoplasm. c) 2 cells of opposite mating types snuggle up to one another. d) Donor and recipient cells separate. Recipient cell has received a sex factor plasmid. e) The donor cell plasmid replicates. The donor cell has one sex factor plasmid to keep and one to give away. f) 2 cells attach to one another using pili bridge 3. Draw an illustration (could be a cartoon) of transformation to show how: a) bacteria can pick up extra bits of DNA and b) extra bits of DNA can code for useful proteins 4. Illustrate some extreme conditions that would induce a bacterium to form an endospore (could be a cartoon) 5. Make 4 heading in your notes: Binary Fission, Conjugation, Spore Formation and Transformation. Place each description under the correct heading. Some phrases will apply to more than one process. occurs during times of stress, but not extreme conditions occurs if exposed to extreme conditions allows cell to gather DNA from dead bacteria no new individuals are formed needs to be placed in an autoclave and heated to high temperatures under high pressure to kill occurs when there is plenty of food and water and the temperature is optimal. Requires an autoclave (pressure cooker) to kill. Autoclave heats bacteria up to a very high temperature occurs very quickly populations can double every 9.8 minutes provides variation within the species new individuals are formed allows cell to pick up stray pieces of DNA. results in no genetic variation (as long as mutations do not occur) provide a dormant, resting cell capable of surviving extreme conditions ie. boiling, freezing purpose is to increase population quickly 42 6. BACTERIAL DISEASES Bacteria cause disease in one of two ways: i. They damage cells and tissues by breaking down the cells for food. Bacteria live inside host cells and require the host cell to survive and reproduce For example, Chlamydia attacks epithelial (skin and inner lining) cells and can cause infertility in women Mycobacterium tuberculosis destroys lung tissue. ii. They release toxins Substances that interfere with the correct functioning of your cells. For example, Tetanus toxin attacks the nerve cells. Causes muscle spasms. Can start with mild to severe spasms in the jaw muscles (lockjaw), eventually all muscles are affected. Botulism toxin also attacks the nerve cells - causes paralysis of the muscles. The most acutely toxic substance known! Corynebacterium diphtheriae releases toxins into the bloodstream where they cause breathing difficulty, heart failure, paralysis, and death. TRANSMISSION- applies to bacteria, viruses, protozoans, and fungi 1. Pathogen is carried through the environment by air, water, food or untreated waste Examples: flu, pneumonia, TB, typhoid fever, cholera, hepatitis 2. Pathogen is passed through direct body contact, or through body fluids, dirty needles, or blood transfusions Examples : sexually transmitted infections, syphilis, gonorrhea, HIV 3. Pathogen is passed by a vector (another organism that is a carrier) Examples: Malaria, Dengue Fever, West Nile virus – by mosquito Bubonic plague – by rats PREVENTION AND TREATMENT of bacterial disease causing agents include: i. Vaccinations- many but not all serious bacterial diseases have vaccinations available ii. Antibiotics- work for most bacteria, but there are species that are developing resistance. These antibiotic resistant bacteria are called SUPERBUGS! keywords vaccinations acutely toxins Vector nerve damage Host cells Body contact bloodstream antibiotics environment superbugs 43 7. CLASSIFICATION - Bacteria are down into 2 kingdoms: I. Archaebacteria Adapted to extreme conditions (high [salt], high temperature, and/or low pH, no oxygen). These are believed to be the conditions on the early Earth. Earth’s early atmosphere did not contain oxygen, therefore the earliest organisms were anaerobic. oldest living organisms on Earth has 3 phyla: a. methanogens -convert H2 and CO2 into methane gas and energy, -cannot live with oxygen (are anaerobic) -found in marshes and intestinal tracts of humans and cows b. halophiles -salt-loving -found in Dead Sea, the Great Salt Lake, etc. c. thermacidophiles -adapted to extremely acidic and high temperature conditions -can survive 230 F and pH of 2 -found in volcanic vents and hydrothermal vents II. Eubacteria “True Bacteria” This group includes the traditional bacteria and is the largest of the two. lives in more neutral conditions (e.g. in our bodies, our food, etc) has 4 phyla: a Cyanobacteria b. Spirochetes c. Gram positive bacteria c. Proteobacteria -photosynthetic like plants, produce oxygen -found in water and were once thought to be bluegreen algae; but have no membrane-bound nucleus and chloroplast! -gram negative, spiral shaped, heterotrophic -some are anaerobic, some are aerobic -may be parasitic, symbiotic, or free-living -cause syphilis -all are not gram positive (classification based on other characteristics) -cause strep throat, and are used in yogurt and to produce antibiotics -one of the largest phyla of bacteria -many are gram negative -include bacteria in your intestines, (Escherichia coli), chemoautotrophs, and nitrogen-fixing bacteria keywords early marshes methane neutral Salt intestines extreme anaerobic acidic Plants syphilis Temperatures not Blue-green algae 44 BACTERIAL DIVERSITY DISCOVERY ASSIGNMENT Using the internet, find species of bacteria that are: a) pathogenic b) normal part of our fauna c) used to prepare food d) photosynthetic e) obligate anaerobe (must live in oxygen free location) For each bacterium find the following information: a) latin name b) cell shape c) presence of flagella d) diagram or micrograph e) where it lives or habitat f) most interesting fact Type of bacterium: Latin Name Pathogenic Normal part of our fauna Used to prepare food Photosynthetic Obligate anaerobe Cell Shape Presence of flagellum? Diagram or micrograph Where it lives or habitat Interesting fact 45 IDENTIFYING BACTERIA How do you identify a bacterium? What species is it? 1. Cell shape- is it rod, cocci, or spiral? 2. Colony pattern- does it form a colony? If so, is it a long chain? A clump? 3. Cell wall type- use GRAM STAINING (invented by Hans Gram) Add Crystal Violet (a purple dye) and Safranine ( a red dye) to the bacteria GRAM POSITIVE: If it turns purple- the bacteria contains on thick layer of carbohydrates and protein molecules outside the of the cell membrane GRAM NEGATIVE: if it turns red, it contains a second outer layer of lipid and carbohydrate molecules 4. Movement some propel themselves with flagella, others lash, snake, or spiral forward some produce a slime-like layer to glide along, some do not move at all 5. How they obtain energy- are they autotrophic or heterotrophic? selective growth media will only allow certain bacteria to grow 6. Growth conditions different growth media, temperature, pH, presence or absence of antibiotics etc. 46 Lab#1- Omnipresence of Bacteria Use this sheet as a rough copy only. When you prepare your formal write up, include the purpose, your hypothesis, results, conclusion and answers to the questions. You do not need to recopy the procedure. Attach this original sheet to your formal write up and refer to it for these two sections. Purpose: To determine where bacteria are found and to study the characteristics of bacterial colonies that enable microbiologist to classify bacteria. Hypothesis: Write two hypotheses, one that predicts where you will find the most numbers of bacteria and a second that predicts where you will find the most numbers of different species of bacteria. Use the ‘if (what you will do) .… then (what you think you find) format. For example: If 3 samples are taken from sites a, b and c; then site c will have the most bacteria. Procedure: 1. Wash your hands frequently during this experiment. 2. Obtain a Petri dish containing agar from your teacher. Divide the plate into sections by drawing on the nutrient agar side of the plate with a sharpie pen. Initial the plate and number the sections 1-4. 3. Do not open the plate. Use the sterile technique as much as possible. Discuss with your partner how you are going to keep your plate from becoming contaminated. 4. Take the plate around the school and take samples from three different areas using scotch tape to pick up the bacteria. Transfer the bacteria to the plate by pressing the tape lightly into the agar surface. Do not leave the lid open for any longer than is absolutely necessary. 5. Leave quadrant 4 alone. This is your control. 6. Construct 2 data tables to record your information. 7. Record on the data table below the location of the samples. 8. Invert your plate and place in the incubator. Each individual cell will reproduce thousands of times produce a colony. All the cells in the colony are thus clones of the original cell. 9. Each day, count the total number of colonies in each quadrant and note the number of different colonies. Record this information in Table 1. Also record the number of different types of colonies in each quadrant. If you have colonies growing in the control section, what does this mean? Discuss this finding in your conclusion. 10. On the last day of the experiment, choose any 5 different colonies to examine more closely. They may be chosen from anywhere on the plate. Use the Macroscopic (what does THAT mean?) morphology sheet to help you fill in Table 2. Construct a data table to record your findings. 11. Return the plate to your teacher. The plate needs to be decontaminated. All the bacteria and spores need to be destroyed before the plate is thrown out. This is done by putting the plates in a pressure cooker (autoclave) where the combination of steam and heat destroy the cell walls. Questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Which samples showed the greatest variety of colony types? What do you think caused this? Which of the samples showed the greatest number of colonies? What do you think caused this? Where in the school do you think should be kept completely free of bacteria? What was the purpose of the control in this experiment? Bacteria, given optimum conditions can multiply every 2 min. What form of cell division produces these colonies? What advantage is there to this form of asexual reproduction? a. Through what process did bacteria obtain nutrients from the agar? b. Define a heterotroph and an autotroph. Which type of bacteria did you grow? How do you know? Define the terms aerobic and anaerobic. Which type of bacteria grew on your plate? After several days the size of the bacterial colonies did not increase. Give two reasons why. Even though bacteria are found on all surfaces we never see colonies. Why? Why was it important to use sterile techniques in this lab? What precautions were taken in this lab? What factors were controlled ( independent variables) in this experiment? What was your experimental factor? What was your dependent variable? 47 Conclusion: Your conclusion should consist of three paragraphs. First respond to your hypothesis with the phrase: The results support the hypothesis…and describe results The results do not support the hypothesis…and describe results The results were inconclusive…and describe results Hypotheses are never correct or incorrect, right or wrong. All you can say about your hypothesis is whether or not your results supported it. The second paragraph should discuss any errors or problems you had with the experiment. If you had bacterial growth in the control mention it here. If you think for some reason your results are not believable discuss this as well. Complete this paragraph with a comment about whether or not you feel that the results of this experiment were valid. The third paragraph looks ahead to further studies. What questions arose out of this study? State three further questions that you would like to answer if we had time to continue this investigation. BACTERIAL COLONY MORPHOLOGY Choose five colonies to describe. Construct a data table to record your observations. Your data table should include the following characteristics. For size measure the diameter of each chosen colony. 48 BACTERIA PAMPHLET (Preparation for Lab#2) The second bacteria lab is complex as it involves the use of the Bunsen Burner and a series of complicated procedures. The purpose of this assignment is to ensure that you know the safety issues involved and that you have reviewed the procedure carefully enough to be able to proceed without the aid of you lab sheets. You will be making a pamphlet that will summarize the use of the Bunsen burner, safety measures and the lab procedure. REQUIRED INFORMATION PAGE 1– Title Page illustration of bacteria, antibiotics, antiseptics, and the plants you are using PAGE 2 – General safety Rules Summarize the following safety rules on page 1066 of your textbook: 1-11,37,39,40 Add the following 2 points o Do not open the petri dish except when applying bacteria or antibiotic discs o Clear desk of all materials except pen and data table when examining the petri dish PAGE 3 – FIRE SAFETY Summarize fire safety rules on page 1066 PAGE 4 – HOW TO LIGHT A BUNSEN BURNER Copy notes from board Include a picture (with colour) of safety flame and working flame Include a labelled diagram of a bunsen burner PAGE 5 – How to transfer Bacteria Copy notes from handout PAGE 6 Draw a labelled diagram of your petri dish. Show the 4 quadrants and label with the antibiotics, disinfectants and plants that you want to use. 49 Lab #2-Sterile Technique for Isolating Bacterial Colonies Rewrite the steps below next to the correct diagrams on the back of this page in order. The diagrams are in order, the steps below are not. a) Lift the lid of your Petri dish slightly and use your inoculation loop to pick up bacteria from one colony. b) Use your inoculation loop to streak bacteria back and forth across one half of the Petri dish. c) Begin by placing your loop into the Bunsen burner flame. Move the loop through the flame until the entire wire portion is red hot. This is called flame sterilization. d) Flame-sterilize your inoculation loop and place it in a beaker. e) Flame-sterilize your inoculation loop. Pick up some more of the same bacteria from your collection plate. Spread it by streaking it back and forth across the other half of your Petri dish. Diagram Description 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 50 Local Plant Antibiotic Testing Lab Purpose: In this lab you will be testing the effectiveness of a local plant extract on the growth of some of the bacteria that you have collected. You will also be testing the bacteria’s ability to grow in the presence of two commercial antibiotics. Hypothesis: Write a hypothesis using the “if………then” format. You need to decide if your plant extract will be more or less effective than the antibiotics. Step 1: Research Local First Nations have been using a variety of medicinal plants here in southern BC for millennia, and many of the drugs we use today can be traced back to traditional uses. For example, First Nations people in North America have been using willow bark to treat fevers and pain for centuries, and willow bark contains acetylsalicylic acid – also known and sold now as Aspirin. Scientists are beginning to turn to Indigenous knowledge keepers more and more as they strive to develop new medicines. Your first task will be to research local medicinal plants and learn to identify them. Search for plants with “antimicrobial” or “antibiotic” properties if possible, but many plants will only list the symptoms they’re used to treat – ie.. stomach pain, headahces, etc. These could potentially have antibiotic properties as well. Try to find 2-3 potential plant species and if possible, print a picture of each for identification purposes. Search for plants that look familiar and that you think you’ll be able to find in your neighbourhood. Helpful Websites: http://lfs-indigenous.sites.olt.ubc.ca/plants/ http://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1302807151028/1302807416851 http://www.npsbc.ca/ http://www.pwsd.ca/News/Miniotaplants.pdf Record the following information for each plant: Plant specimen #1 1. What is the plant’s common name and scientific name? Plant specimen #2 Plant specimen #3 2. What are some identifying features of this plant (how will you know when you find it?) 3. What medicinal uses does your plant have? Bring this information in with your plant on __________________ 51 Step 2: Collect Once you have researched a few possible plant species head outside to collect some samples. Plant Collection Guidelines Please adhere to the following guidelines when collecting plant specimens. 1. When collecting specimens, remove a few leaves, flowers (if applicable) and stem. There is no need to remove a whole branch. 2. Under no circumstances are plants to be removed from a Municipal, Provincial or National Park. 3. Avoid collecting the last of any plant species in an area. 4. If you are collecting with friends, do not collect from the same plant. 5. Where appropriate clothing when collecting plants (long plants, long sleeve shirts, boots). 6. Plants are not to be unnecessarily damaged when specimens are taken. 7. Do not collect at night on your own, go with a friend during daylight hours. Once you have collected your sample, lay it on paper towel over night to dry. Bring your plant to school on __________ in a paper bag – not platic! Step 3: Ethanol Extraction Materials: -Plant specimen -Mortar and pestle -Test tube and test tube rack -Ethanol -Saran wrap Procedure: 1. Gather your materials. 2. Use a mortar and pestle to grind your plant until the pieces are smaller than 1 mm. You will need 1-5 grams of your plant material (about the width of one thumb in the bottom of your test tube) 3. Use a sheet of paper to transfer your ground-up plant into a clean, labelled test tube 4. Add about 10 mL of ethanol to your test tube 5. Wrap the top of your test tube with Saran wrap and gently rock the tube to mix. 6. Place your test tube in the test tube rack provided (make sure your names or initials are on your test tube!) Stage 3: Plant Extract Disc Preparation Materials -Test tube containing plant sample and ethanol -Clean watchglass -Filter paper disc -Forceps 52 Procedure 1. Gather your materials. 2. Use your forceps to pick up your filter paper disc and gently dip it in your ethanol solution 3. Set your filter paper disc on the watchglass. Let the disc sit until the filter paper is dry. 4. When your new plate has been streaked with bacteria, place your filter paper disc into one quadrant of your plate. Record which quadrant contains the plant extract disc. Stage 4: Antibiotic Testing Materials -Petri dish with bacterial colonies -New, clean petri dish with agar -Two antibiotic discs -Plant extract disc -Plain filter paper disc (control) -Bunsen burner -Inoculation loop Procedure 1. Wipe your bench with disinfectant and wash your hands 2. Label the quadrants of your new petri dish 1-4. Decide which antibiotic/control disc will go in each quadrant and record your data. 3. Light your Bunsen burner 4. Use the Bunsen burner to sterilize your inoculation loop as demonstrated by your teacher 5. Open your collection plate. Use the sterile inoculation loop to gently pick up one bacterial colony. 6. Streak your bacteria across your new petri plate 10 times back and forth. Rotate your plate 60o and repeat so that your bacteria are spread in 3 directions across the plate. 7. Close your petri dish and flame-sterilize your inoculation loop before setting it down. 8. Use forceps to place your antibiotic discs, plant extract discs, and control disc onto your petri dish in the correct quadrants. 9. Monitor bacterial growth daily for the following 1-2 weeks. Record your data in your data table. Results: 1. Draw a labelled diagram of your plate. Include a photograph if possible. 2. Construct a data table to record the zone of inhibition (in mm) around the colonies. Include a column to note whether or not the plate was contaminated and whether or not there was sufficient growth of bacteria. Your table should look something like this… Day1 Day2 Day3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Day 7 Day 8 Day 9 Disc A Disc B Disc C Disc D Contam? Growth? 53 Questions: 1. Define the following terms : antibiotic, disinfectant, antibiotic resistant, antibiotic susceptible, zone of inhibition 2. Did any colonies appear within the zone of inhibition? What would cause this growth? 3. Did you accept or reject your hypothesis? Explain why. 4. Answer these questions about the experimental design a. What were the independent or experimental variables in this experiment? b. What was the dependant variable? c. What are 5 controlled factors in this experiment? d. What was the control? What purpose did your control serve? What did your observation of your control tell you? e. What did we do to ensure a sterile environment was maintained for this lab? List at least 3 procedures you followed. 5. Give 2 dangers of long term use of antibiotics. 6. What problems could arise from using antibacterial soap? Describe the process in 5 steps! 7. Research a species of bacteria that has become resistant to an antibiotic. What is the name of the bacteria? What antibiotics has it become resistant to? What disease does it cause? 8. What was the first antibiotic, who discovered it and how? Give a brief history of this famous antibiotic. 9. How do antibiotics work? Why does taking antibiotics for a viral infection not make sense? 10. Why would it be harmful to us to get rid of all bacteria? Summarize pg.476-477 11.Use the terms resistant and susceptible to interpret the growth of the bacteria in the plate below. Conclusion: Write your conclusion in the same format as the previous lab. 3 paragraphs: first respond to your hypothesis, second list all problems with the experiment, third pose 3 questions for further study 54 BACTERIA REVIEW Assignment: Create a review sheet that includes the following information: 1. Stucture a. Labelled diagram b. Structure/function chart 2. Classification a. Cell shape b. Colony characteristics c. Domain Archaeobacteria and Eubacteria – note similarities and differences d. Nutrition e. Harmful/helpful, list at least 5 of each one 3. Continuity a. Diagram b. Conditions c. Outcome (genetic diversity or increase in numbers) 4. Diseases a. How bacteria can harm you b. Transmission 5. Lab info a. Controlled variables, independent variable, dependent variable b. Sterile techniques c. Resistance/susceptibility – results draw petri dish d. Resistance development – natural selection 6. Possible long answer questions a. Compare and contrast viruses, prokaryotes (bacteria) and eukaryotes. Points should include both structures and processes b. Explain the evolution of antibiotic resistant bacteria 7. Vocabulary list- create a list of vocabulary words with definitions 55 Name Class Textbook Section 20-1 The Kingdom Protista Date (pages 497-498) Key Concept • What are protists? What Is a Protist? (page 497) 1. What is a protist? 2. Circle the letter of each sentence that is true about protists. a. All are unicellular. b. All cells have a nucleus. c. All cells have membrane-bound organelles. d. All are multicellular. 3. Why are some organisms that consist of thousands of cells considered to be protists? Evolution of Protists (page 498) 4. The first eukaryotic organisms on Earth were 5. What is biologist Lynn Margulis’s hypothesis about where the first protists came from? Classification of Protists (page 498) 6. Complete the table about protist classification. GROUPS OF PROTISTS Group Method of Obtaining Food Consume other organisms Plantlike protists Funguslike protists 7. What don’t categories of protists based on the way they obtain food reflect about these organisms? 56 EVOLUTION OF PROTOZOANS Protozoans are the first eukaryotic cells! Hurrah membrane-bound organelles and complexity! A theory that describes the evolution of protists is called the endosymbiotic theory. This theory suggests that eukaryotic cells arose from prokaryotic cells that engulfed other prokaryotic cells, and instead of digesting them they remained inside the cell and continued their function. This taking-in of other cells and development of a symbiotic relationship is called endosymbiosis. Example: chloroplasts may have arisen from photosynthetic prokaryotes that were engulfed by another cell. Example: mitochondria may have arisen from high energy producing prokarytoes that were engulfed by another cell Also, spiral-shaped bacteria may have evolved into flagella/cilia, and invagination of the membrane developed into the endoplasmic reticulum. Evidence: 1. Both chloroplasts & mitochondria have their own DNA separate from the cell. 2. Both chloroplasts and mitochondria divide independently from the cell and use binary fission, just like bacteria 3. The double membrane found in mitochondria and chloroplasts suggests entry of a foreign cell 4. Scientists have found bacteria living symbiotically inside cells. Bacteria provide amino acids for the cell & the cell provides a safe place for the bacteria. keywords DNA double symbiotic chloroplast invagination provide mitochondria endosymbiosis bacteria divide Binary fission endosymbiotic Flagella/cilia photosynthetic eukaryotic 57 KINGDOM PROTISTA Protists belong to the Kingdom Protista, which includes mostly unicellular organisms that do not fit into the other kingdoms. Characteristics of Protists: mostly unicellular, some are multicellular (algae) can be heterotrophic or autotrophic most live in water (though some live in moist soil or even the human body) A protist is any eukaryotic organism that is not a plant, animal or fungus Protista = the very first Classification of Protists: how they obtain nutrition how they move Main Types: I. Animallike Protists - also called protozoa (means "first animal") - heterotrophs II. Plantlike Protists - also called algae - autotrophs III. Funguslike Protists - heterotrophs, decomposers, external digestion Structure of a Typical Animal-like Protist. **Refer to pg 501 and label the parts of the cell below. keywords water protozoa eukaryotic nutrition decomposers multicellular unicellular algae first move heterotrophic 58 PLAYDOUGH PARAMECIUM PROJECT In groups of 3-4, you will create an almost-3-D playdough model of a paramecium in class. You will be given a bag of colourful playdough, tape, toothpicks, a white sheet of paper and a list of key words and definitions. Your model should measure 15 cm across at the longest point. You will use toothpicks to attach the keyword labels to each part of the paramecium. The keywords are provided below- cut them out and attach them to the toothpicks using tape. You will also need to match key words with their definitions. Attach these also to the toothpick. Make sure you follow the colour scheme provided! Colour scheme: Cilia- ___________ Anal pore- ___________ Oral groove- ___________ Contractile vacuole- ______ Cytoplasm-___________ Micronucleus- ___________ Gullet-__________ Macronucleus- ___________ Food Vacuole-___________ Keywords: CILIA ORAL GROOVE GULLET MICRONUCLEUS MACRONUCLEUS ANAL PORE CONTRACTILE VACUOLE CYTOPLASM FOOD VACUOLE Key definitions: This smaller structure where genetic material is stored plays a major role in sexual reproduction This is the site where food moves into the paramecium This structure surrounds food as it moves into the paramecium. Here, enzymes break down the food, and nutrients are then absorbed into the cytoplasm. This is the larger structure where genetic material is stored. It plays a major role in every day cell function. A cilia- lined indent in the body that sweeps food into the gullet. Tiny, hair-like projections that help in movement Waste materials leave the cell through this opening A structure responsible for pumping excess water out of the cell The liquid which suspends all the organelles TOTAL MARKS: _________ DUE DATE: _____________ 59 CLASSIFICATION OF PROTISTS I. ANIMAL-LIKE PROTISTS Classified by how they move i. Zooflagellates - flagella ii. Sarcodines - extensions of cytoplasm (pseudopodia) iii. Ciliates - cilia iv. Sporozoans - do not move 1. Zooflagellates move using one or two flagella absorb food across membrane E.x. Leishmania images to the right 2. Sarcodines moves using pseudopodia ( "false feet" ), which are like extensions of the cytoplasm -ameboid movement ingests food by surrounding and engulfing food (endocytosis), creating a food vacuole reproducing by binary fission (mitosis) contractile vacuole - removes excess water can cause amebic dysentery in humans - diarrhea and stomach upset from drinking contaminated water E.x. Ameba 3. Ciliates move using cilia has two nuclei: macronucleus, micronucleus food is gathered through the mouth pore, moved into a gullet, forms a food vacuole anal pore is used for removing waste contractile vacuole removes excess water exhibits avoidance behavior reproduces asexually (binary fission) or sexually (conjugation) outer membrane -pellicle- is rigid and paramecia are always the same shape, like a shoe Ex. Paramecium 4. Sporozoans do not move on their own parasitic E.x. malaria, infects the liver and blood keywords cilia two contractile flagella membrane conjugation endocytosis Mouth pore Binary fission pseudopodia move Anal pore parasitic 60 MORE ON PARASITIC ANIMAL-LIKE PROTISTS A parasite is an organism that lives on or in a host organism and causes harm to that organism. A vector is an organism that can carry a parasite, and is responsible for infecting other organisms (host) with that parasite. Vectors themselves are not harmful, but in the battle against human disease, controlling the vector can control the transmission of parasites. 1. Malaria Protist: Plasmodium Vector: Anopholes Mosquito. Image to the right: Anopheles mosquito taking a blood meal, this is how a human becomes infected with plasmodium and contracts Malaria Statistics: According to the World Health Organization, 300-500 million cases of malaria occur each year Malaria results in 1.5-2.7 million deaths per year (much more than AIDS) Symptoms include fever, headache, vomitting and other flu-like symptoms The protist lives inside the bloodstream, eventually clogging capillaries and destroying blood cells, which will lead to death if not treated Life Cycle: To do: on a separate sheet of paper, number and describe the steps of the life cycle of malaria. 61 2. African Sleeping Sickness (or Trypanosomiasis) Protist: Trypanosoma Vector: Tse Tse Fly Image to the right: this slide shows a blood smear of a person infected with trypanosoma. The protist is the purplish colored string-like things. They appear string-like due to a flagella. The reddish circles are blood cells. Statistics: Occurs mostly in sub-saharan africa Symptoms include fever, headaches, pain in joints -followed by a phase when the parasite infects the central nervous system, causing confusion, lack of coordination, and uncontrolled sleepiness. Without treatment, the host will die 3. Other Protist Parasites Cryptsporidium - this protist was responsible for a major health crisis in Detroit when the city's drinking water became contaminated Amebic Dysentery - also known as Montezuma's Revenge, travellers often contract this in other countries (causes diarrhea) Questions for Thought 1. Does Canada have a responsibility toward treating and containing parasitic infections found in other parts of the world? 2. Why is controlling the vector important to control the disease? 3. One of the best ways to prevent many parasitic infections is to have a source of clean water. Why do you think many third world countries have more incidence of parasitic infection that other countries? 62 Name Class Date Textbook Section 20-4 Plantlike Protists: Red, Brown, and Green Algae (pages 510-515) Key Concepts • What are the distinguishing features of the major phyla of multicellular algae? • How do multicellular algae reproduce? Introduction (page 510) 1. What are seaweeds? 2. What are the most important differences among the three phyla of multicellular algae? Red Algae (page 510) 3. Red algae are members of the phylum 4. Why are red algae able to live at great depths? 5. What pigments do red algae contain? 6. Which color of light are phycobilins especially good at absorbing? a. red b. green c. yellow d. blue 7. Circle the letter of each sentence that is true about red algae. a. They can grow in the ocean at depths up to 260 meters. b. Most are unicellular. c. All are red or reddish-brown. d. Coralline algae play an important role in coral reef formation. Brown Algae (page 511) 8. Brown algae are members of the phylum 9. What pigments do brown algae contain? Match each structure with its description. Structure Description _____ 10. Holdfast _____ 11. Stipe _____ 12. Blade _____ 13. Bladder a. Flattened stemlike structure b. Gas-filled swelling c. Structure that attaches alga to the bottom d. Leaflike structure 63 14. Where are brown algae commonly found growing? 15. What is the largest known alga? Green Algae (pages 511-512) 16. Green algae are members of the phylum 17. What characteristics do green algae share with plants? 18. What do scientists think is the connection between mosses and green algae? 19. The freshwater alga Spirogyra forms long threadlike colonies called 20. How can the cells in a Volvox colony coordinate movement? 21. “Sea lettuce” is a multicellular alga known as Reproduction in Green Algae (pages 512-514) 22. What occurs in the process known as alternation of generations? 23. The unicellular Chlamydomonas reproduces asexually by producing 24. Circle the letter of each sentence that is true about sexual reproduction in Chlamydomonas. a. If conditions become unfavorable, cells release gametes. b. Paired gametes form a diploid zygote. c. A zygote quickly grows into an adult organism. d. The gametes are called male and female. 25. Complete the table about the generations in an organism’s life cycle. GENERATIONS IN A LIFE CYCLE Generation Definition Diploid or Haploid? Gamete-producing phase Spore-producing phase 64 26. Complete the life cycle of Ulva by labeling the sporophyte, the male gametophyte, and the female gametophyte. Also, label the places where the processes of fertilization, mitosis, and meiosis occur. Ecology of Algae (page 515) 27. Why have algae been called the “grasses” of the sea? 28. Through photosynthesis, algae produce much of Earth’s 29. What is the compound agar derived from, and how is it used? 65 II. Plant-like Protists: Unicellular Algae Most contain chlorophyll and carry out photosynthesis accessory pigments help absorb light, give algae a variety of colors make up the base of aquatic food chains (most live in water) phytoplankton makes up half of the photosynthesis that occurs on earth (they make oxygen!) four phyla: euglenophytes, chrysophytes, diatoms, dinoflagellates 1. Euglenophytes 2. Chrysophytes have flagella use chloroplasts for photosynthesis, but can turn into heterotrophs if they are kept in the dark eyespot used for sensing light and dark pellicle - like a cell wall, helps maintain their shapes Ex. Euglena Include yellow-green algae and golden-brown algae Name means “golden plants” Have gold-coloured chloroplasts Store food in the form of oil rather than starch Reproduce asexually or sexually Cell wall of pectin or pectin and cellulose 3. Diatoms 4. Dinoflagellates Most abundant and most beautiful! Cell walls made of silicon- main component of glass Shaped like a petri dish with a top and bottom Jewell-like About half are photosynthetic, the rest are heterotrophic Usually have 2 flagella that wrap around the organism in body grooves Great blooms (population explosions) can lead to red tidemakes shellfish toxic to eat II. Plant-like Protists: Multicellular Algae Includes kelp and all other algae you see in the ocean 1. Green Algae: Phylum Chlorophyta Chlorophyll a and b pigments Cellulose in cell walls There are unicellular, colonial (ex. volvox), and multicellular green algae (ex. ulva, sea lettuce) Probable ancestors of plants Ex. Spirogyra 2. Red Algae Phylum Rhodophyta Chlorophyll a and phycobilins Some have calcium carbonate in cell wall, making them tough Are able to live at great depths because are more efficient at absorbing sunlight Most are multicellular 3. Brown Algae Phylum Phaeophyta Chlorophyll a and c, as well as fucoxanthin All are multicellular Ex. giant kelp Keywords: plants, depths, fucoxanthin, photosynthesis, eyespots, colours, oil, silicon, oxygen, flagella, red tide, 66 Name Class Textbook Section 20-5 Funguslike Protists Date (pages 516-520) Key Concepts • What are the similarities and differences between funguslike protists and fungi? • What are the defining characteristics of the slime molds and water molds? Introduction (page 516) 1. How are funguslike protists like fungi? 2. How are funguslike protists unlike most true fungi? Slime Molds (pages 516-518) 3. What are slime molds? 4. Cellular slime molds belong to the phylum 5. Is the following sentence true or false? Cellular slime molds spend most of their lives as free-living cells. 6. What do cellular slime molds form when their food supply is exhausted? 7. What structure does a cellular slime mold colony produce, and what is that structure’s function? 8. Acellular slime molds belong to the phylum 9. What is a plasmodium? 10. The plasmodium eventually produces sporangia, which in turn produce haploid Water Molds (pages 518-519) 11. Water molds, or oomycetes, are members of the phylum 12. Water molds produce thin filaments known as 13. What are zoosporangia? 67 14. Where are male and female nuclei produced in water mold sexual reproduction? 15. Fertilization in water molds occurs in the Ecology of Funguslike Protists (page 519) 16. Why aren’t there bodies of dead animals and plants littering the woods and fields you walk through? 17. What are examples of plant diseases that water molds cause? Water Molds and the Potato Famine (page 520) 18. What produced the Great Potato Famine of 1846? 19. What did the Great Potato Famine lead to? III. Funguslike Protists heterotrophs, decomposers water molds responsible for the Irish Great Potato Famine Ex. Dog Vomit Slime Mold - because it looks like dog puke, but it's really a protist, in the phylum Myxomycota Two groups: Slime Molds (Cellular and Acellular) and Water Molds Cellular Slime Molds Acellular Slime Molds Water Molds 68 IDENTIFY THE PROTOZOANS Using the terms in your notes, identify which group each protozoan belong to. 69 MICROSCOPE REVIEW # LABEL THE PARTS! E 10 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N F G A H B C D 10 4 I J K L M 40 N 1. BODY TUBE: holds the eyepiece in place at the proper distance from each other. 2. OCULAR LENS ("oculus" is Latin for eye): Lens system near the top of the body tube. Magnifies the image produced by the objective so the image you see is enlarged even more. Usually 10 X. 3. OBJECTIVE LENS . Most microscopes have 3 or 4 objective lenses (each with a different magnifying power) attached to a rotating nosepiece i. Low Power Objective Lens: usually has magnifying power of 4 (produces images 4 times larger than the object itself) ii. Medium Power Objective Lens: usually 10 X iii. High Power Objective Lens: usually 40 X iv. Oil Immersion Lens: used in conjunction with special oils that further bends light rays (will not focus without the oil): usually 100 X LENS MAGNIFICATION: found by multiplying the magnifying power of the objective lens by the magnifying power of the ocular lens. e.g. 4X objective x 10X ocular = _____________total magnifying power. e.g. 10X objective x 10X ocular = ______________ total magnifying power. e.g. 40X objective x 10X ocular = _______________ total magnifying power. e.g. 100X objective x 10X ocular = ______________ total magnifying power. 4. NOSEPIECE that can be rotated to place lenses into position. 5. STAGE: the platform located immediately below the lenses. On the stage are clips to hold the SLIDE (on which the specimen is put) in place. keywords 4 10 10 platform oils rotated eyepiece 40 multiplying nosepiece eye 100 4 clips 70 6. DIAPHRAGM: like the iris of your eye or a camera, this opening can be increased or decreased in diameter. This changes the angle at which most light passes through your specimen, which can increase the clarity of your image. Light is provided by a special lamp 8. COURSE ADJUSTMENT KNOB: The large focus knob. For focusing under low power. Makes large changes in position of objective lens. Never use with medium or high power lens. 9. FINE ADJUSTMENT KNOB: The small focus knob. Use for focusing when using medium and high power lens. Makes small changes in position of objective lens. Care of Microscope: Microscopes are DELICATE, EXPENSIVE instruments! 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Carry with BOTH HANDS: one underneath holding the base, one holding the arm. Carry in UPRIGHT POSITION. NEVER TOUCH ANY LENS WITH YOUR FINGERS. NEVER CLEAN ANY LENS WITH PAPER TOWEL OR CLOTH. Use only LENS TISSUE. NEVER use the COARSE adjustment knob for any objective lens EXCEPT the LOW POWER lens. Always focus SLOWLY and carefully. Storage of Microscope 1. Store with LOW POWER LENS in position. 2. Store with the stage UP all the way. 3. Wind cord around the base. 4. Replace the dust cover. **Careless handling of the microscope will result in the loss of the privilege of working with these instruments!!! So please do be careful! keywords large low small coarse iris Never use Never touch Lamp cord Both hands Low up Upright position slowly Medium and high Lens tissue dust 71 An Example of Calculating Magnification Using High Power Low Power Medium Power High Power 4500 m 1500 m 450m Numbers to know: the field of view (distance across the lens) changes depending on the power of the lens. Low, medium, and high power field of views are shown in the table above. You should measure your drawings in centimeters, and then convert that number to micrometers. There are 10,000 m in one centimeter. Here's the example! You look in your microscope under high power (10x ocular and 40x objective lens). Suppose you see this when you are looking through your microscope: Being an excellent microscopist, you quickly estimate that this critters body is about 150 m, since it takes up 1/3 of the field of view under high power, which is 450m. (move the slide around so that you see the object at the edge of the field of view to help you make a good estimate. If you can't see all of the whole object because it is too big, estimate the size of just a part of the object for your calculations. 150 micrometers Then, you draw this…see to the right The size of the body of the critter that you have drawn on the page is 5 cm. Since there are 10,000 m per cm, this distance is equal to 5 cm x 10,000 m/cm = 50,000 m. Your image size is 50,000 m. Magnif ication = image si ze ob ject si ze = 50,000 m 150 m 5 cm = 333 X Summary: Five Easy Steps to Calculating Magnification!! 1. View the object under high power and estimate its size (or the size of an easily identifiable part) in m. This will be some number that is less than or equal to 450 m. This number is your object size. 2. Draw an image of the object on your paper. 3. Measure the image (or the same part on your image as you used for your estimate in number 1 above). Measure this in centimeters. This is your image size. 4. Take this number and multiply it by 10,000 m/cm to convert it to m. 5. Divide the image size by the object size to get your magnification. Of course, this same method can be applied to low and medium powers. Just use a field of view of 4500 m for low power and 1500 m for medium when estimating object size in step one. Now you try. Calculate the drawing size for the following two scenarios… 72 Low magnification drawing high magnification drawing RULES FOR MAKING BIOLOGICAL DRAWINGS 1. Use pencil or a fine black marker. Make firm, continuous lines and pixelate for shading. 2. Most drawings are black and white, but if instructed to do so, colour your diagrams realistically. 3. All parts of the diagram should be drawn in proportion to one another. 4. Use white (unlined) paper. 5. Use a ruler to make a 12cm by 12cm box. Draw your specimen so that it almost touches the top and bottom of the box. 6. Place this box on the left side of the page to make room for labels. 7. Use a ruler to draw straight lines from the part of the diagram you are labelling. These lines should be parallel to the bottom of the page and should all stop at the same place so that the labels line up. 8. Write the classification in the upper left hand corner of the page. Include Kingdom, Phylum, and as many other taxa as are in your textbook. 9. The common and Latin name for the specimen should be centered below the box. 10. Magnification goes below the Latin name, e.g. 400X. Show all calculations on the back of the sheet. Do not write high, medium or low power. 11. Label parts neatly, print and use capital letters. 12. Draw only what you see yourself. 13. With protists you may make a composite drawing of several specimens of the same species. 14. With specimens where there is a lot of repetition, detail just a small portion of the drawing. 15. Do not make a rough copy of your work and attempt to finish it at home. Make your final copy while you have your specimen in front of you. 16. Never copy any drawing from another student or book. 17. Remember to put your name and block in the bottom right corner! Kingdom Animalia Phylum Idontknowa Class Isstillinsessiona Head Thorax Abdomen Insecta Speciesia Magnificaiton 120x 73 Name Class Date Textbook Section 21-1 The Kingdom Fungi (pages 527-529) Key Concepts • What are the defining characteristics of fungi? • What is the internal structure of a fungus? • How do fungi reproduce? What Are Fungi? (page 527) 1. Circle the letter of each sentence that is true about fungi. a. They are heterotrophs. b. They have cell walls. c. They are photosynthetic. d. They are eukaryotic. 2. The cell walls of fungi are made of a complex carbohydrate called 3. How do fungi digest their food? 4. Is the following sentence true or false? Some fungi are parasites. Structure and Function of Fungi (pages 527-528) 5. Which group of fungi are not multicellular? 6. What are hyphae? 7. How thick is each hypha? 8. In some fungi, what divides the hyphae into cells containing one or two nuclei? 9. What is a mycelium? 10. Why is a mycelium well suited to absorb food? 11. What is a fruiting body of a fungus? © Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall. 107 74 Name Class Date 12. What is a fairy ring, and why does it form? 13. Label the parts of the fungus. Reproduction in Fungi (pages 528-529) 14. Is the following sentence true or false? Most fungi can reproduce only asexually. 15. How does asexual reproduction occur in fungi? 16. In some fungi, spores are produced in structures called 17. Where are sporangia found in a fungus? 18. Sexual reproduction in fungi usually involves two different 19. What is a gametangium? 75 20. How does a zygote form in fungal sexual reproduction? 21. Circle the letter of each sentence that is true about sexual reproduction in fungi. a. The zygote is often the only diploid cell in the fungus’s entire life cycle. b. Mating types are called male and female. c. Gametes of both mating types are about the same size. d. One mating type is a “+” (plus) and the other is a “–” (minus). How Fungi Spread (page 529) 22. Is the following sentence true or false? The spores of many fungi scatter easily in the wind. 23. For a fungal spore to grow, where must it land? Classification of Fungi- Introduction (page 530) 1. Complete the concept map about the four main groups of fungi. 76 STUDENT LEAD FUNGUS NOTES Instructions: Rewrite the point form notes below under the appropriate headings on the following page. If needed, elaborate on the points (add more information!). • mushrooms, molds, mildew, athlete’s food, Dutch elm disease, yeast • Thin, threadlike structures are called hyphae Digestive enzymes chemically break down large macromolecules of proteins, carbohydrates and fats into small monomers that can be absorbed by the cell membrane • Together with the bacteria, fungi are the major decomposers. • Not photosynthetic • Asexual reproduction can occur by fragmentation (breaking apart) of hyphae • The mycelium is well suited to absorbing food because it permits a larger surface area to come in contact with the food source. • Shortly after nuclei fuse, meiosis occurs and produces haploid nuclei that dominate the life cycle of the fungus. • Multicellular except yeast • During the greater part of their life cycle, the nuclei are haploid (N). • Except for yeasts, the body of the typical fungus is made up of many tiny filaments called hyphae tangled together into a thick mass called a mycelium. • Aerobic respiration ( write the equation) • Specialized hyphae include stolons, rhizoids, and sporangiophores • Fungi do not ingest their food; they absorb it through their cell walls and cell membrane. • Diploid (2N) nuclei form during sexual reproduction. • Oomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, and Deuteromycota (what do these phyla names all have in common?) • They display some remarkable and exotic lifestyles. • Asexual reproduction can occur by the production of spores in sporangia • • • • • Cell walls made of chitin Many fungi are saprobes, others are parasites, still others are symbionts. Fungi release digestive enzymes into their environment. Heterotrophic – Saprophytic – external digestion followed by absoprtion Sexual reproduction involves two different mating types (+ and -). eukaryotic – have usual eukaryote organelles eg. List 5 And because we are talking about FUNgi…. 77 Heading Notes 1. UNITY (characteristics of all members) CLASSIFICATION AND DIVERSITY CONTINUITY (reproduction) ASEXUAL SEXUAL HOMEOSTASIS (maintaining a constant internal environment, i.e. digestion) STRUCTURE ECOLOGY 78 FUNGAL STRUCTURE AND REPRODUCTION Fungi are very important decomposers Fungal structure, when not reproducing, consists primarily of long, microscopic strands of hyphae that grow into the “food” it is digesting, for example, a rotting piece of wood. A mass of hyphae is called mycelium When reproducing, fungi often produce reproductive strucutres. These structures can vary in shape and size depending on the species. You are probably familiar with mushrooms- yes these are fungal reproductive structures! Yum! Different groups of fungi have different types of reproductive strucures EXAMPLES OF REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES AND THEIR PHYLA: Keywords: mycelium, decomposers, hyphae, mushrooms, reproductive 79 BREAD MOLD REPRODUCTION REVIEW The life cycle of a fungus consists of 1. _______________ distinct phases. Under suitable conditions, haploid 2.______________ germinate and produce long filaments called 3.______________. These strands makeup a network called a 4_______________. The haploid mycelium grows through the substrate secreting 5. _______________, digesting organic matter, and 6. _______________ nutrient molecules. Under these optimal conditions the fungus will undergo 7. _______________ reproduction. Sporangiophores will grow upwards and 8. _______________ will form on their tips. Inside the sporangium hundreds of 9. _______________spores develop. The spores are dispersed by the 10. ______________. This form of reproduction is beneficial because a lot of offspring are formed however the all the offspring are 11. _______________. Variation is achieved through 12. _______________ reproduction. During times of stress if compatible mating types come into contact with each other a 13. _______________ will form. Inside the gametangia there are 14. _______________ nuclei. When the gametangia fuse, the haploid nuclei come into contact with each other and fuse to form 15. _______________zygospores. The tough outer shell containing the zygospores can withstand drying out and freezing. When optimal conditions are present again, 16. _______________ occurs and haploid meiospores are formed. These meiospores are also dispersed by the 17. __________ and grow to form new 18. _______________ individuals. 80 LICHEN Lichens are made up of a fungus and a photosynthetic bacteria or algae that are living together in a SYMBIOTIC relationship. The algae is PHOTOSYNTHETIC so it provides GLUCOSE as well as nitrogen and vitamins to the fungus. The fungus provides a nice place to live, WATER and minerals to the algae Lichen plays a significant ECOLOGICAL role in the environment as a pioneer species. Lichen are called PIONEER species because they are the first organisms to inhabit a location. For example, after a volcano erupts and the LAVA cools into rock, lichen are the first organisms to grow on that rock. As the lichen grows it breaks down the rock to form SOIL. Lichen are also common on rocks in HARSH environments where other species cannot grow. For example, lichen is common on rocks on a rock SLIDE in the mountains, on rocks in the DESERT and in the ARCTIC. 3 types of lichen include crustose, foliose and fruiticose. Keywords Arctic ecological harsh symbiotic glucose Slide pioneer soil photosynthetic harsh water lava desert LICHEN DIAGRAMS - macroscopic Divide a piece of paper into 4 sections Using the examples provided make a quick sketch of 4 different types of lichen Using your textbook decide whether each type is a crustose, fruiticose or foliose LICHEN DIAGRAM – microscopic obtain a piece of lichen place the lichen on a drop of water on a glass slide place a PLASTIC coverslip on top of the specimen place the slide on the counter using the eraser end of a pencil press down on the cover slip and using a circular motion separate the tissues of the lichen. You should see the water turn light green in colour make sure the top and bottom of the slide are dry place slide on the microscope stage focus under medium power and make a biological drawing make sure to include the appropriate classification given that you are classifying 2 organisms….see your textbook. 81 REVIEW- Viruses, Bacteria, Protozoans, Fungi 1. Viruses are made of 2 parts the _____________ and _____________. They must have another _____________ to reproduce. They cannot _____________on their own. They do not undergo any cellular processes eg. _____________, _____________, or _____________. They do not take in _____________ or expel _____________. 2. Bacteria are called _____________. Their structures include _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________. They do not have any membrane bound organelles, most notably they do not have a _____________. Although they do not have a chloroplast they can _____________. Although they do not have a mitochondria, they can _____________. Some bacteria can also undergo _____________ which results in the production of alcohol and _____________. In terms of continuity, bacteria reproduce asexually by _____________ and sexually by _____________. They can also _____________ to increase their genome and produce _____________ to survive harsh conditions. 3. Protozoans are the first kingdom to be _____________, They do have nuclei. They also have other organelles including _____________, _____________, _____________, _____________, _____________. Like bacteria they have chromosomes, only the chromosomes in protozoans are found in the _____________. Like bacteria they also have ____________, _____________, _____________, _____________. Unlike bacteria they do not have _____________, _____________or _____________. In terms of nutrition, some protozoans are _____________ and as such have chloroplsts. Many protozoans are _____________including all the pathogenic ones. All protozoans like fungi, plants and animals respire ______________ and have _____________. Protozoans resproduce asexually by _____________ and sexually by _____________. 4. Fungi are our first kingdom that is _____________. Their nutrition is like some bacteria in that they are _____________ heterotrophs. They _____________enzymes into their environment and then _____________the digested nutrients through their cell _____________. They have mitochondria and therefore like all plants and animals they respire _____________ .Structurally, fungi are _____________ so they have membrane bound _____________. These organelles include _____________, and _____________. Because fungi do not _____________they do not _____________. Fungi also have asexual and sexual means of reproduction. They reproduce asexually by producing millions of _____________ which develop in and are released from _____________. During times of stress, zygomycetes produce _____________ which are able to withstand freezing and _____________. 82