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Chapter 15 Crucible of Freedom: Civil War, 1861-1865 Key Issues • Mobilizing for War • IN Battle, 1861-62 • Emancipation Transforms the War, 63 • War and Society, N & S • The Union Victorious, 64-65 • • • • Mobilizing For War: Recruit & Conscript Th N (16 troops) & S unprepared N: 1/3 officers joined Confederacy, L as yokel, no direct taxes in decades, never drafted S: no tax structure, no navy, only 2 gunpower factories, poorly equipped, unconnected railroad Had to overcame these deficits in 2 yrs; expanded central gov’t power Mobilizing For War: Recruit & Conscript • 2M men served in N; 800Th in S • S: 1st conscription law in Apr ’62 – Age limit changed fr. 18 to 17 up to 50 fr. 35: – serve 3 yrs.Changed to duration of war – Antagonized the South; loophole of substitute closed in ’63 – 20 Negro Law: exempt rich men • S: solid munitions by ’62 due to Josiah Gorgas Mobilizing For War: supplies & food • S: lack supplies & food due to focus on tobacco & cotton; Union overran livestock & grain-raising districts – Impressment Act “63: officers take food as prescribed prices & impressed slave labor • N: No problems w/ food & supplies • N: Enrollment Act “63: age 20-45 – Exemption: high officials, ministers, sole supporters of widows & orphans; substitution & commutation ($300 fee) • • Mobilizing For War: Financing the In ’61 N raised incomeWar tax, S small property tax: not enough Both turned to war bonds (loans fr. Citizens to be repaid in specie) – • Specie scarcity led N&S to paper money – – • S: $15M; N $150M N: Legal Tender Act $150M greenbacks (treasurer Salmon Chase) S: never legalized paper $; no confidence; then printed more ($1B) that led to inflation of 9TH% (Christopher Memminger) N: Republicans pushed for Nat’l Bank Act in ’63: fed chartered & issue nat’l bank notes; shows greater political cohesion during war Mobilizing For War: Leadership S. advantage of strong leaders • Pres. Jefferson Davis: experience, West Pointer, knack for making enemies – 5 Secretaries of War in 5 yrs. N. disadvantage: political liability • Lincoln: W. manners; yokel; inexperienced in neither Senate nor cabinet – • Caught between Conservative & Radical; he communicated w/ both Radical Republicans berated him not making emancipation a war goal & for eagerly admitting rebel states into Union Mobilizing For War: J Davis & his VP Alex Stephens (GA) S. advantage of strong leaders • Davis goal: secure victory & secure independence • A. Stephen adhered to Conf. Constitution: protect slavery & states’ rights; no protective tariff & no internal improvements Mobilizing For War: Lincoln & N. Democrats • L demanded strong gov’t to win war • N. Democrats resisted centralized gov’t • L better at controlling his foes than Davis – N. Democrats apposed L led Republicans to unify behind L: Union stronger politically – S. Democrats & Whigs suspended rivalries but no unity behind Davis who couln’t get votes to pass measures Mobilizing For War: Securing the Borders L: guarded DC Union’s bordered by VA & MD (slaves); • • • • dispatched fed troops to MD & suspended writ of habeas corpus (p.443) citing state of rebellion in Constitution Art.1.9 Fed could now arrest Marylanders w/out formally charging them w/ specific offenses…causing MD & DL to reject secession: Arming of Union sympathizer in KT (slave but Unionist legislature, successionist governor): KT declared U MO declared Unionist, WV admitted in ’63 Union held key rivers in KT & MO In Battle, 61-62 1st modern war due to reliance on • railroads • telegraph • mass-produced weapons • joint-army-navy tactics • iron-plated warships • rifled guns & artillery • trench warfare In Battle, 61-62 : Armies, Weapons, Strategies Union advantage: • 22M people in ’61 vs. 9M (1/3 slaves) in S. • 3.5 times white men of military age • 90% of all US industrial capacity • 2/3 of all railroad tracks Union disadvantage: must force S back into Union; S fought for independence In Battle, 61-62 : Armies, Weapons, Strategies Union disadvantage: • Few troops for frontline due to defend long supply lines; The S. used slave labor • Had to move troops & supplies long distances: sabotage, bad roads & weather, In Battle, 61-62 : Armies, Weapons, Strategies Rifle changed tactics: • • • • • • 50’s improvement: bullet whose powder not clog internal grooves Had to be reloaded after each shot, but Springfield or Enfield riffles hit target at 400 yards fr. 80 Defending force can now fire several instead of 1 or 2 rounds before closing w/ the enemy Harder to get close enough for bayonet Turn to trenches for protection against rifle fire W/ riffles, foot soldiers more effective than cavalry In Battle, 61-62 : Armies, Weapons, Strategies • Rifle changed tactics but high casualties from duration rather than rife efficacy • Surprise attack was more effective – Ex: Fredericksburg in ’62 Conf. struck Union w/ high casualties – Ex: in Gettysburg ’63 Union shredded charging Confederates • Battles: traded volleys, charged, countercharged, loser withdraws In Battle, 61-62 : Strategies • N had Anaconda plan devised by Winfield Scott – Blockcade southern coastline & to thrust, like a huge snake, down the Miss River – Goal: to seal off & sever the Confedera – Failure to follow snake plan due to lack of troops & navy flotillas – To secure border slave states, troops were in KT & MO, later in TN; sealed off Western theater, but major conflicts were in easter in ‘61 In Battle, 61-62 : Stalemate in the East • S: moved capital fr. Montgomery, AL to Richmond & encamped in Manassas Junction (25miles fr. DC) • First Manasas (1st Battle of Bull Run) – Gen. Irvn McDowell v. P.G.T. Beauregard – Amateur armies, bloody chaos; watched by well dressed picnickers – Aided by last minute reinforcements, Beauregard routed larger Union army In Battle, 61-62 : Stalemate in the East • After Bull Run, McDowell was replaced by G.B. McClellan as commander of the Potomac Army • McClellan’s goal: maneuveur Conf. into futile attack on his army in order to avert a destructive siege of Richmond; hope to admit Conf. into Union w/ slavery intact • Lincoln’s plan of victory: simultaneous, coordinated attacks on several fronts to exploit manpower & resources In Battle, 61-62 :McClellan refused to attack • w/ 100Th men at penisula, 5 miles to Richmond, McClellan refused to attack w/out further reinforcement • During his delay, Robert E.Lee took command of Conf. Army in N. VA – Contrast w/ McClellan, Lee was bold & willing to accept high casualties – Lee attacked McC. In ’62 in Seven Days’ Battles: Conf. lost 2x as many men as N., but McC kept sending L panicky reports – Lincoln ordered McC to call off campaign In Battle, 61-62 :2nd Bull Run • McC out of the picture, Lee & Stonewall Jackson boldly struck north • 2nd Bull Run: Conf. routed Union under John Pope • Lee, bolder now, crossed Potomac & attacked w. MD, to relieve pressure fr. Richmond, hoping Fr. & Br. to recognize Conf. – But McC met him at battle of Antietam (Sharpsburg) & victory for N.; Lee called off invasion In Battle, 61-62 :Emancipation Proclamation • Antietam = bloodiest day of entire war w/ 24Th • casualties Victory at Antietam led Lincoln to issue the Emancipation Proclamati – Free all slaves under rebel control • • McC, “the slows” was replaced by Ambrose Burnside, who proved his incompetence by sacrificing his army in futile charge up the heights in Fredericksburg The war in the east has become a stalemate In Battle, 61-62 : War in the West • Union fared better in the West • Ulysses S. Grant: competent, W.Pointer, Mex war vet; heavy drinker, failed in business & farming • Grant gained controlled of MO & KT, 2 border states, then took TN, then attacked Miss at Corinth • Grant, encamped at Shiloh (20miles fr. Corinth), was surprised by Albert Johnston & PGT Beauregard & lost; but then counterattacked w/ reinforcement & won. The bloodiest battle until Antietam • In Battle, 61-62 : War in the West Focus on Shiloh left New Orleans vulnerable to Union – Benjamin Butler & David Farragut N. Orleans, Baton Rouge, Natchez by land-sea attack • • • Union flotilla took Memphis via Miss River; control most of the river now Union drove Conf. out of TX & NMex; secured MO River; scattered Conf (include 3 Cherokee regiments) in Arkansas Union (w. volunteers) then turned on Indians (Dakota Sioux v. Minnesota) & Indian wars erupted in AR, NV, CO, NM(Kit Carson overwhelmed the Apaches & Navajos) In Battle, 61-62 : The Soldiers’ War • Underaged boys & 250 women disguised as men volunteered • Union food: beans, bacon, salt pork, pickled beef, hadtack • Conf.: bacon & cornmeal; often ran out of food, blankets, clothes, socks, & shoes • Both: poor santitation, lice, ticks, fleas, rodents, diseases. A sergeant describe “laying around in the dirt & mud, living on hardtack, facing death in bullets & shells, eat up by wook-ticks & body-lice” In Battle, 61-62 : The Soldiers’ War • ¾ of soldiers served in infantry, which suffered most casualties • Riffle ineffective due to lack of experience, training, & terrain barriers • Most died from facing one another until one side fell back • Letters home reflected motivation – Conf. equated slavery to liberty – Union: some for anti-slavery, some changed their mind after seeing horror of it in the S. In Battle, 61-62 : the Naval War • N’s 40 active warships v. 1 in S • By 1865, US had largest navy in world • Union captured ports & reduced S’s int’l trade, which it relied on for war • S. better as commerce raider • The S. can’t match N’s naval power • • • • In Battle, 61-62 : the Diplomatic War Napoleon III (Fr) dreamed of colonial Mex & welcomed US division Upper class Fr & Br liked the S S hoped Br will side w/ S due to its needs of cotton, Br had Egypt & India as supplier S dispatched James Mason & John Slidell to Br & Fr, Union captain boarded vessel Trent (Br) and captured the 2 as prisoners – • Br built commerce raiders, Florida & Alabama – • Br exploded & Lincoln returned prisoners Charles Francis Adams protested, so Br bought these rams for its own navy L’s Emanciaption Proclam. After Antietem neutralized all European interference Emancipation Transforms the War 1863 • Save the Union as official goal but emancipation of slaves was thrust to the forefront after only 2 years • • • • • Confiscation to Emancipation Slaves fled behind Union line = contraband (enemy property) Confiscation Act in ’61: can seize all property used in military aid of rebel L was cautious due to Union slaveholders (TN, WV, LA, sections of VA) & proslavery Democrats, who fear blacks competing for jobs in N Rad Republicans (Thaddeus Stevens): “free every slave, slay every traitor, burn every Rebel mansion…to preserve the temple of freedom” 2nd Confiscation Act in ’62: can seize property of all persons in rebellion, free escaped slaves, employ blacks as soldiers Confiscation to Emancipation Then the Proclamation in ’63: great military tactic as it • mobilized European liberals • pacified Radical & Democrats • pushed border states to Emancipation (MD & MO) Crossing the Union Line • By ’65 ½ M slaves in Union • Slaves as pawns in attacks & counter attacks • One slave fr. NC celebrated his freedom 12 times • Freemen worked for Union as cooks, teamsters, laborers, scouts, spies, • Faced fierce prejudice among Yankee soldiers • ’65 Congress created Freemen’s Bureau: relief, education & employment of former • • • • Black Soldiers in the Union Army ’61 Union refused black soldiers ’62 Union generals formed black regiments; especially in N. Orleans, Sea Island (SC), GA Large scale enlistment after Proclamation Frederick Douglas linked black military w. citizenship • By war’s end, 1/10 of Union were blacks (186,000) Black Soldiers in the Union Army • Suffered far higher mortality rate than white troops due to labor detachments or garrison (disease-ridden) duty • Confed sent black prisoners back to slavery or executed them (Gen Nathan Bedfore Forrest massacred many blacks in TN) • Unequal pay: $13/mo+$3.50 allowance vs. $10/mo w/ clothing deduction • Congress equalized pay in ’64 • Grant wrote “they make good soldiers” • • • • • • • Slavery in Wartime 3M of slaves in S during war time; Whites, fearful of revenge, tightened slave patrols, moved plantations to safer place in TX or upland region, spread scare stories some slaves torn between loyalty & freedom Robert Smalls, a slave, turned over a Confed steamer Union liberated about 10Th slaves on the Sea Islands, became haven for black refugees Defied system by fleeing or sabataging But Confed. was desperate & armed 300Th slaves but war ended 3 weeks later Year of 1863 began badly • Burnside’s defeat in Federicksburg, VA in ’62 continued into 1863 • Burnside’s successor, Joseph Hooker, w/ 2x as many Conf. soldiers lost to R.E. Lee & Stonewall Jackson (died here) at Chancellorsville, VA. • In W, Grant had difficulty taking Vicksburg • • • Turning Point in 1863 N upswing began w/ Lee’s decision to invade the North w/ 75Th men down the Shenandoah Conf. looking for shoes saw Union in town & both called for reinforcement Gettysburg,PA: the war’s greatest battle – – – – • Lee’s 75Th vs. Meade’s 90Th Pickett’s charge: massive infantry line of 15Th moved in to be met by Union fire & rifled weapons: Conf. bodies litered field Lee lost 1/3 50Th men lost between Union & Conf., who retreated: Union kept Lee from invading N. Grant had success in Vicksburg, cut off Ark, LA, TX War’s Economic Impact: N N’s economy unevenly affected • Damaged shoe industry: lost S. market • Cotton-textile industry hurt War benefited • producers of arms & clothing • Railroad (US Military Railroads): largest – N. route: Omaha to S. Francisco due to Republican Congress – US gave large land grants (60M acres) & loans ($20M) to Union Pacific & Central Railroad War’s Economic Impact: rich in N • Homestead Act (’62): give 160 acre for settling after 5 yrs. • Morrill Land Grant in ’62: gave states proceeds of public lands to fund the establishment of universities (agriculture & mechanic arts): Michigan State, Iowa State, Purdue Uni…etc • War benefited the rich: corrupt contractors, Cyrus McCormich hit jackpot by investing in pig iron ($23/lb to $40) War’s Economic Impact: the poor in the N • Wages lagged 20% behind, but • Prices for finished goods rose due to inflation, tariffs • Men lost barganing power for high wages because women & boys entered work force for ½ of pay. • Workers formed national unions to no avail – being accused of unpatriotic & army troops were used to put down protests • • War’s Economic Impact: The S Wrecked S.’s railroads, sank cotton production, reduced wheat & corn Agricultural shortage exacerbates S’s inflation – • • • • Salt in NY $1.25 but in S is $60.00 Food shortage also due to concentration on cotton, impress fr. Cilivians whose husbands were absent Lack of factory-made goods led to home production by women Women fled as refugee N traded food for cotton: Union’s policy “to feed an army and fight it at the same time” – Middlemen got rich Dealing w/ Dissent in the S • Dissent in S: Alexander Stephens (VP), Zebulon Vance (Gov of NC), & Joseph Brown of Ga attacked J. Davis as despotic – Although J Davis hardly suspend habeas corpus • Nonslaveholding farmers in the Appal Mt loyal to Union: resented 20-Negro exemption • • Dealing w/ Dissent in the N Lincoln faced Democratic opposition of centralized power & emancipation Democrats mobilized antidraft by woeing farmers of S. background, urban working class, recent immigrants – Led to violent eruption in NY: Irish roamed streets for 4 days • Lynched dozen blacks & injured hundreds, burned draft office, homes of Republicans, & Colored Orphan Asylum – Squashed by federal troops; suspended habeus corpus – Fear of labor competition by blacks Dealing w/ Dissent in the N • N still had freedom of speech, press, & assembly • Court ruled that a civilian can’t be tried in military court when civilian one is open • Clement L. Vallandigham: an Ohio Peace Democrat apposed suspension of Habeus Corpus & proposed an armistice – Was jailed for duration of war, but Ohio Dem. Nominated him for gov, so L banished him to TN. Valland. Escaped to Canada The Medical War • Women volunteered in US Sanitary Commission • 3,200 served in Union as nurses – Dorothea Dix as head of nursing corps – Clara Barton showed up w/ wagon of supplies at Antietam • She founded the American Red Cross in 1881 • S. nurses: Sally Tompkins, Belle Boyd, Stonewall Jackson, Louisa May Alcott The Medical War: deaths by diseases • 2:1 ratio of death by diseases to battle • Miasm theory of diseases facilitated sanitary measures • Only beginning to investigate germ theory in the 60’s • Prison camps became death camps, especially in the S. The War & women’s rights • In N & S, women took jobs vacated by men – Offices, mills, factories, fieldwork (plowing, planting, harvesting) • • Anna E. Dickinson (PA): hospital volunteer and lectured about suffering of soldiers; Republican begged her to campaign for them Elizabeth Cady Stanton & Susan B. Anthony in ’63 organized Woman’s Na’tl Loyal League – Gathered 400Th signatures, called to abolish slavery via amendment, promoted women suffrage The War didn’t change women’s rights • Volunteers got no pay • Workers got paid less than men did • War didn’t change view on women’s sphere – Though war added “organized care for wounded” to sphere – Nurses classified as domestic • Failed to capitalize on rising sentiments against slavery: politicians saw little value in woman sufferage The Union Victorious • By ’64, Union not closer to taking Richmond & rebels still controlled most of Lower South • William T. Sherman: attacked fr. TN into GA (Atlanta) & later Savanah, & SC – Boost N. morale & helped L reelected The Union Victorious: Eastern ‘64 • • Grant = Union commander = coordinated attacks on all fronts (like L) Grant sustained offensive attack on Lee & suffered reverses but forced Lee to retreat – – – • • In Wilderness near Fredericksburg, VA Spotsylvania Cold Harbor: lost 7Th men in 1 hour He countered Lee down Shenandoah Valley by ordering Philip Sheridan, who controlled it He orders William T Sherman GA against Joseph Johnson, whom J Davis replaced w/ John B Hood – – Hood lost an arm in Gettysburg & a leg in Chickamauga Attacked Sherman but lost The Election of 1864: L vs Radicals • Radicals resented L for delaying emancipation • dismissed his plans on restoring TN, LA, & ARK to the Union • Insisted that Congress not prez. Have the power to set requirements for readminsion • Saw L’s reconstruction plan as too lenient • Nominated Treasury Salmon P. Chase The Election of 1864: L vs • Democrats Democrats angry ‘cause L made • • • • • emancipation a war goal Peace Demo (Copperhead) wanted armistice & negotiation between N& S Demo. Nominated Gen George McClellan, who distanced fr. copperhead L benefited as Radicals isolated Peace Demo by electing prowar Demo (TN) Andrew Johnson L won w/ 55% of pop. Vote & 212/233 electoral votes L’s convention endorsed amendment to abolish slavery & passed in 1865 Sherman’s March Through GA • Hood lost Atlanta & retreated to TN hoping Sherman would chase him • Sherman marched across GA to Savanah doing TOTAL war • Thousands of slaves followed Union • Destruction was part of vital strategy ($100M of properties) • Gutted capital of SC—Columbia • Moved on to NC & AL • Total of 400 miles Toward Appomattox • Sherman’s march & reduced Conf’s morale • Grant attacked Petersburg, s. of Richmond, reinforced by Sheridan (Shenandoah victor) – April 2, Sheridan smashed rebel flank at the Battle of Five Forks – Lee tried to escape but was caught • Met Grant in a private home in village called Appomattox Courthouse in VA – J Davis fled the city but was captured in GA Lincoln Assasinated • Grant turned down theater date w/ Lincolns • April 14 L was shot by proConfederate actor John Wilkes Booth – Booth shouted “sic semper tyrannis” • L died the next day • 8 accomplish: 4 hung, 4 imprisoned, Booth was shot The Impact of the War • • • • • 620,000 soldiers died Ruined S. economy’ Whole US became industrial power as slavery ended Politic: “more perfect Union” States’ rights still there but not extreme – Never again exercise antibellum range of power • • Nat’l power: abolished slavery; imposed income tax; Sanitary Commission 3.5 M slaves liberated Conclusion • a