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Chapter 8 The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance PowerPoint Lectures Campbell Biology: Concepts & Connections, Eighth Edition REECE • TAYLOR • SIMON • DICKEY • HOGAN © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Lecture by Edward J. Zalisko Figure 8.0-2 Chapter 8: Big Ideas Cell Division and Reproduction The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle and Mitosis Meiosis and Crossing Over Alterations of Chromosome Number and Structure © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. CELL DIVISION AND REPRODUCTION © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.5-1 INTERPHASE Centrosomes Chromatin Nuclear envelope © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Plasma membrane MITOSIS Prometaphase Prophase Early mitotic spindle Centrosome Fragments of the nuclear envelope Kinetochore Centromere Chromosome, consisting of two sister chromatids Spindle microtubules Figure 8.5-6 MITOSIS Metaphase Anaphase Telophase and Cytokinesis Metaphase plate Cleavage furrow Mitotic spindle © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Separated chromosomes Nuclear envelope forming MEIOSIS AND CROSSING OVER © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.11 Chromosomes are matched in homologous pairs • In humans, somatic cells have 46 chromosomes forming 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.11 Chromosomes are matched in homologous pairs • Homologous chromosomes are matched in • length, • centromere position, and • staining pattern. • A locus (plural, loci) is the position of a gene. • Different versions of a gene may be found at the same locus on the two chromosomes of a homologous pair. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.11 Chromosomes are matched in homologous pairs • The human sex chromosomes X and Y differ in size and genetic composition. • The other 22 pairs of chromosomes are autosomes with the same size and genetic composition. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.11 Pair of homologous duplicated chromosomes Locus Centromere Sister chromatids One duplicated chromosome © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.12 Gametes have a single set of chromosomes • An organism’s life cycle is the sequence of stages leading from the adults of one generation to the adults of the next. • Humans and many animals and plants are diploid, because all somatic cells contain pairs of homologous chromosomes. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.12 Gametes have a single set of chromosomes • Gametes • are eggs and sperm and • are said to be haploid because each cell has a single set of chromosomes. • The human life cycle begins when a haploid sperm fuses with a haploid egg in fertilization. • The zygote, formed by fertilization, is now diploid. • Mitosis of the zygote and its descendants generates all the somatic cells into the adult form. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.12a Haploid gametes (n = 23) Key Haploid stage (n) Diploid stage (2n) n Egg cell n Sperm cell Meiosis Ovary Fertilization Testis 2n Multicellular diploid adults (2n = 46) © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Mitosis and development Diploid zygote (2n = 46) 8.12 Gametes have a single set of chromosomes • Gametes are made by meiosis in the ovaries and testes. • Meiosis reduces the chromosome number by half. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.12b MEIOSIS I INTERPHASE MEIOSIS II Sister chromatids 2 Chromosomes Homologous duplicate chromosomes separate A pair of A pair of duplicated homologous homologous chromosomes in a diploid chromosomes parent cell © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 3 Sister chromatids separate Haploid cells 1 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid • Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces haploid gametes in diploid organisms. • Two haploid gametes may then combine in fertilization to restore the diploid state in the zygote. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid • Meiosis and mitosis are preceded by the duplication of chromosomes. However, • meiosis is followed by two consecutive cell divisions and • mitosis is followed by only one cell division. • Because in meiosis, one duplication of chromosomes is followed by two divisions, each of the four daughter cells produced has a haploid set of chromosomes. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid • Interphase: Like mitosis, meiosis is preceded by an interphase, during which the chromosomes duplicate. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid • Meiosis I – Prophase I key events • The nuclear membrane dissolves. • Chromatin tightly coils up. • Homologous chromosomes, each composed of two sister chromatids, come together in pairs in a process called synapsis. • During synapsis, chromatids of homologous chromosomes exchange segments in a process called crossing over. • The chromosome tetrads move toward the center of the cell. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.13-1 INTERPHASE: Chromosomes duplicate Centrosomes MEIOSIS I: Homologous chromosomes separate Prophase I Metaphase I Sites of crossing over Spindle Tetrad Nuclear Chromatin envelope © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Sister Fragments chromatids of the nuclear envelope Spindle microtubules attached to a kinetochore Anaphase I Sister chromatids remain attached Metaphase Centromere plate (with a kinetochore) Homologous chromosomes separate 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid • Meiosis I – Metaphase I: Tetrads align at the cell equator. • Meiosis I – Anaphase I • Homologous pairs separate and move toward opposite poles of the cell. • Unlike mitosis, the sister chromatids making up each doubled chromosome remain attached. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid • Meiosis I – Telophase I • Duplicated chromosomes have reached the poles. • Usually, cytokinesis occurs along with telophase. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.13-5 Telophase I and Cytokinesis Cleavage furrow © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid • Meiosis II follows meiosis I without chromosome duplication. • Each of the two haploid products enters meiosis II. • Meiosis II – Prophase II • A spindle forms and moves chromosomes toward the middle of the cell. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid • Meiosis II – Metaphase II: Duplicated chromosomes align at the cell equator like they are in mitosis. • Meiosis II – Anaphase II • Sister chromatids separate. • Individual chromosomes move toward opposite poles. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.13-4 MEIOSIS II: Sister chromatids separate Telophase I and Cytokinesis Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II and Cytokinesis Sister chromatids separate Haploid daughter cells forming Cleavage furrow © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.13-7 Two lily cells undergo meiosis II © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid • Meiosis II – Telophase II • Chromosomes have reached the poles of the cell. • A nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes. • With cytokinesis, four haploid cells are produced. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.14 VISUALIZING THE CONCEPT: Mitosis and meiosis have important similarities and differences • Mitosis and meiosis both begin with diploid parent cells that have chromosomes duplicated during the previous interphase. • However, the end products differ. • Mitosis produces two genetically identical diploid somatic daughter cells. • Meiosis produces four genetically unique haploid gametes. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.14-5 MEIOSIS I MITOSIS Chromosomes are duplicated Parent cell 2n = 4 Chromosomes are duplicated Prophase Prophase I Homologous chromosomes pair up Homologous chromosomes remain separate Crossing over Metaphase I Metaphase Pairs of homologous chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate Chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate Anaphase Telophase Anaphase I Telophase I Homologous chromosomes are separated Sister 2n chromatids 2n are separated MEIOSIS II n © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Sister chromatids remain attached n=2 n=2 n n n Sister chromatids are separated Figure 8.14-6 MEIOSIS I MITOSIS MEIOSIS II One division of the nucleus and cytoplasm Result: Two genetically identical diploid cells Used for: Growth, tissue repair, asexual reproduction © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Two divisions of the nucleus and cytoplasm Result: Four genetically unique haploid cells Used for: Sexual reproduction 8.15 Independent orientation of chromosomes in meiosis and random fertilization lead to varied offspring • Genetic variation in gametes results from • independent orientation at metaphase I and • random fertilization. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.15 Independent orientation of chromosomes in meiosis and random fertilization lead to varied offspring • Independent orientation at metaphase I • Each pair of chromosomes independently aligns at the cell equator. • There is an equal probability of the maternal or paternal chromosome facing a given pole. • The number of combinations for chromosomes packaged into gametes is 2n, where n haploid number of chromosomes. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.15 Independent orientation of chromosomes in meiosis and random fertilization lead to varied offspring • Random fertilization means that the combination of each unique sperm with each unique egg increases genetic variability. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.15-3 Possibility A Possibility B Two equally probable arrangements of chromosomes at metaphase I Metaphase II Gametes Combination 1 Combination 2 © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Combination 3 Combination 4 8.16 Homologous chromosomes may carry different versions of genes • Separation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis can lead to genetic differences between gametes. • Homologous chromosomes may have different versions of a gene at the same locus. • One version was inherited from the maternal parent and the other came from the paternal parent. • Since homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles during anaphase I, gametes will receive either the maternal or paternal version of the gene. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.16-0 Coat-color genes Eye-color genes Brown C Black E Meiosis c White e Pink Tetrad in parent cell (homologous pair of duplicated chromosomes) © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. C E C E c e c e Chromosomes of the four gametes Brown coat (C); black eyes (E) White coat (c); pink eyes (e) 8.17 Crossing over further increases genetic variability • Genetic recombination is the production of new combinations of genes due to crossing over. • Crossing over is an exchange of corresponding segments between nonsister chromatids of homologous chromosomes. • Nonsister chromatids join at a chiasma (plural, chiasmata), the site of attachment and crossing over. • Corresponding amounts of genetic material are exchanged between maternal and paternal (nonsister) chromatids. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.17a-0 Chiasma Tetrad © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Sister chromatids Figure 8.17b-0 C E c e 1 Breakage of nonsister chromatids C E c e 2 C Tetrad (pair of homologous chromosomes in synapsis) Joining of nonsister chromatids E Chiasma c e 3 Separation of homologous chromosomes at anaphase I C E C c e E c e 4 Separation of chromatids at anaphase II and completion of meiosis C E C e c E c e Parental type of chromosome Recombinant chromosome Recombinant chromosome Parental type of chromosome Gametes of four genetic types © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. ALTERATIONS OF CHROMOSOME NUMBER AND STRUCTURE © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.18 Accidents during meiosis can alter chromosome number • Nondisjunction is the failure of chromosomes or chromatids to separate normally during meiosis. This can happen during • meiosis I, if both members of a homologous pair go to one pole, or • meiosis II, if both sister chromatids go to one pole. • Fertilization after nondisjunction yields zygotes with altered numbers of chromosomes. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.18-1-3 Meiosis I Nondisjunction Meiosis II Normal meiosis II Gametes Number of chromosomes n+1 n+1 n−1 Abnormal gametes © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. n−1 Figure 8.18-2-3 Meiosis I Normal meiosis I Meiosis II Nondisjunction n+1 n−1 n n Abnormal gametes Normal gametes © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.19 A karyotype is a photographic inventory of an individual’s chromosomes • A karyotype is an ordered display of magnified images of an individual’s chromosomes arranged in pairs. • Karyotypes • are often produced from dividing cells arrested at metaphase of mitosis and • allow for the observation of • homologous chromosome pairs, • chromosome number, and • chromosome structure. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.19-1-3 Packed red and white blood cells Blood culture Centrifuge Fluid © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Hypotonic solution Fixative White blood cells Stain Figure 8.19-2 © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.19-3 Centromere Sister chromatids Pair of homologous chromosomes Sex chromosomes © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.20 CONNECTION: An extra copy of chromosome 21 causes Down syndrome • Trisomy 21 • involves the inheritance of three copies of chromosome 21 and • is the most common human chromosome abnormality. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.20 CONNECTION: An extra copy of chromosome 21 causes Down syndrome • A person with trisomy 21 has a condition called Down syndrome, which produces a characteristic set of symptoms, including • • • • characteristic facial features, short stature, heart defects, susceptibility to respiratory infections, leukemia, and Alzheimer’s disease, and • varying degrees of developmental disabilities. • The incidence increases with the age of the mother. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.20a-0 Trisomy 21 A person with Down syndrome © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.20b Infants with Down syndrome (per 1,000 births) 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 20 © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 25 30 35 Age of mother 40 45 8.21 CONNECTION: Abnormal numbers of sex chromosomes do not usually affect survival • Sex chromosome abnormalities seem to upset the genetic balance less than an unusual number of autosomes. This may be because of • the small size of the Y chromosome or • X chromosome inactivation. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.21 CONNECTION: Abnormal numbers of sex chromosomes do not usually affect survival • The following table lists the most common human sex chromosome abnormalities. In general, • a single Y chromosome is enough to produce “maleness,” even in combination with several X chromosomes, and • the absence of a Y chromosome yields “femaleness.” © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 8.21 © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.22 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: New species can arise from errors in cell division • Errors in mitosis or meiosis may produce polyploid species, with more than two chromosome sets. • The formation of polyploid species is • widely observed in many plant species but • less frequently found in animals. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.22 © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.23 CONNECTION: Alterations of chromosome structure can cause birth defects and cancer • Chromosome breakage can lead to rearrangements that can produce genetic disorders or, if changes occur in somatic cells, cancer. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.23 CONNECTION: Alterations of chromosome structure can cause birth defects and cancer • These rearrangements can lead to four types of changes in chromosome structure. 1. A deletion is the loss of a chromosome segment. 2. A duplication is the repeat of a chromosome segment. 3. An inversion is the reversal of a chromosome segment. 4. A translocation is the attachment of a segment to a nonhomologous chromosome. A translocation may be reciprocal. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.23 CONNECTION: Alterations of chromosome structure can cause birth defects and cancer • Inversions are less likely than deletions or duplications to produce harmful effects, because in inversions all genes are still present in their normal number. • Many deletions cause serious physical or mental problems. • Translocations may or may not be harmful. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 8.23 CONNECTION: Alterations of chromosome structure can cause birth defects and cancer • Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) • is one of the most common leukemias, • affects cells that give rise to white blood cells (leukocytes), and • results from a reciprocal translocation in which part of chromosome 22 switches places with a small fragment from a tip of chromosome 9. • Such an exchange causes cancer by activating a gene that leads to uncontrolled cell cycle progression. • Because the chromosomal changes in cancer are usually confined to somatic cells, cancer is not usually inherited. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.23a-0 Deletion Inversion Duplication Reciprocal translocation Homologous chromosomes © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Nonhomologous chromosomes Figure 8.23b Chromosome 9 Chromosome 22 Reciprocal translocation Activated cancer-causing gene © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. You should now be able to 1. Compare the parent-offspring relationship in asexual and sexual reproduction. 2. Explain why cell division is essential for prokaryotic and eukaryotic life. 3. Explain how daughter prokaryotic chromosomes are separated from each other during binary fission. 4. Compare the structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic chromosomes. 5. Describe the stages of the cell cycle. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. You should now be able to 6. List the phases of mitosis and describe the events characteristic of each phase. 7. Compare cytokinesis in animal and plant cells. 8. Explain how anchorage, cell density, and chemical growth factors control cell division. 9. Explain how cancerous cells are different from healthy cells. 10. Describe the functions of mitosis. 11. Explain how chromosomes are paired. 12. Distinguish between somatic cells and gametes and between diploid cells and haploid cells. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. You should now be able to 13. Explain why sexual reproduction requires meiosis. 14. List the phases of meiosis I and meiosis II and describe the events characteristic of each phase. 15. Compare mitosis and meiosis, noting similarities and differences. 16. Explain how genetic variation is produced in sexually reproducing organisms. 17. Explain how and why karyotyping is performed. 18. Describe the causes and symptoms of Down syndrome. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. You should now be able to 19. Describe the consequences of abnormal numbers of sex chromosomes. 20. Define nondisjunction, explain how it can occur, and describe what can result. 21. Explain how new species form from errors in cell division. 22. Describe the main types of chromosomal changes. Explain why cancer is not usually inherited. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.0-0 © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.UN01 G1 Genetically identical daughter cells Cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm) Mitosis (division of the nucleus) © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. S (DNA synthesis) M G2 Figure 8.UN02 Haploid gametes (n = 23) n Egg cell n Sperm cell Fertilization Meiosis Human life cycle 2n 2n Multicellular diploid adults (2n = 46) Mitosis © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Diploid zygote (2n = 46) Figure 8.UN04 © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.