Download Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach

Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 1st Ed.
Nivaldo Tro
Chapter 2
Atoms and
Elements
Roy Kennedy
Massachusetts Bay Community College
Wellesley Hills
Hills, MA
Tro, Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach
Laws of Matter
Law off Conservation
C
off Mass (Antoine
(
Lavoisier 1743–1794))
• In a chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor
•
destroyed
destroyed.
Total mass of the materials you have before the reaction must
equal
q
the total mass of the materials yyou have at the end.
 total mass of reactants = total mass of products
Law of Definite Proportions (Joseph Proust 1754–1826)
1754 1826)
• All samples of a given compound, regardless of their
source or how they were prepared, have the same proportions
of their constituent elements.
Law of Multiple
p Proportions
p
(John Dalton 1766–1844))
• When two elements (call them A and B) form two
different compounds, the masses of B that combine with
1 g of A can be expressed as a ratio of small whole
numbers.
2
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Law of Conservation of Mass
Reaction of Sodium with Chlorine
• The mass of sodium and chlorine used is
determined by the number of atoms that combine.
• Since only whole
atoms combine and
atoms are not
changed or
destroyed in the
process, the mass
of sodium chloride
made must equal
the total mass of
sodium and chlorine
atoms that combine
t
together.
th
7.7 g Na
Tro, Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach
+ 11.9 g Cl2
3
 19.6 g NaCl
Law of Definite Proportions
Proportions in Sodium Chloride
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Law of Multiple Proportions
Oxides of Carbon
• Carbon combines with oxygen to form
•
•
•
two different compounds, carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide.
Carbon monoxide contains 1.33 g of
oxygen for every 1.00 g of carbon.
Carbon dioxide
dio ide contains 2
2.67
67 g of
oxygen for every 1.00 g of carbon.
Since there are twice as many oxygen
atoms per carbon atom in carbon
dioxide than in carbon monoxide, the
oxygen mass ratio
ti should
h ld b
be 2
2.
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Dalton’s Atomic Theory
y
•
1))
2))
3)
4)
Dalton proposed a theory of matter based on it
having
g ultimate,, indivisible p
particles to explain
p
these laws.
Each element is composed
p
of tiny,
y, indestructible
particles called atoms.
All atoms of a g
given element have the same
mass and other properties that distinguish them
from atoms of other elements.
Atoms combine in simple, whole-number ratios to
form molecules of compounds.
In a chemical reaction, atoms of one element
cannot change into atoms of another element.
 They simply rearrange the way they are attached.
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Some Notes on Charge
•
•
two kinds of charge
g called
+ and –
opposite charges
g attract

•
like charges
g repel
p


•
+ attracted to –
+ repels +
– repels –
To be neutral, something
must have no charge or
equal amounts of opposite
charges.
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7
Cathode Ray
y Tubes
•
•
glass tube containing metal electrodes from
which almost all the air has been evacuated
When connected to a high-voltage power supply,
a glowing area is seen emanating from the
cathode.
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8
J JJ. Thomson
J.
• believed that the cathode rayy was composed
p
of
•
tiny particles with an electrical charge
designed an experiment to demonstrate that
these were particles by measuring the amount of
force it takes to deflect their path a given amount
 like measuring the amount of force it takes to make a
car turn
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Thomson’s Experiment
investigated the effect on a cathode ray of placing an
electric field around tube
(1) Charged matter is attracted to an electric field.
(2) Light
Light’s
s path is not deflected by an electric field
field.
+++++++++++
cathode
anode
(+)
( )
(−)
−
−−−−−−−
−
+
Power Supply
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10
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11
Thomson’s Results
• The cathode rays are made of tiny particles.
• These particles have a negative charge.
 because the beam always deflected toward the + plate
• The amount of deflection was related to two
•
•
factors, the charge and mass of the particles.
Every material tested contained these same
particles.
The charge:mass ratio of these particles was
1.76
76 × 108 C/g.
C/g
−1
 The charge/mass of the hydrogen ion is +9.58 × 104 C/g.
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Thomson’s Conclusions
• If the particle has the same amount of charge as a
hydrogen ion, then it must have a mass almost
2000× smaller than hydrogen atoms!
 Later experiments
p
by
y Millikan showed that the p
particle
did have the same amount of charge as the hydrogen
ion.
• The
Th only
l way for
f this
thi tto b
be ttrue iis if th
these particles
ti l
were pieces of atoms.
 Apparently,
Apparently the atom is not unbreakable.
unbreakable
• Thomson believed that these particles were,
•
therefore, the ultimate building blocks of matter
therefore
matter.
These cathode ray particles became known as
electrons
electrons.
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Millikan’s
Millikan
s Oil Drop Experiment
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Electrons
•
•
•
•
Electrons are particles found in all atoms.
Cathode rays are streams of electrons.
The electron has a charge
g of −1.60 × 1019 C.
The electron has a mass of 9.1 × 10−28 g.
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A New Theory of the Atom
• Since the atom is no longer indivisible, Thomson
must propose a new model of the atom to replace
the first statement in Dalton’s Atomic Theory.
 rest of Dalton’s theory still valid at this point
• Thomson pproposes
p
that instead of being
g a hard,
marble-like unbreakable sphere, the way Dalton
described it, that it actually has an inner structure.
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Thomson’s
Thomson
s Plum Pudding Atom
• The structure of the atom contains
•
many negatively charged electrons.
These electrons are held in the
atom by their attraction for a
positively charged electric field
within the atom.
 There had to be a source of positive
charge because the atom is neutral.
 Thomson assumed there were no
positively charged pieces because
none showed up in the cathode ray
experiment.
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Predictions of the
Plum Pudding Atom
• The mass of the atom is due to the mass of the
electrons within it.
 Electrons are the only particles in Plum Pudding atoms.
• The atom is mostly empty space.
 cannot have a bunch of negatively charged particles
near each other as theyy would repel
p
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Radioactivity
• In the late 1800s, Henri Becquerel and
•
•
Marie Curie discovered that certain
elements
l
t would
ld constantly
t tl emit
it small,
ll
energetic particles and rays.
Th
These
energetic
ti particles
ti l could
ld penetrate
t t
matter.
E
Ernest
t Rutherford
R th f d discovered
di
d th
thatt th
there
were three different kinds of emissions.
 alpha,
l h , particles
ti l with
ith a mass 4
4× H atom
t
and
d
+ charge
 beta,
beta , particles with a mass ~1/2000
1/2000 H atom
and – charge
 gamma, , rays that are energy rays, not
particles
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Rutherford’s Experiment
p
• How can you prove something is empty?
• Put something through it!
 Use large target atoms.
Use very thin sheets of target so it will not absorb “bullet”.
Use very small particle as bullet with very high energy.
but not so small that electrons will affect it
• bullet = alpha
p p
particles,, target
g atoms = g
gold foil
  particles have a mass of 4 amu and charge of +2 cu.
 Gold has a mass of 197 amu and is very malleable.
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Rutherford’ss Experiment
Rutherford
Alpha Particles
Striking Screen
Radioactive
Sample
Lead Box
Fluorescent
Screen
Gold
Foil
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Rutherford’s Results and Conclusions
Results
• Over 98% of the  particles went straight through
through.
• About 2% of the  particles went through but were
deflected by large angles.
angles
• About 0.005% of the  particles bounced off the gold
foil.
foil
Conclusions
• An atom is mostly empty space.
• An atom contains a dense pparticle that was small in
volume compared to the atom but large in mass.
• This dense pparticle was ppositivelyy charged.
g
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Plum Pudding
Atom
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
If an atom was like
a plum pudding
pudding,
all the  particles
should go
straight through.
•
•
•
•
A few of the
•
•
 particles
do not go through. Nuclear Atom
.
Almost all  particles
go straight through
through.
.
.
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Some  particles
go through, but are deflected due to
+:+ repulsion from the nucleus.
24
Rutherford’s Interpretation—
th Nuclear
the
N l
M
Model
d l
1) The atom contains a tiny dense center called the
nucleus.
 The amount of space
p
taken by
y the nucleus is only
y
about 1/10 trillionth the volume of the atom.
2) The nucleus has essentially the entire mass of
the atom.
 The electrons weigh so little they give practically no
mass to the atom
atom.
3) The nucleus is positively charged.
 The amo
amount
nt of positi
positive
e charge balances the negati
negative
e
charge of the electrons.
4) The electrons are dispersed in the empty space
of the atom surrounding the nucleus.
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Structure of the Atom
• Rutherford proposed that the nucleus had a
particle that had the same amount of charge as
an electron but opposite sign.
 based on measurements of the nuclear charge of the
elements
• These particles are called protons.
 charge = +1.60 × 1019 C
 mass = 1.67262 × 10−24 g
• Since protons and electrons have the same
g , for the atom to be neutral
amount of charge,
there, must be equal numbers of protons and
electrons.
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Relative Mass and Charge
g
• It is sometimes easier to compare things to each other rather
•
•
than to an outside standard.
When you do this, the scale of comparison is called a
relative scale.
W generally
We
ll ttalk
lk about
b t th
the size
i off charge
h
on atoms
t
b
by
comparing it to the amount of charge on an electron, which
we call −1
1 charge units.
 A proton has a charge of +1 cu.
 Protons and electrons have equal amounts of charge, but opposite
signs.
signs
• We generally talk about the mass of atoms by comparing it
to 1/12th the mass of a carbon atom with 6 p
protons and 6
neutrons, which we call 1 atomic mass unit.
 Protons have a mass of 1 amu.
 Electrons have a mass of 0
0.00055
00055 amu,
amu which is generally too small
to be relevant.
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Neutrons
Problems
• How could beryllium have 4 protons stuck together in
the nucleus?
• If a beryllium atom has 4 protons, then it should
weigh 4 amu; but it actually weighs 9.01 amu!
Neutrons
• Rutherford and Chadwick proposed that there was
another
th particle
ti l iin th
the nucleus—it
l
it is
i called
ll d a neutron.
t
• Neutrons have no charge and a mass of 1 amu.
mass = 1.67493 × 10−24 g
slightly heavier than a proton
no charge
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Summary of Subatomic Particles
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Elements
• Each
E h element
l
th
has a unique
i
number
b off protons
t
iin itits
nucleus.
• The
Th number
b off protons
t
in
i the
th nucleus
l
off an atom
t
is
i
called the atomic number.
Th elements
The
l
t are arranged
d on th
the P
Periodic
i di T
Table
bl
in order of their atomic numbers.
• Each
E h element
l
th
has a unique
i
name and
d symbol.
b l
symbol either one or two letters

one
capital
it l letter
l tt or one capital
it l letter
l tt and
d one
lowercase
• Some
S
symbols
b l come ffrom th
the element
l
t ‘‘s name,
like C for carbon. Others come from the Latin name
off the
th element,
l
t like
lik Au
A for
f gold
ld (aurum)
(
) and
d Cu
C for
f
copper (cuprum)
30
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The Periodic Table of the Elements
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Structure of the Nucleus
• Soddy discovered that the same element could
•
have atoms with different masses,
masses which he
called isotopes.
There are two isotopes of chlorine found in
nature, one that has a mass of about 35 amu
g about 37 amu.
and another that weighs
The observed mass is a weighted average of the
g
of all the naturally
y occurring
g atoms.
weights
The percentage of an element that is one
isotope
p is called the isotope’s
p
natural
abundance.
The atomic mass of chlorine is 35.45 amu.
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Isotopes
• All isotopes of an element are chemically identical.
•
•
•
•
undergo

d
th
the exactt same chemical
h i l reactions
ti
All isotopes of an element have the same number of
protons.
Isotopes
p of an element have different masses.
Isotopes of an element have different numbers of
neutrons.
Isotopes are identified by their mass numbers.
protons + neutrons
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Isotopes
p
• Atomic Number
 Number of protons
Z
• Mass Number
 Protons + Neutrons
 Whole number
A
• Abundance = relative amount found in a sample
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Neon
Symbol
Number of Number of A, Mass
Protons
Neutrons Number
Percent
Natural
Abundance
Ne-20 or 20
10 Ne
10
10
20
90.48%
21Ne
Ne-21 or 10
10
11
21
0.27%
22 Ne
Ne-22 or 10
10
12
22
9.25%
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Charged Atoms:Ions and Compounds
• When atoms gain or lose electrons, they acquire a
•
•
•
charge.
Charged particles are called ions.
When atoms gain electrons,
electrons they become
negatively charged ions, called anions.
When atoms lose electrons,
electrons they become positively
charged ions, called cations.
Note:
N
t
• Ions behave much differently than the neutral atom.
• Since materials like table salt are neutral, there
must be equal amounts of charge from cations and
anions
i
iin th
them.
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Atomic Structures of Ions
Anions
• Nonmetals form anions.
anions
• For each negative charge, the ion has 1 more
electron than the neutral atom
atom.
• Anions are named by changing the ending of the
name to -ide.
ide
Cations
• Metals form
f
cations.
• For each positive charge, the ion has 1 less
electron than the neutral atom
atom.
• Cations are named the same as the metal.
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Mendeleev
• ordered elements byy atomic mass
• saw a repeating pattern of properties
• Periodic Law—When
Law When the elements are arranged
•
•
•
in order of increasing atomic mass, certain sets
of properties recur periodically.
put elements with similar properties in the same
column
used pattern to predict properties of
undiscovered elements
Where atomic mass order did not fit other
properties, he reordered by other properties.
 Te & I
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Periodic Pattern
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Periodic Patterns
NM
H2O
a/b
H
10
1.0
H2
M
Li
6.9
Li2O
b
M
LiH
9.0
Be
Na2O M
b
M
Na
23.0
NaH 24.3
M
K2O
b
K
39.1
KH
BeO NM
a/b
B
BeH2 10.8
MgO
b
M
MgH2 27.0
CaO
b
C
BH3 12.0
M
Mg
B2O3 NM
a
Al
Al2O3
a/b
M/NM
AlH3 28.1
Si
CO2 NM
a
N
N2O5 NM
a
CH4 14.0
NH3 16.0
NM
P4O10 NM
a
SiO2
a
SiH4 31.0
P
PH3 32.1
O2
NM
O
F
H2O 19.0
S
SO3
a
HF
NM
H2S 35.5
Cl
Cl2O7
a
HCl
Ca
40.1
CaH2
M = metal
metal, NM = nonmetal,
nonmetal M/NM = metalloid
a = acidic oxide, b = basic oxide, a/b = amphoteric oxide
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Mendeleev’s Predictions for Ekasilicon
(Germanium)
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Metals
• solids at room temperature, except Hg
• reflective surface
 shiny
• conduct heat
• conduct electricity
• malleable
can be shaped
• ductile
 drawn or pulled into wires
• lose electrons and form cations in
reactions
• lower left on the table
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Nonmetals
•
•
•
•
•
•
ffound
d in
i allll th
three states
t t
poor conductors of heat
poor conductors of electricity
Solids are brittle.
gain electrons in reactions to
become anions
upper right on the table
except H
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Sulfur, S(s)
Bromine Br2(l)
Bromine,
Chlorine, Cl2(g)
Metalloids
• show
h
some
•
properties of metals
and
d some off
nonmetals
also known as
semiconductors
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Properties
p
of Silicon
shiny
conducts electricity
d
does
nott conduct
d t heat
h t wellll
brittle
46
Patterns in Metallic Character
= Metal
= Metalloid
= Nonmetal
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The Modern Periodic Table
• Elements with similar chemical and physical
•
properties are in the same column.
Columns are called Groups or Families.
 designated by a number and letter at top
• Rows are called Periods.
• Main Group = Representative Elements = “A” groups
• Transition Elements = “B” groups
 all metals
• Bottom Rows = Inner Transition Elements = Rare
Earth Elements
 metals
 really belong in Periods 6 & 7
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49
= Alkali Metals
= Halogens
g
= Alkali Earth Metals
= Lanthanides
= Noble
N bl G
Gases
= Actinides
A ti id
= Transition Metals
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Important Groups—Hydrogen
• nonmetal
• colorless, diatomic gas
 very low melting point and density
• reacts with nonmetals to form molecular
compounds
 HCl is acidic gas
 H2O is a liquid
q
• reacts with metals to form hydrides
 metal hydrides react with water to form H2
• HX dissolves in water to form acids
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Important Groups—Alkali Metals
• Group 1A = Alkali Metals
• hydrogen usually placed here, though it doesn’t
doesn t
•
•
•
•
•
really belong
soft, low melting points, low density
flame tests  Li = red, Na = yellow, K = violet
very reactive, never find uncombined in nature
t d to
tend
t form
f
water-soluble
t
l bl compounds,
d th
therefore
f
salt is crystallized from seawater then molten salt
is electrolyzed
colorless solutions
react with water to form basic (alkaline) solutions
and H2
2 Na + 2 H2O  2 NaOH + H2
releases a lot of heat
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Important Groups—Alkali Earth Metals
• Group 2A = Alkali Earth Metals
• harder,
h d hi
higher
h melting,
lti
and
dd
denser th
than alkali
lk li metals
t l
•
•
•
•
•
Mg alloys used as structural materials
flame tests  Ca = red, Sr = red, Ba = yellow-green
reactive, but less than corresponding alkali metal
form stable, insoluble oxides from which they are
normally extracted
oxides are basic = alkaline earth
reactivity with water to form H2  Be = none; Mg =
steam; Ca, Sr, Ba = cold water
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Important Groups—Halogens
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Group 7A = Halogens
nonmetals
F2 and Cl2 gases; Br2 liquid; I2 solid
allll di
diatomic
t i
very reactive
Cl2, Br2 react slowly with water
Br2 + H2O  HBr + HOBr
react with metals to form ionic compounds
HX a
all ac
acids
ds
HF weak < HCl < HBr < HI
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Important Groups — Noble Gases
• Group 8A = Noble Gases
• all gases at room temperature
•
•
very low melting and boiling points
very unreactive, practically inert
very hard
h d tto remove electron
l t
ffrom or give
i an
electron to
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Ion Charge and the Periodic Table
• The charge on an ion can often be determined
•
•
•
•
ffrom an element’s
l
t position
iti on the
th Periodic
P i di Table.
T bl
Metals always form positively charged cations.
For many main group metals, the charge = the
group
g
p number.
Nonmetals form negatively charged anions.
For nonmetals,
nonmetals the charge = the group number
−8.
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Predictable Ion Charges
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Atomic Mass
• We previously learned that not all atoms of an
element have the same mass.
 isotopes
• We generally use the average mass of all an
element’s atoms found in a sample in
calculations.
 However, the average must take into account the
abundance of each isotope
p in the sample.
p
• We call the average mass the atomic mass.
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Counting
g Atoms by
y Moles
• If we can find
fi d the
th mass off a
particular number of atoms, we can
use this information to convert the
mass of an element sample into the
number of atoms in the sample
sample.
• The number of atoms we will use is
6.022 x 1023 and we call this a
mole.
 1 mole = 6.022 × 1023 things
like 1 dozen = 12 things
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Chemical Packages—Moles
g
•
•
mole = number of particles equal to the number
off atoms
t
in
i 12 g off C-12
C 12
 1 atom of C-12 weighs exactly 12 amu.
 1 mole of C-12 weighs exactly 12 g.
The number of particles in 1 mole is called
Avogadro’s Number = 6.0221421 × 1023.
 1 mole of C atoms weighs 12
12.01
01 g and has
6.022 × 1023 atoms.
 The
Th average mass off a C atom
t
is
i 12.01
12 01
amu.
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Relationship between
M l and
Moles
dM
Mass
•
•
•
•
The mass of one mole of atoms is called the
molar mass.
The molar mass of an element, in grams, is
numerically equal to the element’s atomic
mass, in
i amu.
The lighter the atom, the less a mole weighs.
The lighter the atom, the more atoms there are
in 1 g.
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Mole and Mass Relationships
1 mole
carbon
12.01 g
Tro, Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach
1 mole
sulfur
32.06 g
62