Download Characteristics Of Living Organisms

Biology 11 Notes
Part II- Viruses,
Bacteria, Protists and
Fungi
Elgin Park Secondary
2016-2017
Student Name: ____________________________________________________
Teacher: ______________________________ Block: ___
1
TRENDS IN COMPLEXITY
As we continue learning in this course, we will be taking a closer look at trends in complexity in the
evolution of life. In particular, we will focus on the following.

Body transport
o How do organisms transport materials inside the body?
o Diffusion? Osmosis? Transport vessels?

Gas exchange
o How do organisms obtain oxygen?
o How do organisms release carbon dioxide?
o How does this process change as organisms move from water to land and become
larger?

Cephalization
o Why is the development of a head so important?
o What advantages does having a brain bring to the table?

Reproduction
o What form is used? Asexual? Sexual? Both?
o How does this connect to the type of environment lived in by the organism?

Symmetry
o Radial? Bilateral? Non-uniform?
o How does symmetry connect to the type of environment lived in by the organism?
o How does symmetry affect mobility?

Coelom
o Does the organism have a coelom? Pseudocoelom? None?
o Why is the coelom so important?

Tissue development
o Does the organism have tissue? How many layers?

Vascularization
o Does the organism have a blood vessel system
Consider each of these concepts as we move from the most primitive living thing (bacteria) through
the other Kingdoms.
2
TEXTBOOK READING- Section 19-2 Viruses
(pages 478-483)
Key Concepts
• What is the structure of a virus?
•
How do viruses cause infection?
What Is a Virus? (pages 478-479)
1. What are viruses?
2. What do all viruses have in common?
3. Is the following sentence true or false? Most viruses are so small that they can be seen
only with the aid of a powerful electron microscope.
4. What is the structure of a typical virus?
5. Complete the illustration of a T4 bacteriophage by labeling the parts.
6. A virus’s protein coat is called a(an)
7. How does a typical virus get inside a cell?
3
8. What occurs when viruses get inside cells?
9. Why are most viruses highly specific to the cells they infect?
10. What are bacteriophages?
Viral Infection (pages 480-481)
11. Why is a lytic infection given that name?
12. Circle the letter of each sentence that is true about a lysogenic infection.
a.
The virus lyses the host cell immediately
b.
The virus embeds its DNA into the host’s DNA.
c.
The virus’s DNA is replicated along with the host cell’s DNA.
d.
A host cell makes copies of the virus indefinitely.
13. Complete the flowchart about a lytic infection.
The bacteriophage attaches to the bacterium’s _______________ .
The bacteriophage injects its _______________ into the cell.
The cell makes mRNA from the bacteriophage’s _____________ .
The virus wrecks the cell, causing it to ______________
The bursting of the cell releases new bacteriophage ______________ .
14. What is a prophage?
4
Retroviruses (page 482)
15. What are retroviruses?
16. What happens when retroviruses infect a cell?
Viruses and Living Cells (pages 482-483)
17. Circle the letter of each reason why some biologists do not consider viruses to be alive.
a. They can’t infect living cells.
b. They can’t evolve.
c. They can’t regulate gene expression.
d. They can’t reproduce independently.
18. Complete the table comparing viruses and cells.
Virus and Cells
Characteristic
Virus
DNA or RNA core, capsid
Structure
Reproduction
Genetic Code
Growth and
Development
Cell membrane,
cytoplasm;
eukaryotes also
contain nucleus and
Independent
organelles
cell
division
either
asexually or
sexually
DNA
No
Obtain and Use
Energy
Response to
the Environment
Cell
Yes
No
Change Over
Time
5
VIRUS NOTES
1. SIZE

Nanometers in length. 1000um = 1mm
and 100nm = 1um
2. SHAPES
 Icosahedron – 20 sided shape
 HELICAL or corkscrew
 SPHERICAL
 Complex or Spaceship – bacteriophage
3. STRUCTURE
 Outer capsid – made out of PROTEIN
 Genome:
 DNA or RNA (=RETROVIRUS!)
 Single strand
 10-100 genes vs 30,000 in humans
 Genome can MUTATE
4. REPRODUCTION
 Requires a HOST cell to replicate (a key
“non-living” feature of viruses)
 Two main types of infection:
 LYTIC –fast, causes immediate disease (= VIRULENT)
 LYSOGENIC- has a dormant period (= LATENT), activated by stress
5. OTHER FEATURES
 The word “virus” comes from Latin, meaning POISON
 No cytoplasm, CELL MEMBRANE, mitochondria, chloroplasts or any other
ORGANELLES
 Does not grow over its “lifetime”
 No metabolic reactions occur, no FEEDING, no RESPIRATION, no excretion etc.
 Are inert particles (they do nothing) when in ISOLATION from living cells
 OBLIGATE parasites on living cells
 Exhibit specificity – one type of virus can only infect ONE type of cell usually in one
species. E.g. Flu virus only attacks the cells lining the respiratory system and the
rabies virus only attacks nerve cells.
Keywords
Organelles
obligate
cell membrane
poison
isolation
virulent
helical
10-100
one
feeding
Spherical
mutate
RNA
protein
latent
1000um
respiration
Host
6
Virus Diversity Poster
Instructions: Using your textbook or the internet, find images of 4 morphologicaly different
viruses and sketch them into the boxes below . Label each the diagram with the following terms:
i. Capsid
ii. Genetic material (RNA or DNA)
iii. Host cell membrane (if present)
Provide the name of the virus and the host, if possible, then answer the questions below.
Sketch of
virus with
labelled
parts
Name of
virus
Host of
virus
Questions
1. Did you notice any patterns about the naming of viruses? Was binomial nomenclature
used?
2. Are there any viruses that don’t have a host? Why do you suppose this is?
3. Some scientists propos that viruses evolved from bits of DNA or RNA that “escaped” from
the genes of ancient cells (the Escape Hypothesis), while others propose that viruses could
have evolved from complex molecules of protein and nucleic acid at the same time as
cells first appeared on Earth (the Virus-First Hypothesis). Do some research and argue for
or against each.
7
VIRAL REPLICATION
1. LYTIC INFECTION of a bacterium cell by a bacteriophage
Description:
 Virus destroys host DNA, takes over cell function and produces many 10-100’s of
new viruses which are released by destroying the host cell through a process called
lysis
 Fast, causes immediate symptoms of disease, virulent
 Examples: ___________________ _______________ ___________________
The Cycle:
Instructions: Arrange and rewrite the following steps in the correct sequence. Then, label the
steps in the diagram above with the corresponding letter.
Lytic Infection- Unscramble the Steps!
a) Hundreds of copies of the viral DNA are synthesized. _________
b) Host cell lyses. Bacteria burst releasing hundreds of viral particles. _________
c) The host cell cannot tell the difference between its own DNA and the DNA of the virus.
____
d) Virus injects its DNA or RNA into the host cell. _________
e) Hundreds of viral particles are assembled using newly synthesized viral DNA and
capsids. _______
f) Bacteriophage T4 attaches to a bacteria host cell. _________
g) Hundreds of new viral particles are ready to infect more bacteria. _________
h) The cell begins to manufacture Bacteriophage capsid proteins from the genes of the
virus. _______
i) Host cell is filled with hundreds of viral particles. _________
8
2. LYSOGENIC INFECTION of a bacterium cell by a bacteriophage
Description:
 Viral DNA merges with host cell DNA and does not immediately destroy the cell
 Can be slow, has a dormant stage with no immediate symptoms of disease, latent
 Host cell continues to replicate with viral DNA in its genome!
 STRESS can active the virus to start replicating (lytic cycle), but by now there may
be 10-100’s of cells that are infected!
 Examples: ________________ ____________________
The Cycle:
Instructions: Arrange and rewrite the following steps in the correct sequence. Then, label the
steps in the diagram above with the corresponding letter.
Lysogenic Infection- Unscramble the Steps!
a) The viral DNA that is embedded into the host’s DNA is called a prophage. _________
b) Virus injects its DNA or RNA into the host cell. _________
c) Eventually, any one factor may activate the DNA of the prophage , which will then
remove itself from the host cell DNA. _________
d) Virus attaches to host cell. _________
e) Lysogenic cycle ends and lytic cycle begins. _________
f) Lysogenic virus remains inactive for a long period of time. _________
h) New viral particles are synthesized. _________
9
REVIEW of LYTIC vs LYSOGENIC REPLICATION PATHWYS
Review Quesitons
1. Decide whether the description below refers to the lytic cycle, lysogenic cycle, both cycles
or neither of the cycles.
Lytic or Lysogenic?
Description
Host cell is killed immediately
Virus incorporates its DNA into the host cell’s DNA
Symptoms are immediate
Results in the production of more viral particles
Infectious or virulent stage of the disease.
Chicken pox
Recognize pathogen
Patient may not be aware of the infection
Plasmid “hides” within the host cell’s DNA for thirty years.
Shingles is a disease caused by the chicken pox virus 40 or more years after the
patient was initially infected with the chicken pox virus.
Latent stage of the disease.
2. Using the Venn diagram below, compare and contrast the lytic and lysogenic life cycles of a
bacteriophage.
10
Effect of VIRUSES on ORGANISMS
A Brief History
 Viruses couldn’t be seen until the invention of the electron microscope in the 1930s.
 Edward Jenner (1796) developed a smallpox vaccine by using puss from cowpox. He did
not know both diseases were caused by viruses. He created the name “vaccinus” from the
Latin word “vaccus” for cow.
 Berijeernck (1897) coined the Latin name “virus” meaning poison for the substance
infecting tobacco plants
 Wendell Stanley (1935) crystallized sap from tobacco leaves infected with Tobacoo Mosaic
Virus (TMV). He was the first person to “see” a virus using an x-ray crystallization
teachnique, and he concluded they were made of nucleic acids and protein
Symptoms of Viral Infection
 Differnet viruses cause different symptoms
 Symptoms may include skin rashes, a runny nose, fever,
fatigue, and loss of appetite
 More specific symptoms may include swelling of the liver
(hepatitis) or brain (encephalitits), meningitis, etc.
 The common cold is caused by a virus
 Treatment for viral infections include rest and staying
hydrated- antibiotics DO NOT help treat viral infections.
 Spread of viral infections can be reduced by washing hands,
sneezing and coughing in your elbow, and by staying home when you are sick
Keywords
reduced
fatigue
symptoms
virus
Electron microscope
virus
see
antibiotics
vaccine
11
The COMMON COLD- IT’S A VIRUS!
Why is it futile to use antibiotics to fight the common cold?
Why is doing so potentially more harmful than good?
12
TEXTBOOK READING- Section 19-3 Diseases Caused by
Bacteria and Viruses (pages 485-490)
Key Concepts
• How do bacteria cause disease?
• How can bacterial growth be controlled?
• How do viruses cause disease?
Bacterial Disease in Humans (pages 485-486)
1. What are pathogens?
2. What are the two general ways that bacteria cause disease?
3. What kind of tissue do the bacteria that cause tuberculosis break down?
4. What are antibiotics?
5. What do you think is one of the major reasons for the dramatic increase in life
expectancy during the past two centuries?
Controlling Bacteria
(pages 486-487)
6. What is sterilization?
7. A chemical solution that kills pathogenic bacteria is called a(an)
8. Why will food stored at low temperatures keep longer?
Viral Disease in Humans (page 488)
9. What are some human diseases that viruses cause?
13
Viral Disease in Animals (page 489)
10. What is one example of a viral disease in animals?
11. Cancer-causing viruses are known as
Viral Disease in Plants (page 489)
12. Why do plant viruses have a difficult time entering the cells they infect?
13. How are most plant viruses spread?
Viroids and Prions (page 490)
14. What are viroids?
15. A disease-causing particle that contains only protein and not DNA or RNA is called
a(an)
14
The Immune System – Non-specific and Specific Defenses
The word pathogen means any DISEASE-CAUSING organism. A pathogen could be a virus,
BACTERIUM, PROTOZOAN or fungus. Typically pathogens are microscopic.
The function of the immune system is 3 fold:
 Recognize pathogens
 DESTROY pathogens
 Remember pathogens
-The two main types of defence are: specific (1st and 2nd lines of defence) and non-specific (3rd
line of defence)
1. Non-Specific Defences
-these help prevent foreign substances from entering the body
-this defence works against all types of pathogens (e.g. viruses) and infections (e.g. wooden
splinter)
A. Barriers- 1st Line of Defence








includes skin, oil and sweat, which provides
acids to kill possible invaders
damage to the skin (e.g. a cut) can allow a
pathogen entry into the body
pathogens also enter the body through
“holes”: eyes, nose, mouth
mucus and hairs in the nose can trap invaders
cilia inside the trachea help brush dirt and
mucous out of the body
stomach acid (HCl) and digestive enzymes
protect the stomach
the enzyme lysozyme is found in mucous,
saliva, sweat and tears and helps to break
down the cell wall of invading bacteria and some other organisms
if the pathogen(s) do enter the body, the second line of non-specific defence begins
keywords
destroy
skin
foreign
remember
bacterium
hairs
protozoan
diseasecausing
Stomach acid
Pathogens
second
15
16
B. Phagocytes and the Inflammatory Response- 2nd Line of Defence

when infection occurs, fluid and a
type of white blood
cells/lymphocytes called
phagocytes leak out of the blood
vessels into the infected tissue

phagocytes engulf (“eat”) and then
destroy the invading pathogen

if the infection is in a small area, the
area will become swollen and red,
or inflamed

if the infection is serious and spreads, then the body will release more white blood cells
(phagocytes and other types) and chemicals that will cause the body temperature to
increase (=fever). A fever helps:
o increase WBC activity
o increase heart rate so phagocytes arrive at infected site more quickly
o decreases the replication of a pathogen or kills the pathogen

another chemical called interferon is produced by virus infected cells. This chemical is
passed on to healthy cells where it inhibits the manufacture of viral proteins once the
healthy cells become infected.
Did you know?
PUS is actually a build up of white
blood cells !
keywords
pus
replication
phagocytes
inflamed
interferon
proteins
engulf
quickly
fever
activity
17
2. Specific Defences- 3rd Line of Defence





called “specific” because a new immune response arises each time a
new pathogen is introduced. Also known as the acquired immune
response.
if non-specific defences fail, specific defences begin. If successful,
the 3rd line of defence leads to acquired immunity
many foreign invaders have specific proteins, carbohydrates
(sugars), or lipids (fats) found on their outer surfaces. These act as
species specific markers and are called antigens
Antigens are proteins on the surface of cells that our body responds
to. Every different individual and every different type of cell in every individual has a
different antigen. Antigens allow the body to recognize itself, recognize different types of
cells within the body and identify invaders (pathogens).
every time a new species invades a host, a new defence must be developed by the host
to fight the invader
The body uses several WBCs in this response:
1. MACROPHAGES
 phagocytize (englulf and destroy) bacteria, viruses
and dead cells
 also display the pathogen’s antigen on the surface of
their membrane.
 This is then read by another WBC (helper T-cells) to
help with the process of making an antibody.
keywords
phagocytize
specific
antigen
antigens
antibody
Acquired immunity
18
2. B CELLS AND ANTIBODIES




Certain WBC called Plasma B Cells are able to produce antibodies.
Antibodies are Y-shaped proteins that have a binding site that attaches to a matching
antigen. The antibody-antigen connection is very specific, much like a key is very specific
to a particular lock. This is sometimes called the Lock and Key Fit.
It can take days or weeks for the body to make the precisely shaped antibody to attach to
the invading pathogen’s antigen
Once the antibody attaches to the antigen, two things occur:
o The pathogen is flagged for destruction by macrophages
o With many antibodies, agglutination or clumping occurs, essentially disarming the
pathogen
keywords
proteins
flagged
matching
agglutination
antibodies
Lock and key fit
19
3. MEMORY B CELLS
 Plasma B cells die off as soon as the infection has been
controlled. Memory B cells remain in the body for the life of the
individual.
 If the body is explosed to the same pathogen again the memory
B cells will immediately produce vast numbers of antibodies
against that pathogen so that the disease will never be felt by
the person. The person now is immune to the disease.
4. T CELLS
Respond to cancerous cells, cells invaded by viruses, fungi and
protozoa.
a) Helper T cells
i) With the help of the macrophage, identifies the antigen of the pathogen
ii) Activates Killer T cells
iii) Produces memory B cells that remain in the hosts body for many years
b) Killer T cells
i) Bind to infected cells and kill them (see pg.1040)
c) Suppressor T cells
i) Once infection is under control suppressor T cells reduce the number of other T cells
keywords
remain
antigen
memory
immediately
Kill
Die off
immune
20
IMMUNE SYSTEM POSTER
Objective: To illustrates the role of the many types of immunity cells. For each cell, you should
include an image/drawing and a brief (1 sentence) description.
Try to be creative. Perhaps make a “help wanted” poster with all of the immunity cells on it, or
design your project more like a “guess who” game. If you are musically inclined, you can make a
song. Poetry? A short video clip or short story? Anything goes- as long as you cover all the
information below…
Cells/Other
Macrophage Job #1
Macrophage Job #2
B Lymphocyte
Antibodies
Agglutination
B Memory Cells
Helper T Cells
Killer T Cells
Suppressor T Cells
Pathogen
Antigen
x2
/2
/2
/2
/2
/2
/2
/2
/2
/2
/2
/4
Presentation
Colour, neatness
Creativity
Captions and labels
/2
/2
/2
TOTAL:
/30
Due Date: __________________________
IMMUNE SYSTEM REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
What is the primary line of defence? Give 4 examples.
What is a phagocyte and what is its main function?
What is inflammation and why does it happen?
What is pus?
Why do you sometimes get a fever when you are sick? (3 reasons)
If you are sick and have a slight fever, should you take medicine to stop the fever? Why or why not?
If you are sick and have a high fever, should you take medicine to stop the fever? Why or why not?
Why is the 3rd line of defence called the acquired immune response?
What is specificity? Why do we use it to describe antibody-antigen interactions?
What is the lock and key fit?
Why is it you can only have a disease caused by one particular pathogen once?
If the common cold is caused by a virus, why do people get it more than once?
AIDS, or acquired immune deficiency syndrome, weakens the immune system. What do you think
this does to the person suffering from an HIV infection?
14. Shingles is a painful skin rash caused by the same virus responsible for chicken pox:
the varicella zoster virus. If you have ever had chicken pox, the virus is still in your body. Give a
possible explanation why some people get shingles.
21
VACCINES
Overview:
 In the past 60 years, vaccines helped eradicate one disease (smallpox) and are close to
eradicating another (polio).
 Vaccines prevent more than 2.5 million deaths each year.
 Scientific studies and reviews continue to show no relationship between vaccines and
autism.
 Vaccines cause “herd immunity,” which means if the majority of people in a community
have been vaccinated against a disease, an unvaccinated person is less likely to get sick
because others are less likely to get sick and spread the disease.
There are two types of vaccines:
1. Vaccines that give rise to Active Immunity
 Dead or weakened pathogenic
bacteria/virus is injected into a person

The bacteria/virus still has unaltered
antigens on their surface

Antibodies and B memory cells against
the unique antigens from the pathogen
are produced by the person getting the
vaccination

If the vaccinated person comes in
contact with the pathogen then they
will produce antibodies so fast they do
not feel any symptoms and will not
become contagious

Can take weeks to months to work, and
may require booster shots

Immunity lasts a long time/lifetime
keywords
unvaccinated
autism
eradicate
antibodies
weakened
contagious
2.5 million
Long time
antigens
symptoms
Herd immunity
22
2. Vaccines that give rise to Passive Immunity
 Already produced antibodies are injected into the person
 Antibodies are collected from an animal (human, rabbits, and now GE’d bacteria)
 Starts working right away but immunity is not long term
 Often used preventively e.g. You get a malaria shot before going to places with malaria
Here is a list of some of the vaccinations most B.C. children have had:
Booster Shots
 A single dose of some vaccines provides lifelong immunity to most people, while other
vaccines require additional doses (boosters) in order to maintain immunity.
 vaccine boosters are sometimes needed, because the immune response 'memory'
weakens over time.
keywords
animal
weakens
lifelong
produced
preventively
boosters
Not long term
23
Take some time now to research each of the diseases listed below that are preventable
with vaccinations. What are the symptoms? What were the mortality rates before
vaccinations were used?
Chicken Pox (Varicella)
Diphtheria
Tetanus
Symptoms/mortality rates:
Symptoms/mortality rates:
Symptoms/mortality rates:
Pertussis (Whooping
cough)
Hepatitis A & B
Polio
Symptoms/mortality rates:
Symptoms/mortality rates:
Rubella
Mumps
Mengingococcal C
Symptoms/mortality rates:
Symptoms/mortality rates:
Symptoms/mortality rates:
Symptoms/mortality rates:
24
Name: ___________________
Date: ________________ Block: ____
Infectious Disease Flyer
Being informed is a really great way to not get sick! After doing research on a viral or
bacterial disease that is preventable by vaccination, come up with an informative flyer to
describe your disease.
Possible Diseases Include:
Chicken pox
Diptheria
Tetanus
Pertussis
Hepatitis B
Polio
Haemophius influenza type B
Influenza (Flu)
Measles
Mumps
Rubella
Varicella
Meningococcal C
Pneumonococcal
Rotavirus
A template for your flyer is provided on the next page. You must include all the
information on the flyer for full marks.
Marking Rubric:
CATEGORY
Information from
the template
5
All the criteria
are present
Picture(s)
The picture is
exceptionally
accurate.
Content –
Accuracy
Content –
Accuracy
(it’s here twice
because it’s twice
as important!)
Writing and
Proofreading
TOTAL
4
1-2 of the
criteria are
missing
The picture is
accurate.
3
3-4 of the
criteria are
missing
The picture is
not accurate, or
is difficult to
understand.
2
5 of the criteria
are missing
All facts in the
flyer are
accurate.
90-99% of the
facts in the flyer
are accurate.
80-89% of the
facts in the
flyer are
accurate.
All facts in the
flyer are
accurate.
90-99% of the
facts in the flyer
are accurate.
80-89% of the
facts in the
flyer are
accurate.
70-79% of the
facts in the flyer
are accurate.
Capitalization,
punctuation are
correct , and
there are no
spelling or
grammatical
errors
No more than 1
capitalization,
punctuation, or
grammar errors
throughout the
flyer
There are 2-3
capitalization
and/or
punctuation
and/or
grammar errors
in the flyer
There are more
than 3 errors in
capitalization/
punctuation/
grammar errors
in the flyer
The picture
does not
represent the
pathogen well,
or is irrelevant.
70-79% of the
facts in the flyer
are accurate.
0
More than 5 of
the criteria are
missing
No pictures
are present.
Fewer than
70% of the
facts in the
flyer are
accurate.
Fewer than
70% of the
facts in the
flyer are
accurate.
The flyer is
difficult to read
because of the
number of
errors.
/50
Due Date: _______________________
25
Infectious Disease Flyer TEMPLATE
Common Name:________________________________________
Scientific name: _____________________________
Type of organism: Virus or Bacteria (circle one)
PICTURE OF PATHOGEN:
Disease details:
a. How is it transmitted? (how do you get it?)
b. What are the symptoms and how long does it stay?
c. Where in the body does it attack?
PICTURE OF PERSON WITH
DISEASE:
What is the treatment, if possible?
Where in the world is it common?
Two interesting facts:


At least 2 sources:
1.___________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________
26
THE SIX KINGDOMS
27
Name ____________________________ Class __________________ Date _______________
Textbook Section 7-1 Life Is Cellular (pages 169-173)
Key Concepts
• What is the cell theory?
• What are the characteristics of prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
• What are the functions of the major cell structures?
Introduction
(page 169)
1. What is the structure that makes up every living thing? _____________________________
The Discovery of the Cell
(pages 169-170)
2. What was Anton van Leeuwenhoek one of the first to see in the 1600s? _________________
3. What did a thin slice of cork seem like to Robert Hooke when he observed it
through a microscope? ________________________________________________________
4. What did the German botanist Matthias Schleiden conclude? _________________________
5. What did the German biologist Theodor Schwann conclude? _________________________
6. How did Rudolph Virchow summarize his years of work? ___________________________
7. What are the three concepts that make up the cell theory?
a. _________________________________________________________________________
b. ________________________________________________________________________
c. ________________________________________________________________________
Exploring the Cell
(pages 170-172)
8. Why are electron microscopes capable of revealing details much smaller than those
seen through light microscopes? _______________________________________________
28
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes (pages 172-173)
9. Circle the letter of each sentence that is true about prokaryotes.
a. They grow and reproduce.
b. Many are large, multicellular organisms.
c. They are more complex than cells of eukaryotes.
d. They have cell membranes and cytoplasm.
10. Are all eukaryotes large, multicellular organisms? _________________________________
11. Complete the table about the two categories of cells.
TWO CATEGORIES OF CELLS
Category
Definition
Examples
Organisms whose
cells lack nuclei
Organisms whose
cells contain nuclei
Comparing a Cell to a Factory (page 174)
1. What is an organelle?
2. Label the structures on the illustrations of the plant and animal cells.
29
Match the organelle with its description.
Organelle
______ 28. Ribosome
______ 29. Endoplasmic reticulum
______ 30. Golgi apparatus
______ 31. Lysosome
______ 32. Vacuole
______ 33. Chloroplast
______ 34. Mitochondrion
Description
a. Uses energy from sunlight to make
energy-rich food
b. Stack of membranes in which enzymes
attach carbohydrates and lipids to
proteins
c. Uses energy from food to make highenergy compounds
d. An internal membrane system in which
components of cell membrane and some
proteins are constructed
e. Saclike structure that stores materials
f. Small particle of RNA and protein that
produces protein following instructions
from nucleus
g. Filled with enzymes used to break down
food into particles that can be used
Reading Skill Practice
A flowchart can help you remember the order in which events occur. On a separate
sheet of paper, create a flowchart that describes how proteins are made in the cell. You
will find that the steps of this process are explained on pages 176-178. For more
information about flowcharts, see Organizing Information in Appendix A in your
textbook.
30
Textbook Section 7-1 Life Is Cellular (pages 169-173)
Key Concepts
• What is the cell theory?
• What are the characteristics of prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
• What are the functions of the major cell structures?
Introduction
(page 169)
7. What is the structure that makes up every living thing? _____________________________
The Discovery of the Cell
(pages 169-170)
8. What was Anton van Leeuwenhoek one of the first to see in the 1600s? _________________
9. What did a thin slice of cork seem like to Robert Hooke when he observed it
through a microscope? _______________________________________________________
10.What did the German botanist Matthias Schleiden conclude? _________________________
11.What did the German biologist Theodor Schwann conclude? _________________________
12.How did Rudolph Virchow summarize his years of work? ___________________________
7. What are the three concepts that make up the cell theory?
a. ________________________________________________________________________
b. ________________________________________________________________________
c. ________________________________________________________________________
Exploring the Cell
(pages 170-172)
8. Why are electron microscopes capable of revealing details much smaller than those
seen through light microscopes? _______________________________________________
31
Instructions:
 Cut out organelles
 Paste in appropriate places on
11x17 paper cut into shape of an
animal cell
 Label parts, and functions of
organelles
 Add extra details, organelles
 Colour
 Show the cell in the process of
producing protein
32
Name
Class
Date
Textbook Reading Section 19-1 Bacteria
(pages 471-477)
Key Concepts
• How do the two groups of prokaryotes differ?
• What factors are used to identify prokaryotes?
• What is the importance of bacteria?
Introduction (page 471)
1. What are prokaryotes?
2. Is the following sentence true or false? Prokaryotes are much smaller than most
eukaryotic cells.
Classifying Prokaryotes (pages 471-472)
3. What are the two different groups of prokaryotes?
a.
b.
4. Which is the larger of the two kingdoms of prokaryotes?
5. Where do eubacteria live?
6. What protects a prokaryotic cell from injury?
7. Circle the letter of what is within the cell wall of a prokaryote.
a. another cell wall
c. archaebacteria
b. cell membrane
d. pili
8. What is peptidoglycan?
9. Some eubacteria have a second
outside the cell membrane.
10. Circle the letter of each sentence that is true about archaebacteria.
a. Their membrane lipids are different from those of eubacteria.
b. They lack a cell wall.
c. They lack peptidoglycan.
d. They look very similar to eubacteria.
11. What is significant about the DNA sequences of key archaebacterial genes?
12. How are archaebacteria related to eukaryotes?
33
13.
What are methanogens, and where do they live?
Identifying Prokaryotes (page 473)
14. Use the following labels to complete the illustration of a typical prokaryote: cell
membrane, cell wall, DNA, flagellum.
15. What are four characteristics used to identify prokaryotes?
a.
b.
c.
d.
16. What are each of the differently shaped prokaryotes called?
a. The rod-shaped are called
b. The spherical-shaped are called
c. The corkscrew-shaped are called
17. A method of telling two different types of eubacteria apart by using dyes is called
18. What colors are Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria under the microscope
when treated with Gram stain?
19. What are flagella?
34
Metabolic Diversity (pages 473-474)
21. Complete the table about prokaryotes classified by the way they obtain energy.
GROUPS OF PROKARYOTES
Group
Description
Organism that carries out photosynthesis in a manner similar to that of
plants
Chemoautotroph
Organism that takes in organic molecules and then breaks them down
Photoheterotroph
22. Members of which group of photoautotrophs contain a bluish pigment and
chlorophyll a?
23. How do the chemoautotrophs that live near hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor
obtain energy?
24. Complete the table about prokaryotes classified by the way they release energy.
GROUPS OF PROKARYOTES
Group
Description
Organisms that require a constant supply of oxygen
Obligate anaerobes
Facultative
anaerobes
25. Facultative anaerobes can switch between cellular respiration and
Growth and Reproduction (page 475)
26. What occurs in the process of binary fission?
27. What occurs during conjugation?
28. Is the following sentence true or false? Most prokaryotes reproduce by conjugation.
35
29. What is an endospore?
Importance of Bacteria (pages 476-477)
30. How do decomposers help the ecosystem recycle nutrients when a tree dies?
31. What would happen to plants and animals if decomposers did not recycle nutrients?
32. Why do plants and animals need nitrogen?
33. How does nitrogen fixation help plants?
34. What kind of relationship do many plants have with nitrogen-fixing bacteria?
35. How can bacteria be used to clean up an oil spill?
36. What have biotechnology companies begun to realize about bacteria adapted
to extreme environments?
Reading Skill Practice
Writing a summary can help you remember the information you have read. When
you write a summary write only the most important points. Write a summary of the
information under the green heading Decomposers. Your summary should be
shorter than the text on which it is based. Do your work on a separate sheet of paper.
36
BACTERIA
Kingdoms Archaebacteria and Eubacteria
(Previously known as Kingdom Moneran)
1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
a. are all prokaryotic
b. single-celled organisms, some are found in colonies of clumps or filaments
c. have a cell wall but no membrane-bound organelles
d. mostly asexual reproduction BUT some use a primitive form of sexual reproduction
e. are the smallest, simplest organisms and are found EVERYWHERE!
f. They exist in three basic shapes:
i. Cocci - spherical
ii. Bacilli - rod-shaped
iii. Spirilla – spiral
g. Some bacteria are able to move using special cell structures called cilia and
flagella.
i. Hair-like cilia (singular, cilium) and tail-like flagella (singular,
flagellum) are projections from the cell.
ii. By repetitive beating (like a bending motion), they cause the cell to move. Think of oars in a
boat. Flagella can propel the cell by waving back and forth.
iii. If a cell is fixed in place, they can also cause water to move across the surface of a cell.
2. STRUCTURE
Diagram Labels:
Ribomes
Flagellum
Pilus
Cell wall
Cell membrane
DNA
keywords
asexual
flagella
cilia
cocci
Single-celled
across
rod
beating
Cell wall
prokaryotic
37
BACTERIAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION REVIEW ASSIGNMENT
Draw a diagram of a typical bacterium, then label the parts and give the functions. In addition, you should include all
the following statements and descriptions. Some of these terms we have covered in class, some of them will require
a bit of research on your part. Colour code descriptions one colour (e.x. blue) and functions another colour (e.x.
green). Remember description includes analogies, composition, adjectives that describe the look of the structure.
Functions are only verbs.












Functions in protein synthesis
Helps to protect cell from phagocytosis from
macrophages X2
Made of peptidoglycan
Contains all necessary genes for the bacterium
Are used for movement
Made of phospholipid and protein
Small extra loop of DNA
Made of protein
Involved in DNA transfer during conjugation
Is hypertonic (very salty)
Used for attachment to surfaces X2
Look like small dots in the cytoplasm










May be gram negative or gram positive
Produces a slime layer
Site of translation
Protects against lysis
Controls the flow of substances in and out of the
cell
Made of RNA and protein
Mostly composed of water
Protection against drying out
Contains extra genes for useful characteristics
like antibiotic resistance
Is sticky
ALTERNATIVE BACTERIAL ASSIGNMENT- A 3-D MODEL!
You will design a 3-D model of a typical bacterial cell. You must also label the capsule, cell wall, cell
membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, pili (if present), flagella (if present) and the DNA. Your model must be
no smaller than half a sheet of letterhead and no bigger than a full sheet of letterhead. You may use any
material (lego, clay, wood, Styrofoam etc) except for food. Food tends to go rotten or fall apart.
In addition to providing a model, you will also write a paragraph (5-8 sentences) describing the
characteristics of your bacteria. In your paragraph, be sure to include the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
A physical description- is it round, rod or spiral? Does it have pili or flagella?
Does it stain gram negative or gram positive? Explain WHY.
Would your bacteria best be categorized in Archaeobacteria or Eubacteria? Explain WHY?
Where does your bacteria live? What environmental conditions does it need? (oxygen or no oxygen,
acidic or neutral, hot or not hot?)
5. The name of your bacteria. This is your bacteria, so you get to name it. Just make sure you use the
rules for taxonomic nomenclature.
MARKING RUBRIC:
1. Model- 3D, intact, correct size, colourful, neat
/5
2. Model labels- all included, all correct
/10
3. Written description- answers all points, correct
grammar, neat, written by the student
/15
TOTAL
/30
38
3. NUTRITION and RESPIRATION– the process of obtaining carbon, often in the form of glucose (C6H1206)
and breaking it down into energy in the form of ATP. Bacteria are a lot more diverse than we are. We only
have one way of getting glucose (we have to eat it) and we only have one way of breaking it down (aerobic
respiration). Bacteria have several ways of both getting the glucose and breaking it down. These processes
reflect bacteria’s evolutionary history.
Step1- obtaining glucose
a. Most are heterotrophs- obtain food from other organisms
i. Some are parasites which live on a living host.
ii. Some are decomposers, feeding on dead organisms and waste (saprophytes)
b. Some are autotrophs- make their own food. They either:
i. use chemicals as a source of energy (chemoautotrophs)
H2S + CO2 --------> C6H12O6 + H2O + S
or NH4 + CO2 --------> C6H12O6 + H2O + NO3
ii. use sunlight as a source of energy via photosynthesis (photoautotrophs).
Sunlight + CO2 + H2O --------> C6H12O6 + H2O
Step 2- breaking down glucose into energy
a. Respiration
i. aerobic respiration (oxygen present)
-obligate aerobes must have oxygen to survive!
C6H12O6 + O2 --------> H2O + CO2 + ATP (lots!!)
ii. anaerobic respiration (no oxygen)
-obligate anaerobes cannot survive in the presence of oxygen
-facultative anaerobes will use oxygen if present, but don’t need it to survive
b. Fermentation (usually use oxygen, but ran out!)
-produces lots of interesting products- we use it to make soy sauce, cheese, beer, etc!
-In humans: C6H12O6 --------> lactic acid + H2O + ATP (very little!)
keywords
aerobic
anaerobic
Glucose
energy
autotrophs
facultative
heterotrophs
Ran out
photoautotrophs
parasites
chemoautotrophs
saprophytes
39
REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR BACTERIAL NUTRITION and RESPIRATION
1. Below is a list of examples of various reactions and descriptions. Your job is to match the examples below with
the processes outlined above. Write the process on the left hand side.
Aerobic respiration
a. C6H12O6 + O2 --------> H2O + CO2 + ATP
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
H2S + CO2 --------> C6H12O6 + H2O + S
Salmonella bacteria require raw meat for survival.
Sunlight + CO2 + H2O --------> C6H12O6 + H2O
Clostridium botulism lives in canned food and releases a lethal poison.
NH4 + CO2 --------> C6H12O6 + H2O + NO3
Parasitic bacteria – these organisms absorb nutrients from the body fluids of living hosts.
C6H12O6 --------> lactic acid + H2O + ATP (this reaction occurs in skeletal muscle cells)
Some bacteria are used to make vinegar, alcohol, and cheese.
Nitrogen fixing bacteria only need light energy, CO2, N2, and water to grow. These
organisms fix N2 into NH3 which is a form of nitrogen plants can use. Without NH3 being
available plants would not be able to make proteins.
k. Saprophytic bacteria use enzymes to break down food outside of the cell and then absorb
the nutrients.
l. Methanogens live where oxygen does not exists and produce methane gas.
m. Glucose --------> ethanol + carbon dioxide + ATP
n. Oxidize free sulfur into sulphates, producing energy for themselves and providing
compounds of sulfur that can be used by plants.
2. According to the theory of evolution, bacteria evolved into protists, which then evolved into plants, animals and
fungi. The reactions above show great similarity to many reactions we see in today’s organisms. Which descriptions
or reactions are found in:
a) fungi
b) plants
c) animals
3. Bacteria, being the first to colonize the earth, needed to survive in harsh environments. Such organisms lived in
hot water at the openings of deep sea vents where no light was available and hydrogen sulphide was
prevalent.Which reaction reflects this ability?
4. Without bacteria we would all be knee deep in dead rats, trees, etc. Explain why. What are these type of bacteria
called?
5. Which reaction reflects what happen in your muscles when you are late for class- which you never are, by the way.
You are always on time, right?
7. Several bacteria have been described above. Make two headings: beneficial and harmful. Place the descriptions of
bacteria described above under the appropriate heading. Look up 5 other examples of harmful and helpful bacteria.
8. The planet Mars is a very harsh place. Research the environmental conditions (temp., sunlight, water, O2 etc) and
determine where primitive bacterial-like life, if there is life yet to be discovered, would most likely be found.
40
5. REPRODUCTION
For a species to continue, the species needs to do three things:
1. it needs to be able to self- replicate or make copies of itself
2. it needs to be able to change genetically,
3. it needs to occasionally survive harsh conditions.
Mammals satisfy the first 2 requirements with just one process: sexual reproduction. Simpler
organisms like bacteria tend to have more options for reproduction. These are:
1. Asexual reproduction via binary
fission (splits in two)
a. Uses only one parent
b. Offspring are identical clonesthere is no genetic variation
except by mutation
c. Works well for constant, nonchanging environments
2. Sexual reproduction via conjugation
(uses a bridge like structure called a
pilus)
a. Requires two parents
b. Offspring are a mixture of the parents genetic information- there is variation!
c. Works well for environments where there is constant or occasional change- hopefully
one or more of the offspring will have an adaptive trait and survive!
3. Endospores (survival mechanism, NOT reproduction!)
i. Some bacteria form endospores when environmental conditions
become unfavorable.
ii. An endospores contains the DNA and a small amount of
cytoplasm enclosed in a tough cell wall. They are resistant to extremes
in temperature, drying, and harsh chemicals.
4. Transformation
-is the uptake of DNA fragments or a plasmid by a bacterium and the incorporation of the new
genetic material into the bacteria’s genome.
-can occur across species and allow for “sharing” of antibiotic resistant genes!
FORM OF
REPRODUCTION
ASEXUAL OR SEXUAL
ENVIRONMENTAL
CONDITIONS
Keywords
variation
two
transformation
one
pilus
clones
sharing
conjugation
endospores
Self-replicate
Non-changing
INCREASES VARIATION
Binary fision
Harsh conditions
AID IN SURVIVAL
OF HARSH
CONDITIONS
genetically
DNA resistant
41
REPRODUCTION: BACTERIAL CONTINUITY
Review Questions
1. Rewrite in the correct order and draw diagrams (using colour where appropriate) to describe the
process of binary fission.
a) Cell elongates causing the two chromosomes to separate.
b) Binary fission is complete. The 2 cells, barring mutations, are genetically identical to each other.
c) 2 DNA strands separate completely
d) New cell wall and cell membrane grow transversely from the middle of the cell
e) DNA replicates. An exact copy of the original chromosome is made.
2. Rewrite in the correct order and draw diagrams (using colour where appropriate) to describe the
process of conjugation.
a) A narrow bridge of cytoplasm is formed between cells.
b) The extra copy of the sex factor plasmid is transferred from the donor cell to recipient cell
through a bridge made of cytoplasm.
c) 2 cells of opposite mating types snuggle up to one another.
d) Donor and recipient cells separate. Recipient cell has received a sex factor plasmid.
e) The donor cell plasmid replicates. The donor cell has one sex factor plasmid to keep and one to
give away.
f) 2 cells attach to one another using pili bridge
3. Draw an illustration (could be a cartoon) of transformation to show how:
a) bacteria can pick up extra bits of DNA and
b) extra bits of DNA can code for useful proteins
4. Illustrate some extreme conditions that would induce a bacterium to form an endospore (could be a
cartoon)
5. Make 4 heading in your notes: Binary Fission, Conjugation, Spore Formation and Transformation.
Place each description under the correct heading. Some phrases will apply to more than one
process.
 occurs during times of stress, but not extreme conditions
 occurs if exposed to extreme conditions
 allows cell to gather DNA from dead bacteria
 no new individuals are formed
 needs to be placed in an autoclave and heated to high temperatures under high pressure to kill
 occurs when there is plenty of food and water and the temperature is optimal.
 Requires an autoclave (pressure cooker) to kill. Autoclave heats bacteria up to a very high
temperature
 occurs very quickly populations can double every 9.8 minutes
 provides variation within the species
 new individuals are formed
 allows cell to pick up stray pieces of DNA.
 results in no genetic variation (as long as mutations do not occur)
 provide a dormant, resting cell capable of surviving extreme conditions ie. boiling, freezing
 purpose is to increase population quickly
42
6. BACTERIAL DISEASES
Bacteria cause disease in one of two ways:
i. They damage cells and tissues by breaking down the cells for
food.
 Bacteria live inside host cells and require the host cell to
survive and reproduce
 For example, Chlamydia attacks epithelial (skin and
inner lining) cells and can cause infertility in women
 Mycobacterium tuberculosis destroys lung tissue.
ii. They release toxins
 Substances that interfere with the correct functioning of
your cells.
 For example, Tetanus toxin attacks the nerve cells. Causes muscle spasms. Can start with mild
to severe spasms in the jaw muscles (lockjaw), eventually all muscles are affected.
 Botulism toxin also attacks the nerve cells - causes paralysis of the muscles. The most
acutely toxic substance known!
 Corynebacterium diphtheriae releases toxins into the bloodstream where they cause
breathing difficulty, heart failure, paralysis, and death.
TRANSMISSION- applies to bacteria, viruses, protozoans, and fungi
1. Pathogen is carried through the environment by air, water, food or untreated waste
Examples: flu, pneumonia, TB, typhoid fever, cholera, hepatitis
2. Pathogen is passed through direct body contact, or through body fluids, dirty needles, or blood
transfusions
Examples : sexually transmitted infections, syphilis, gonorrhea, HIV
3. Pathogen is passed by a vector (another organism that is a carrier)
Examples: Malaria, Dengue Fever, West Nile virus – by mosquito
Bubonic plague – by rats
PREVENTION AND TREATMENT of bacterial disease causing agents include:
i. Vaccinations- many but not all serious bacterial diseases have vaccinations available
ii. Antibiotics- work for most bacteria, but there are species that are developing resistance. These
antibiotic resistant bacteria are called SUPERBUGS!
keywords
vaccinations
acutely
toxins
Vector
nerve
damage
Host cells
Body contact
bloodstream
antibiotics
environment
superbugs
43
7. CLASSIFICATION
- Bacteria are down into 2 kingdoms:
I. Archaebacteria
 Adapted to extreme conditions (high [salt], high temperature, and/or low pH, no oxygen).
 These are believed to be the conditions on the early Earth. Earth’s early atmosphere did not contain
oxygen, therefore the earliest organisms were anaerobic.
 oldest living organisms on Earth
 has 3 phyla:
a. methanogens
-convert H2 and CO2 into
methane gas and energy,
-cannot live with oxygen (are
anaerobic)
-found in marshes and
intestinal tracts of humans and
cows
b. halophiles
-salt-loving
-found in Dead Sea, the Great
Salt Lake, etc.
c. thermacidophiles
-adapted to extremely acidic
and high temperature
conditions
-can survive 230 F and pH of 2
-found in volcanic vents and
hydrothermal vents
II. Eubacteria “True Bacteria”
 This group includes the traditional bacteria and is the largest of the two.
 lives in more neutral conditions (e.g. in our bodies, our food, etc)
 has 4 phyla:
a Cyanobacteria
b. Spirochetes
c. Gram positive
bacteria
c. Proteobacteria
-photosynthetic like plants,
produce oxygen
-found in water and were
once thought to be bluegreen algae; but have no
membrane-bound nucleus
and chloroplast!
-gram negative, spiral
shaped, heterotrophic
-some are anaerobic,
some are aerobic
-may be parasitic,
symbiotic, or free-living
-cause syphilis
-all are not gram positive
(classification based on
other characteristics)
-cause strep throat, and
are used in yogurt and to
produce antibiotics
-one of the largest phyla
of bacteria
-many are gram negative
-include bacteria in your
intestines, (Escherichia
coli), chemoautotrophs,
and nitrogen-fixing
bacteria
keywords
early
marshes
methane
neutral
Salt intestines
extreme
anaerobic
acidic
Plants
syphilis
Temperatures
not
Blue-green algae
44
BACTERIAL DIVERSITY DISCOVERY ASSIGNMENT
Using the internet, find species of bacteria that are:
a) pathogenic
b) normal part of our fauna
c) used to prepare food
d) photosynthetic
e) obligate anaerobe (must live in oxygen free location)
For each bacterium find the following information:
a) latin name
b) cell shape
c) presence of flagella
d) diagram or micrograph
e) where it lives or habitat
f) most interesting fact
Type of
bacterium:
Latin Name
Pathogenic
Normal part of our
fauna
Used to prepare
food
Photosynthetic
Obligate anaerobe
Cell Shape
Presence of
flagellum?
Diagram or
micrograph
Where it
lives or
habitat
Interesting
fact
45
IDENTIFYING BACTERIA
How do you identify a bacterium? What species is it?
1. Cell shape- is it rod, cocci, or spiral?
2. Colony pattern- does it form a colony? If so, is it a long chain? A clump?
3. Cell wall type- use GRAM STAINING (invented by Hans Gram)
 Add Crystal Violet (a purple dye) and Safranine ( a red dye) to the bacteria
GRAM POSITIVE: If it turns
purple- the bacteria contains on
thick layer of carbohydrates and
protein molecules outside the of
the cell membrane
GRAM NEGATIVE: if it turns red, it
contains a second outer layer of
lipid and carbohydrate molecules
4. Movement
 some propel themselves with flagella, others lash, snake, or spiral forward
 some produce a slime-like layer to glide along, some do not move at all
5. How they obtain energy- are they autotrophic or heterotrophic?
 selective growth media will only allow certain bacteria to grow
6. Growth conditions
 different growth media, temperature, pH, presence or absence of antibiotics etc.
46
Lab#1- Omnipresence of Bacteria
Use this sheet as a rough copy only. When you prepare your formal write up, include the purpose, your hypothesis,
results, conclusion and answers to the questions. You do not need to recopy the procedure. Attach this original sheet
to your formal write up and refer to it for these two sections.
Purpose: To determine where bacteria are found and to study the characteristics of bacterial colonies that enable
microbiologist to classify bacteria.
Hypothesis: Write two hypotheses, one that predicts where you will find the most numbers of bacteria and a second
that predicts where you will find the most numbers of different species of bacteria. Use the ‘if (what you will do) .…
then (what you think you find) format. For example: If 3 samples are taken from sites a, b and c; then site c will have
the most bacteria.
Procedure:
1. Wash your hands frequently during this experiment.
2. Obtain a Petri dish containing agar from your teacher. Divide the plate into sections by drawing on the nutrient
agar side of the plate with a sharpie pen. Initial the plate and number the sections 1-4.
3. Do not open the plate. Use the sterile technique as much as possible. Discuss with your partner how you are
going to keep your plate from becoming contaminated.
4. Take the plate around the school and take samples from three different areas using scotch tape to pick up the
bacteria. Transfer the bacteria to the plate by pressing the tape lightly into the agar surface. Do not leave the
lid open for any longer than is absolutely necessary.
5. Leave quadrant 4 alone. This is your control.
6. Construct 2 data tables to record your information.
7. Record on the data table below the location of the samples.
8. Invert your plate and place in the incubator. Each individual cell will reproduce thousands of times produce a
colony. All the cells in the colony are thus clones of the original cell.
9. Each day, count the total number of colonies in each quadrant and note the number of different colonies.
Record this information in Table 1. Also record the number of different types of colonies in each quadrant. If
you have colonies growing in the control section, what does this mean? Discuss this finding in your
conclusion.
10. On the last day of the experiment, choose any 5 different colonies to examine more closely. They may be
chosen from anywhere on the plate. Use the Macroscopic (what does THAT mean?) morphology sheet to help
you fill in Table 2. Construct a data table to record your findings.
11. Return the plate to your teacher. The plate needs to be decontaminated. All the bacteria and spores need to
be destroyed before the plate is thrown out. This is done by putting the plates in a pressure cooker (autoclave)
where the combination of steam and heat destroy the cell walls.
Questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Which samples showed the greatest variety of colony types? What do you think caused this?
Which of the samples showed the greatest number of colonies? What do you think caused this?
Where in the school do you think should be kept completely free of bacteria?
What was the purpose of the control in this experiment?
Bacteria, given optimum conditions can multiply every 2 min. What form of cell division produces these
colonies? What advantage is there to this form of asexual reproduction?
a. Through what process did bacteria obtain nutrients from the agar?
b. Define a heterotroph and an autotroph. Which type of bacteria did you grow? How do you know?
Define the terms aerobic and anaerobic. Which type of bacteria grew on your plate?
After several days the size of the bacterial colonies did not increase. Give two reasons why.
Even though bacteria are found on all surfaces we never see colonies. Why?
Why was it important to use sterile techniques in this lab? What precautions were taken in this lab?
What factors were controlled ( independent variables) in this experiment?
What was your experimental factor?
What was your dependent variable?
47
Conclusion:
Your conclusion should consist of three paragraphs. First respond to your hypothesis with the phrase:
The results support the hypothesis…and describe results
The results do not support the hypothesis…and describe results
The results were inconclusive…and describe results
Hypotheses are never correct or incorrect, right or wrong. All you can say about your hypothesis is whether or not your
results supported it.
The second paragraph should discuss any errors or problems you had with the experiment. If you had bacterial growth
in the control mention it here. If you think for some reason your results are not believable discuss this as well.
Complete this paragraph with a comment about whether or not you feel that the results of this experiment were valid.
The third paragraph looks ahead to further studies. What questions arose out of this study? State three further
questions that you would like to answer if we had time to continue this investigation.
BACTERIAL COLONY MORPHOLOGY
Choose five colonies to describe. Construct a data table to record your observations. Your data table should
include the following characteristics. For size measure the diameter of each chosen colony.
48
BACTERIA PAMPHLET (Preparation for Lab#2)
The second bacteria lab is complex as it involves the use of the Bunsen Burner and a series of complicated
procedures. The purpose of this assignment is to ensure that you know the safety issues involved and that
you have reviewed the procedure carefully enough to be able to proceed without the aid of you lab sheets.
You will be making a pamphlet that will summarize the use of the Bunsen burner, safety measures and the
lab procedure.
REQUIRED INFORMATION
PAGE 1– Title Page

illustration of bacteria, antibiotics, antiseptics, and the plants you are using
PAGE 2 – General safety Rules


Summarize the following safety rules on page 1066 of your textbook: 1-11,37,39,40
Add the following 2 points
o Do not open the petri dish except when applying bacteria or antibiotic discs
o Clear desk of all materials except pen and data table when examining the petri dish
PAGE 3 – FIRE SAFETY

Summarize fire safety rules on page 1066
PAGE 4 – HOW TO LIGHT A BUNSEN BURNER



Copy notes from board
Include a picture (with colour) of safety flame and working flame
Include a labelled diagram of a bunsen burner
PAGE 5 – How to transfer Bacteria

Copy notes from handout
PAGE 6

Draw a labelled diagram of your petri dish. Show the 4 quadrants and label with the antibiotics,
disinfectants and plants that you want to use.
49
Lab #2-Sterile Technique for Isolating Bacterial Colonies
Rewrite the steps below next to the correct diagrams on the back of this page in order. The diagrams are in
order, the steps below are not.
a) Lift the lid of your Petri dish slightly and use your inoculation loop to pick up bacteria from one colony.
b) Use your inoculation loop to streak bacteria back and forth across one half of the Petri dish.
c) Begin by placing your loop into the Bunsen burner flame. Move the loop through the flame until the entire
wire portion is red hot. This is called flame sterilization.
d) Flame-sterilize your inoculation loop and place it in a beaker.
e) Flame-sterilize your inoculation loop. Pick up some more of the same bacteria from your collection plate.
Spread it by streaking it back and forth across the other half of your Petri dish.
Diagram
Description
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
50
Local Plant Antibiotic Testing Lab
Purpose: In this lab you will be testing the effectiveness of a local plant extract on the growth of some of the bacteria
that you have collected. You will also be testing the bacteria’s ability to grow in the presence of two commercial
antibiotics.
Hypothesis: Write a hypothesis using the “if………then” format. You need to decide if your plant extract will
be more or less effective than the antibiotics.
Step 1: Research
Local First Nations have been using a variety of medicinal plants here in southern BC for millennia, and many of the
drugs we use today can be traced back to traditional uses. For example, First Nations people in North America have
been using willow bark to treat fevers and pain for centuries, and willow bark contains acetylsalicylic acid – also
known and sold now as Aspirin. Scientists are beginning to turn to Indigenous knowledge keepers more and more as
they strive to develop new medicines.
Your first task will be to research local medicinal plants and learn to identify them. Search for plants with
“antimicrobial” or “antibiotic” properties if possible, but many plants will only list the symptoms they’re used to treat
– ie.. stomach pain, headahces, etc. These could potentially have antibiotic properties as well. Try to find 2-3
potential plant species and if possible, print a picture of each for identification purposes. Search for plants that look
familiar and that you think you’ll be able to find in your neighbourhood.
Helpful Websites:
http://lfs-indigenous.sites.olt.ubc.ca/plants/
http://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1302807151028/1302807416851
http://www.npsbc.ca/
http://www.pwsd.ca/News/Miniotaplants.pdf
Record the following information for each plant:
Plant specimen #1
1. What is the plant’s
common name and
scientific name?
Plant specimen #2
Plant specimen #3
2. What are some
identifying features of
this plant (how will you
know when you find it?)
3. What medicinal uses
does your plant have?
Bring this information in with your plant on __________________
51
Step 2: Collect
Once you have researched a few possible plant species head outside to collect some samples.
Plant Collection Guidelines
Please adhere to the following guidelines when collecting plant specimens.
1. When collecting specimens, remove a few leaves, flowers (if applicable) and stem. There is no need to
remove a whole branch.
2. Under no circumstances are plants to be removed from a Municipal, Provincial or National Park.
3. Avoid collecting the last of any plant species in an area.
4. If you are collecting with friends, do not collect from the same plant.
5. Where appropriate clothing when collecting plants (long plants, long sleeve shirts, boots).
6. Plants are not to be unnecessarily damaged when specimens are taken.
7. Do not collect at night on your own, go with a friend during daylight hours.
Once you have collected your sample, lay it on paper towel over night to dry. Bring your plant to school on
__________ in a paper bag – not platic!
Step 3: Ethanol Extraction
Materials:
-Plant specimen
-Mortar and pestle
-Test tube and test tube rack
-Ethanol
-Saran wrap
Procedure:
1. Gather your materials.
2. Use a mortar and pestle to grind your plant until the pieces are smaller than 1 mm. You will need 1-5 grams
of your plant material (about the width of one thumb in the bottom of your test tube)
3. Use a sheet of paper to transfer your ground-up plant into a clean, labelled test tube
4. Add about 10 mL of ethanol to your test tube
5. Wrap the top of your test tube with Saran wrap and gently rock the tube to mix.
6. Place your test tube in the test tube rack provided (make sure your names or initials are on your test tube!)
Stage 3: Plant Extract Disc Preparation
Materials
-Test tube containing plant sample and ethanol
-Clean watchglass
-Filter paper disc
-Forceps
52
Procedure
1. Gather your materials.
2. Use your forceps to pick up your filter paper disc and gently dip it in your ethanol solution
3. Set your filter paper disc on the watchglass. Let the disc sit until the filter paper is dry.
4. When your new plate has been streaked with bacteria, place your filter paper disc into one quadrant of your
plate. Record which quadrant contains the plant extract disc.
Stage 4: Antibiotic Testing
Materials
-Petri dish with bacterial colonies
-New, clean petri dish with agar
-Two antibiotic discs
-Plant extract disc
-Plain filter paper disc (control)
-Bunsen burner
-Inoculation loop
Procedure
1. Wipe your bench with disinfectant and wash your hands
2. Label the quadrants of your new petri dish 1-4. Decide which antibiotic/control disc will go in each
quadrant and record your data.
3. Light your Bunsen burner
4. Use the Bunsen burner to sterilize your inoculation loop as demonstrated by your teacher
5. Open your collection plate. Use the sterile inoculation loop to gently pick up one bacterial colony.
6. Streak your bacteria across your new petri plate 10 times back and forth. Rotate your plate 60o and
repeat so that your bacteria are spread in 3 directions across the plate.
7. Close your petri dish and flame-sterilize your inoculation loop before setting it down.
8. Use forceps to place your antibiotic discs, plant extract discs, and control disc onto your petri dish in the
correct quadrants.
9. Monitor bacterial growth daily for the following 1-2 weeks. Record your data in your data table.
Results:
1. Draw a labelled diagram of your plate. Include a photograph if possible.
2. Construct a data table to record the zone of inhibition (in mm) around the colonies. Include a
column to note whether or not the plate was contaminated and whether or not there was
sufficient growth of bacteria. Your table should look something like this…
Day1
Day2
Day3
Day 4
Day 5
Day 6
Day 7
Day 8
Day 9
Disc A
Disc B
Disc C
Disc D
Contam?
Growth?
53
Questions:
1. Define the following terms : antibiotic, disinfectant, antibiotic resistant, antibiotic susceptible, zone
of inhibition
2. Did any colonies appear within the zone of inhibition? What would cause this growth?
3. Did you accept or reject your hypothesis? Explain why.
4. Answer these questions about the experimental design
a. What were the independent or experimental variables in this experiment?
b. What was the dependant variable?
c. What are 5 controlled factors in this experiment?
d. What was the control? What purpose did your control serve? What did your observation of
your control tell you?
e. What did we do to ensure a sterile environment was maintained for this lab? List at least 3
procedures you followed.
5. Give 2 dangers of long term use of antibiotics.
6. What problems could arise from using antibacterial soap? Describe the process in 5 steps!
7. Research a species of bacteria that has become resistant to an antibiotic. What is the name of the
bacteria? What antibiotics has it become resistant to? What disease does it cause?
8. What was the first antibiotic, who discovered it and how? Give a brief history of this famous
antibiotic.
9. How do antibiotics work? Why does taking antibiotics for a viral infection not make sense?
10. Why would it be harmful to us to get rid of all bacteria? Summarize pg.476-477
11.Use the terms resistant and susceptible to interpret the growth of the bacteria in the plate below.
Conclusion:
Write your conclusion in the same format as the previous lab. 3 paragraphs: first respond to your
hypothesis, second list all problems with the experiment, third pose 3 questions for further study
54
BACTERIA REVIEW
Assignment: Create a review sheet that includes the following information:
1. Stucture
a. Labelled diagram
b. Structure/function chart
2. Classification
a. Cell shape
b. Colony characteristics
c. Domain Archaeobacteria and Eubacteria – note similarities and differences
d. Nutrition
e. Harmful/helpful, list at least 5 of each one
3. Continuity
a. Diagram
b. Conditions
c. Outcome (genetic diversity or increase in numbers)
4. Diseases
a. How bacteria can harm you
b. Transmission
5. Lab info
a. Controlled variables, independent variable, dependent variable
b. Sterile techniques
c. Resistance/susceptibility – results draw petri dish
d. Resistance development – natural selection
6. Possible long answer questions
a. Compare and contrast viruses, prokaryotes (bacteria) and eukaryotes. Points should include
both structures and processes
b. Explain the evolution of antibiotic resistant bacteria
7. Vocabulary list- create a list of vocabulary words with definitions
55
Name
Class
Textbook Section 20-1 The Kingdom Protista
Date
(pages 497-498)
Key Concept
• What are protists?
What Is a Protist? (page 497)
1. What is a protist?
2. Circle the letter of each sentence that is true about protists.
a. All are unicellular.
b. All cells have a nucleus.
c. All cells have membrane-bound organelles.
d. All are multicellular.
3. Why are some organisms that consist of thousands of cells considered to be protists?
Evolution of Protists (page 498)
4. The first eukaryotic organisms on Earth were
5. What is biologist Lynn Margulis’s hypothesis about where the first protists came from?
Classification of Protists (page 498)
6. Complete the table about protist classification.
GROUPS OF PROTISTS
Group
Method of Obtaining Food
Consume other organisms
Plantlike protists
Funguslike protists
7. What don’t categories of protists based on the way they obtain food reflect about these
organisms?
56
EVOLUTION OF PROTOZOANS
Protozoans are the first eukaryotic cells! Hurrah membrane-bound organelles and complexity!
A theory that describes the evolution of protists is called the endosymbiotic theory. This theory
suggests that eukaryotic cells arose from prokaryotic cells that engulfed other prokaryotic cells,
and instead of digesting them they remained inside the cell and continued their function. This
taking-in of other cells and development of a symbiotic relationship is called endosymbiosis.


Example: chloroplasts may have arisen from photosynthetic prokaryotes that
were engulfed by another cell.
Example: mitochondria may have arisen from high energy producing prokarytoes
that were engulfed by another cell
Also, spiral-shaped bacteria may have evolved into flagella/cilia, and invagination of the
membrane developed into the endoplasmic reticulum.
Evidence:
1. Both chloroplasts & mitochondria have their own DNA separate from the cell.
2. Both chloroplasts and mitochondria divide independently from the cell and use binary
fission, just like bacteria
3. The double membrane found in mitochondria and
chloroplasts suggests entry of a foreign cell
4. Scientists have found bacteria living symbiotically inside
cells. Bacteria provide amino acids for the cell & the cell
provides a safe place for the bacteria.
keywords
DNA
double
symbiotic
chloroplast
invagination provide
mitochondria
endosymbiosis
bacteria
divide
Binary fission
endosymbiotic
Flagella/cilia
photosynthetic
eukaryotic
57
KINGDOM PROTISTA
Protists belong to the Kingdom Protista, which includes mostly unicellular organisms that do not
fit into the other kingdoms.
Characteristics of Protists:




mostly unicellular, some are multicellular (algae)
can be heterotrophic or autotrophic
most live in water (though some live in moist soil or even the human body)
A protist is any eukaryotic organism that is not a plant, animal or fungus
Protista = the very first
Classification of Protists:


how they obtain nutrition
how they move
Main Types:
I. Animallike Protists - also called protozoa (means "first animal") - heterotrophs
II. Plantlike Protists - also called algae - autotrophs
III. Funguslike Protists - heterotrophs, decomposers, external digestion
Structure of a Typical Animal-like Protist.
**Refer to pg 501 and label the parts of the cell below.
keywords
water
protozoa
eukaryotic
nutrition
decomposers multicellular
unicellular
algae
first
move
heterotrophic
58
PLAYDOUGH PARAMECIUM PROJECT
In groups of 3-4, you will create an almost-3-D playdough model of a paramecium in class. You
will be given a bag of colourful playdough, tape, toothpicks, a white sheet of paper and a list of
key words and definitions. Your model should measure 15 cm across at the longest point. You
will use toothpicks to attach the keyword labels to each part of the paramecium. The keywords are
provided below- cut them out and attach them to the toothpicks using tape. You will also need to
match key words with their definitions. Attach these also to the toothpick.
Make sure you follow the colour scheme provided!
Colour scheme:
Cilia- ___________
Anal pore- ___________
Oral groove- ___________
Contractile vacuole- ______ Cytoplasm-___________
Micronucleus- ___________
Gullet-__________
Macronucleus- ___________ Food Vacuole-___________
Keywords:
CILIA
ORAL GROOVE
GULLET
MICRONUCLEUS
MACRONUCLEUS
ANAL PORE
CONTRACTILE VACUOLE
CYTOPLASM
FOOD VACUOLE
Key definitions:

This smaller structure where genetic material is stored plays a major role in sexual
reproduction

This is the site where food moves into the paramecium

This structure surrounds food as it moves into the paramecium. Here, enzymes break down
the food, and nutrients are then absorbed into the cytoplasm.

This is the larger structure where genetic material is stored. It plays a major role in every day
cell function.

A cilia- lined indent in the body that sweeps food into the gullet.

Tiny, hair-like projections that help in movement

Waste materials leave the cell through this opening

A structure responsible for pumping excess water out of the cell

The liquid which suspends all the organelles
TOTAL MARKS: _________ DUE DATE: _____________
59
CLASSIFICATION OF PROTISTS
I. ANIMAL-LIKE PROTISTS
 Classified by how they move
i. Zooflagellates - flagella
ii. Sarcodines - extensions of cytoplasm (pseudopodia)
iii. Ciliates - cilia
iv. Sporozoans - do not move
1. Zooflagellates


move using one or two flagella
absorb food across membrane

E.x. Leishmania images to the right
2. Sarcodines






moves using pseudopodia ( "false feet" ),
which are like extensions of the cytoplasm -ameboid movement
ingests food by surrounding and engulfing
food (endocytosis), creating a food vacuole
reproducing by binary fission (mitosis)
contractile vacuole - removes excess water
can cause amebic dysentery in humans - diarrhea and
stomach upset from drinking contaminated water
E.x. Ameba
3. Ciliates









move using cilia
has two nuclei: macronucleus, micronucleus
food is gathered through the mouth pore,
moved into a gullet, forms a food vacuole
anal pore is used for removing waste
contractile vacuole removes excess water
exhibits avoidance behavior
reproduces asexually (binary fission) or sexually (conjugation)
outer membrane -pellicle- is rigid and paramecia are always the same
shape, like a shoe
Ex. Paramecium
4. Sporozoans



do not move on their own
parasitic
E.x. malaria, infects the liver and blood
keywords
cilia
two
contractile
flagella
membrane
conjugation
endocytosis
Mouth pore
Binary fission
pseudopodia
move
Anal pore
parasitic
60
MORE ON PARASITIC ANIMAL-LIKE PROTISTS
A parasite is an organism that lives on or in a host organism and causes harm to that organism.
A vector is an organism that can carry a parasite, and is responsible for infecting other organisms (host)
with that parasite. Vectors themselves are not harmful, but in the battle against human disease,
controlling the vector can control the transmission of parasites.
1. Malaria



Protist: Plasmodium
Vector: Anopholes Mosquito.
Image to the right: Anopheles mosquito taking a blood meal, this is how
a human becomes infected with plasmodium and contracts Malaria
Statistics:
 According to the World Health Organization, 300-500 million cases of
malaria occur each year
 Malaria results in 1.5-2.7 million deaths per year (much more than
AIDS)
 Symptoms include fever, headache, vomitting and other flu-like
symptoms
 The protist lives inside the bloodstream, eventually clogging capillaries
and destroying blood cells, which will lead to death if not treated
Life Cycle:
To do: on a separate sheet of paper, number and describe the steps of the life cycle of malaria.
61
2. African Sleeping Sickness (or Trypanosomiasis)



Protist: Trypanosoma
Vector: Tse Tse Fly
Image to the right: this slide shows a blood smear of a person infected with
trypanosoma. The protist is the purplish colored string-like things. They
appear string-like due to a flagella. The reddish circles are blood cells.
Statistics:
 Occurs mostly in sub-saharan africa
 Symptoms include fever, headaches, pain in joints -followed by a phase
when the parasite infects the central nervous system, causing confusion, lack of coordination, and
uncontrolled sleepiness. Without treatment, the host will die
3. Other Protist Parasites


Cryptsporidium - this protist was responsible for a major health crisis in Detroit when the city's
drinking water became contaminated
Amebic Dysentery - also known as Montezuma's Revenge, travellers often contract this in other
countries (causes diarrhea)
Questions for Thought
1. Does Canada have a responsibility toward treating and containing parasitic infections found in
other parts of the world?
2. Why is controlling the vector important to control the disease?
3. One of the best ways to prevent many parasitic infections is to have a source of clean water. Why
do you think many third world countries have more incidence of parasitic infection that other
countries?
62
Name
Class
Date
Textbook Section 20-4 Plantlike Protists: Red, Brown, and
Green Algae (pages 510-515)
Key Concepts
• What are the distinguishing features of the major phyla of multicellular algae?
• How do multicellular algae reproduce?
Introduction (page 510)
1. What are seaweeds?
2. What are the most important differences among the three phyla of multicellular algae?
Red Algae (page 510)
3. Red algae are members of the phylum
4. Why are red algae able to live at great depths?
5. What pigments do red algae contain?
6. Which color of light are phycobilins especially good at absorbing?
a. red
b. green
c. yellow
d. blue
7. Circle the letter of each sentence that is true about red algae.
a. They can grow in the ocean at depths up to 260 meters.
b. Most are unicellular.
c. All are red or reddish-brown.
d. Coralline algae play an important role in coral reef formation.
Brown Algae (page 511)
8. Brown algae are members of the phylum
9. What pigments do brown algae contain?
Match each structure with its description.
Structure
Description
_____ 10. Holdfast
_____ 11. Stipe
_____ 12. Blade
_____ 13. Bladder
a. Flattened stemlike structure
b. Gas-filled swelling
c. Structure that attaches alga to the bottom
d. Leaflike structure
63
14. Where are brown algae commonly found growing?
15. What is the largest known alga?
Green Algae (pages 511-512)
16. Green algae are members of the phylum
17. What characteristics do green algae share with plants?
18. What do scientists think is the connection between mosses and green algae?
19. The freshwater alga Spirogyra forms long threadlike colonies called
20. How can the cells in a Volvox colony coordinate movement?
21. “Sea lettuce” is a multicellular alga known as
Reproduction in Green Algae (pages 512-514)
22. What occurs in the process known as alternation of generations?
23. The unicellular Chlamydomonas reproduces asexually by producing
24. Circle the letter of each sentence that is true about sexual reproduction in
Chlamydomonas.
a.
If conditions become unfavorable, cells release gametes.
b.
Paired gametes form a diploid zygote.
c.
A zygote quickly grows into an adult organism.
d.
The gametes are called male and female.
25. Complete the table about the generations in an organism’s life cycle.
GENERATIONS IN A LIFE CYCLE
Generation
Definition
Diploid or Haploid?
Gamete-producing phase
Spore-producing phase
64
26. Complete the life cycle of Ulva by labeling the sporophyte, the male gametophyte, and the female
gametophyte. Also, label the places where the processes of fertilization, mitosis, and meiosis occur.
Ecology of Algae (page 515)
27. Why have algae been called the “grasses” of the sea?
28. Through photosynthesis, algae produce much of Earth’s
29. What is the compound agar derived from, and how is it used?
65
II. Plant-like Protists: Unicellular Algae





Most contain chlorophyll and carry out photosynthesis
accessory pigments help absorb light, give algae a variety of colors
make up the base of aquatic food chains (most live in water)
phytoplankton makes up half of the photosynthesis that occurs on earth (they make oxygen!)
four phyla: euglenophytes, chrysophytes, diatoms, dinoflagellates
1. Euglenophytes
2. Chrysophytes
 have flagella
 use chloroplasts for
photosynthesis, but can
turn into heterotrophs if
they are kept in the dark
 eyespot used for sensing
light and dark
 pellicle - like a cell wall,
helps maintain their
shapes
 Ex. Euglena
 Include yellow-green
algae and golden-brown
algae
 Name means “golden
plants”
 Have gold-coloured
chloroplasts
 Store food in the form of
oil rather than starch
 Reproduce asexually or
sexually
 Cell wall of pectin or
pectin and cellulose
3. Diatoms
4. Dinoflagellates
 Most abundant
and most
beautiful!
 Cell walls made of
silicon- main
component of
glass
 Shaped like a petri
dish with a top and
bottom
 Jewell-like
 About half are
photosynthetic, the rest
are heterotrophic
 Usually have 2 flagella
that wrap around the
organism in body
grooves
 Great blooms
(population explosions)
can lead to red tidemakes shellfish toxic to
eat
II. Plant-like Protists: Multicellular Algae

Includes kelp and all other algae you see in the ocean
1. Green Algae:
Phylum Chlorophyta





Chlorophyll a and b pigments
Cellulose in cell walls
There are unicellular, colonial
(ex. volvox), and multicellular
green algae (ex. ulva, sea
lettuce)
Probable ancestors of plants
Ex. Spirogyra
2. Red Algae
Phylum Rhodophyta




Chlorophyll a and phycobilins
Some have calcium carbonate
in cell wall, making them
tough
Are able to live at great
depths because are more
efficient at absorbing sunlight
Most are multicellular
3. Brown Algae
Phylum Phaeophyta



Chlorophyll a and c, as
well as fucoxanthin
All are multicellular
Ex. giant kelp
Keywords: plants, depths, fucoxanthin, photosynthesis, eyespots, colours, oil, silicon, oxygen, flagella, red tide,
66
Name
Class
Textbook Section 20-5 Funguslike Protists
Date
(pages 516-520)
Key Concepts
• What are the similarities and differences between funguslike protists and fungi?
• What are the defining characteristics of the slime molds and water molds?
Introduction (page 516)
1. How are funguslike protists like fungi?
2. How are funguslike protists unlike most true fungi?
Slime Molds (pages 516-518)
3. What are slime molds?
4. Cellular slime molds belong to the phylum
5. Is the following sentence true or false? Cellular slime molds spend most of their lives
as free-living cells.
6. What do cellular slime molds form when their food supply is exhausted?
7. What structure does a cellular slime mold colony produce, and what is that structure’s
function?
8. Acellular slime molds belong to the phylum
9. What is a plasmodium?
10. The plasmodium eventually produces sporangia, which in turn produce haploid
Water Molds (pages 518-519)
11. Water molds, or oomycetes, are members of the phylum
12. Water molds produce thin filaments known as
13. What are zoosporangia?
67
14. Where are male and female nuclei produced in water mold sexual reproduction?
15. Fertilization in water molds occurs in the
Ecology of Funguslike Protists (page 519)
16. Why aren’t there bodies of dead animals and plants littering the woods and fields you
walk through?
17. What are examples of plant diseases that water molds cause?
Water Molds and the Potato Famine (page 520)
18. What produced the Great Potato Famine of 1846?
19. What did the Great Potato Famine lead to?
III. Funguslike Protists




heterotrophs, decomposers
water molds responsible for the Irish Great Potato Famine
Ex. Dog Vomit Slime Mold - because it looks like dog puke, but it's really a
protist, in the phylum Myxomycota
Two groups: Slime Molds (Cellular and Acellular) and Water Molds
Cellular Slime Molds
Acellular Slime Molds
Water Molds
68
IDENTIFY THE PROTOZOANS
Using the terms in your notes, identify which group each protozoan belong to.
69
MICROSCOPE REVIEW
#
LABEL THE PARTS!
E
10
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
F
G
A
H
B
C
D
10
4
I
J
K
L
M
40
N
1. BODY TUBE: holds the eyepiece in place at the proper distance from each other.
2. OCULAR LENS ("oculus" is Latin for eye): Lens system near the top of the body tube. Magnifies
the image produced by the objective so the image you see is enlarged even more. Usually 10 X.
3. OBJECTIVE LENS . Most microscopes have 3 or 4 objective lenses (each with a different
magnifying power) attached to a rotating nosepiece
i. Low Power Objective Lens: usually has magnifying power of 4 (produces images 4 times larger
than the object itself)
ii. Medium Power Objective Lens: usually 10 X
iii. High Power Objective Lens: usually 40 X
iv. Oil Immersion Lens: used in conjunction with special oils that further bends light rays (will not
focus without the oil): usually 100 X
 LENS MAGNIFICATION: found by multiplying the magnifying power of the objective lens by
the magnifying power of the ocular lens.
 e.g. 4X objective x 10X ocular = _____________total magnifying power.
 e.g. 10X objective x 10X ocular = ______________ total magnifying power.
 e.g. 40X objective x 10X ocular = _______________ total magnifying power.
 e.g. 100X objective x 10X ocular = ______________ total magnifying power.
4. NOSEPIECE that can be rotated to place lenses into position.
5. STAGE: the platform located immediately below the lenses. On the stage are clips to hold the
SLIDE (on which the specimen is put) in place.
keywords
4
10
10
platform
oils
rotated
eyepiece
40
multiplying
nosepiece
eye
100
4
clips
70
6. DIAPHRAGM: like the iris of your eye or a camera, this opening can be increased or decreased in
diameter. This changes the angle at which most light passes through your specimen, which can
increase the clarity of your image. Light is provided by a special lamp
8. COURSE ADJUSTMENT KNOB: The large focus knob. For focusing under low power. Makes large
changes in position of objective lens. Never use with medium or high power lens.
9. FINE ADJUSTMENT KNOB: The small focus knob. Use for focusing when using medium and high
power lens. Makes small changes in position of objective lens.
Care of Microscope: Microscopes are DELICATE, EXPENSIVE instruments!
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Carry with BOTH HANDS: one underneath holding the base, one holding the arm.
Carry in UPRIGHT POSITION.
NEVER TOUCH ANY LENS WITH YOUR FINGERS.
NEVER CLEAN ANY LENS WITH PAPER TOWEL OR CLOTH. Use only LENS TISSUE.
NEVER use the COARSE adjustment knob for any objective lens EXCEPT the LOW POWER lens.
Always focus SLOWLY and carefully.
Storage of Microscope
1. Store with LOW POWER LENS in position.
2. Store with the stage UP all the way.
3. Wind cord around the base.
4. Replace the dust cover.
**Careless handling of the microscope will result in the loss of the privilege of
working with these instruments!!! So please do be careful! 
keywords
large
low
small
coarse
iris
Never use
Never touch
Lamp cord
Both hands
Low up
Upright position slowly
Medium and high
Lens tissue
dust
71
An Example of Calculating Magnification Using High Power
Low Power
Medium Power
High Power
4500 m
1500 m
450m
Numbers to know:
 the field of view (distance across the lens) changes depending on the power of the lens. Low, medium, and
high power field of views are shown in the table above.
 You should measure your drawings in centimeters, and then convert that number to micrometers.
 There are 10,000 m in one centimeter.
Here's the example!
You look in your microscope under high power (10x ocular and 40x objective
lens). Suppose you see this when you are looking through your microscope:
Being an excellent microscopist, you quickly estimate that this critters body is
about 150 m, since it takes up 1/3 of the field of view under high power, which is
450m. (move the slide around so that you see the object at the edge of the field
of view to help you make a good estimate. If you can't see all of the whole
object because it is too big, estimate the size of just
a part of the object for your calculations.
150 micrometers
Then, you draw this…see to the right 
The size of the body of the critter that you have drawn on
the page is 5 cm. Since there are 10,000 m per cm,
this distance is equal to 5 cm x 10,000 m/cm = 50,000
m. Your image size is 50,000 m.
Magnif ication =
image si ze
ob ject si ze
=
50,000  m
150  m
5 cm
= 333 X
Summary: Five Easy Steps to Calculating
Magnification!!
1. View the object under high power and estimate its
size (or the size of an easily identifiable part) in m.
This will be some number that is less than or equal to 450 m. This number is your object size.
2. Draw an image of the object on your paper.
3. Measure the image (or the same part on your image as you used for your estimate in number 1 above).
Measure this in centimeters. This is your image size.
4. Take this number and multiply it by 10,000 m/cm to convert it to m.
5. Divide the image size by the object size to get your magnification.

Of course, this same method can be applied to low and medium powers. Just use a field of view of 4500 m
for low power and 1500 m for medium when estimating object size in step one.
Now you try. Calculate the drawing size for the following two scenarios…
72
Low magnification  drawing
high magnification  drawing
RULES FOR MAKING BIOLOGICAL DRAWINGS
1. Use pencil or a fine black marker. Make firm, continuous lines and pixelate for shading.
2. Most drawings are black and white, but if instructed to do so, colour your diagrams
realistically.
3. All parts of the diagram should be drawn in proportion to one another.
4. Use white (unlined) paper.
5. Use a ruler to make a 12cm by 12cm box. Draw your specimen so that it almost touches the
top and bottom of the box.
6. Place this box on the left side of the page to make room for labels.
7. Use a ruler to draw straight lines from the part of the diagram you are labelling. These lines
should be parallel to the bottom of the page and should all stop at the same place so that the
labels line up.
8. Write the classification in the upper left hand corner of the page. Include Kingdom, Phylum,
and as many other taxa as are in your textbook.
9. The common and Latin name for the specimen should be centered below the box.
10. Magnification goes below the Latin name, e.g. 400X. Show all calculations on the back of the
sheet. Do not write high, medium or low power.
11. Label parts neatly, print and use capital letters.
12. Draw only what you see yourself.
13. With protists you may make a composite drawing of several specimens of the same species.
14. With specimens where there is a lot of repetition, detail just a small portion of the drawing.
15. Do not make a rough copy of your work and attempt to finish it at home. Make your final copy
while you have your specimen in front of you.
16. Never copy any drawing from another student or book.
17. Remember to put your name and block in the bottom right corner!
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Idontknowa
Class Isstillinsessiona
Head
Thorax
Abdomen
Insecta Speciesia
Magnificaiton 120x
73
Name
Class
Date
Textbook Section 21-1 The Kingdom Fungi
(pages 527-529)
Key Concepts
• What are the defining characteristics of fungi?
• What is the internal structure of a fungus?
• How do fungi reproduce?
What Are Fungi? (page 527)
1. Circle the letter of each sentence that is true about fungi.
a. They are heterotrophs.
b. They have cell walls.
c. They are photosynthetic.
d. They are eukaryotic.
2. The cell walls of fungi are made of a complex carbohydrate called
3. How do fungi digest their food?
4. Is the following sentence true or false? Some fungi are parasites.
Structure and Function of Fungi (pages 527-528)
5. Which group of fungi are not multicellular?
6. What are hyphae?
7. How thick is each hypha?
8. In some fungi, what divides the hyphae into cells containing one or two nuclei?
9. What is a mycelium?
10. Why is a mycelium well suited to absorb food?
11. What is a fruiting body of a fungus?
© Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall.
107
74
Name
Class
Date
12. What is a fairy ring, and why does it form?
13. Label the parts of the fungus.
Reproduction in Fungi (pages 528-529)
14. Is the following sentence true or false? Most fungi can reproduce only asexually.
15. How does asexual reproduction occur in fungi?
16. In some fungi, spores are produced in structures called
17. Where are sporangia found in a fungus?
18. Sexual reproduction in fungi usually involves two different
19. What is a gametangium?
75
20. How does a zygote form in fungal sexual reproduction?
21. Circle the letter of each sentence that is true about sexual reproduction in fungi.
a. The zygote is often the only diploid cell in the fungus’s entire life cycle.
b. Mating types are called male and female.
c. Gametes of both mating types are about the same size.
d. One mating type is a “+” (plus) and the other is a “–” (minus).
How Fungi Spread (page 529)
22. Is the following sentence true or false? The spores of many fungi scatter easily in the
wind.
23. For a fungal spore to grow, where must it land?
Classification of Fungi- Introduction (page 530)
1. Complete the concept map about the four main groups of fungi.
76
STUDENT LEAD FUNGUS NOTES
Instructions: Rewrite the point form notes below under the appropriate
headings on the following page. If needed, elaborate on the points (add more
information!).
•
mushrooms, molds, mildew, athlete’s food, Dutch elm disease, yeast

•
Thin, threadlike structures are called hyphae
Digestive enzymes chemically break down large macromolecules of
proteins, carbohydrates and fats into small monomers that can be
absorbed by the cell membrane
• Together with the bacteria, fungi are the major decomposers.
• Not photosynthetic
• Asexual reproduction can occur by fragmentation (breaking apart) of hyphae
• The mycelium is well suited to absorbing food because it permits a larger surface area to come in contact with the food source.
• Shortly after nuclei fuse, meiosis occurs and produces haploid nuclei that dominate the life cycle of the fungus.
• Multicellular except yeast
• During the greater part of their life cycle, the nuclei are haploid (N).
• Except for yeasts, the body of the typical fungus is made up of many tiny filaments called hyphae tangled together into a thick
mass called a mycelium.
• Aerobic respiration ( write the equation)
• Specialized hyphae include stolons, rhizoids, and sporangiophores
• Fungi do not ingest their food; they absorb it through their cell walls and cell membrane.
• Diploid (2N) nuclei form during sexual reproduction.
• Oomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, and Deuteromycota (what do these phyla names all have in common?)
• They display some remarkable and exotic lifestyles.
• Asexual reproduction can occur by the production of spores in sporangia

•
•
•
•
•
Cell walls made of chitin
Many fungi are saprobes, others are parasites, still others are symbionts.
Fungi release digestive enzymes into their environment.
Heterotrophic – Saprophytic – external digestion followed by absoprtion
Sexual reproduction involves two different mating types (+ and -).
eukaryotic – have usual eukaryote organelles eg. List 5
And because we are talking about FUNgi….
77
Heading
Notes
1. UNITY
(characteristics of
all members)
CLASSIFICATION
AND DIVERSITY
CONTINUITY
(reproduction)
ASEXUAL
SEXUAL
HOMEOSTASIS
(maintaining a
constant internal
environment, i.e.
digestion)
STRUCTURE
ECOLOGY
78
FUNGAL STRUCTURE AND REPRODUCTION





Fungi are very important decomposers
Fungal structure, when not reproducing,
consists primarily of long, microscopic
strands of hyphae that grow into the “food”
it is digesting, for example, a rotting piece
of wood.
A mass of hyphae is called mycelium
When reproducing, fungi often produce
reproductive strucutres. These structures
can vary in shape and size depending on the
species. You are probably familiar with
mushrooms- yes these are fungal
reproductive structures! Yum!
Different groups of fungi have different
types of reproductive strucures
EXAMPLES OF REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES AND THEIR PHYLA:
Keywords: mycelium, decomposers, hyphae, mushrooms, reproductive
79
BREAD MOLD REPRODUCTION REVIEW









The life cycle of a
fungus consists of
1. _______________
distinct phases.
Under suitable
conditions, haploid
2.______________
germinate and produce
long filaments called
3.______________.
These strands makeup
a network called a
4_______________.
The haploid mycelium
grows through the
substrate secreting
5. _______________,
digesting organic
matter, and 6. _______________ nutrient molecules.
Under these optimal conditions the fungus will undergo 7.
_______________ reproduction. Sporangiophores will
grow upwards and 8. _______________ will form on their
tips. Inside the sporangium hundreds of 9.
_______________spores develop.
The spores are dispersed by the 10. ______________. This
form of reproduction is beneficial because a lot of offspring
are formed however the all the offspring are 11.
_______________.
Variation is achieved through 12. _______________
reproduction.
During times of stress if compatible mating types come into contact with each other a 13.
_______________ will form. Inside the gametangia there are 14. _______________ nuclei. When the
gametangia fuse, the haploid nuclei come into contact with each other and fuse to form 15.
_______________zygospores.
The tough outer shell containing the zygospores can withstand drying out and freezing. When optimal
conditions are present again, 16. _______________ occurs and haploid meiospores are formed. These
meiospores are also dispersed by the 17. __________ and grow to form new 18. _______________
individuals.
80
LICHEN






Lichens are made up of a fungus and a photosynthetic
bacteria or algae that are living together in a
SYMBIOTIC relationship.
The algae is PHOTOSYNTHETIC so it provides
GLUCOSE as well as nitrogen and vitamins to the
fungus.
The fungus provides a nice place to live, WATER
and minerals to the algae
Lichen plays a significant ECOLOGICAL role in the
environment as a pioneer species. Lichen are called
PIONEER species because they are the first organisms
to inhabit a location. For example, after a volcano
erupts and the LAVA cools into rock, lichen are the
first organisms to grow on that rock. As the lichen
grows it breaks down the rock to form SOIL.
Lichen are also common on rocks in HARSH
environments where other species cannot grow. For
example, lichen is common on rocks on a rock SLIDE
in the mountains, on rocks in the DESERT and in the
ARCTIC.
3 types of lichen include crustose, foliose and
fruiticose.
Keywords
Arctic
ecological
harsh
symbiotic
glucose
Slide
pioneer
soil
photosynthetic
harsh
water
lava
desert
LICHEN DIAGRAMS - macroscopic
 Divide a piece of paper into 4 sections
 Using the examples provided make a quick sketch of 4 different types of lichen
 Using your textbook decide whether each type is a crustose, fruiticose or foliose
LICHEN DIAGRAM – microscopic
 obtain a piece of lichen
 place the lichen on a drop of water on a glass slide
 place a PLASTIC coverslip on top of the specimen
 place the slide on the counter
 using the eraser end of a pencil press down on the cover slip and using a circular motion separate the tissues of
the lichen. You should see the water turn light green in colour
 make sure the top and bottom of the slide are dry
 place slide on the microscope stage
 focus under medium power and make a biological drawing
 make sure to include the appropriate classification given that you are classifying 2 organisms….see your
textbook.
81
REVIEW- Viruses, Bacteria, Protozoans, Fungi
1. Viruses are made of 2 parts the _____________ and _____________. They must have another
_____________ to reproduce. They cannot _____________on their own. They do not undergo any
cellular processes eg. _____________, _____________, or _____________. They do not take in
_____________ or expel _____________.
2. Bacteria are called _____________. Their structures include _____________ _____________
_____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________
_____________. They do not have any membrane bound organelles, most notably they do not have a
_____________. Although they do not have a chloroplast they can _____________. Although they do
not have a mitochondria, they can _____________. Some bacteria can also undergo _____________
which results in the production of alcohol and _____________. In terms of continuity, bacteria
reproduce asexually by _____________ and sexually by _____________. They can also
_____________ to increase their genome and produce _____________ to survive harsh conditions.
3. Protozoans are the first kingdom to be _____________, They do have nuclei. They also have other
organelles including _____________, _____________, _____________, _____________,
_____________. Like bacteria they have chromosomes, only the chromosomes in protozoans are
found in the _____________. Like bacteria they also have ____________, _____________,
_____________, _____________. Unlike bacteria they do not have _____________, _____________or
_____________. In terms of nutrition, some protozoans are _____________ and as such have
chloroplsts. Many protozoans are _____________including all the pathogenic ones. All protozoans like
fungi, plants and animals respire ______________ and have _____________. Protozoans resproduce
asexually by _____________ and sexually by _____________.
4. Fungi are our first kingdom that is _____________. Their nutrition is like some bacteria in that they are
_____________ heterotrophs. They _____________enzymes into their environment and then
_____________the digested nutrients through their cell _____________. They have mitochondria and
therefore like all plants and animals they respire _____________ .Structurally, fungi are
_____________ so they have membrane bound _____________. These organelles include
_____________, and _____________. Because fungi do not _____________they do not
_____________. Fungi also have asexual and sexual means of reproduction. They reproduce asexually
by producing millions of _____________ which develop in and are released from _____________.
During times of stress, zygomycetes produce _____________ which are able to withstand freezing and
_____________.
82