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20 1 Gender Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity 11th Edition Conrad Phillip Kottak McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 2 Gender • • • • • • • McGraw-Hill Sex and Gender Recurrent Gender Patterns Gender Among Foragers Gender Among Horticulturalists Gender Among Agriculturalists Patriarchy and Violence Gender and Industrialism © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 3 Sex and Gender • Sex refers to biological differences • Gender refers to cultural construction of male and female characteristics • Sexual dimorphism refers to marked differences in male and female biology besides the primary and secondary sexual features McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 4 Sex and Gender • Gender roles—tasks and activities that a culture assigns to the sexes • Gender stereotypes—oversimplified but strongly held ideas of characteristics of men and women McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5 Sex and Gender • Gender stratification—unequal distribution of rewards (socially valued resources, power, prestige, and personal freedom) between men and women, reflecting their different positions in social hierarchy McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Recurrent Gender Patterns 6 • Subsistence contributions of men and women are roughly equal crossculturally – In domestic activities, female labor dominates – In extradomestic activities, male labor dominates Women are primary caregivers, but men often play a role McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Recurrent Gender Patterns 7 • Differences exist in male and female reproductive strategies – Men mate, within and outside marriage, more than women do – Double standards that restrict women more than men illustrate gender stratification Gender stratification lower when domestic and public spheres not clearly distinguished McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 Gender Among Foragers • The Public-Domestic Dichotomy – Strong differentiation between the home and the outside world is called the domestic-public dichotomy, or the privatepublic contrast – The activities of the domestic sphere tend to be performed by women – The activities of the public sphere tend to be restricted to men McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 9 Gender Among Foragers • Public activities tend to have greater prestige than domestic ones, which promotes gender stratification McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Gender Among Foragers 10 • Sex-Linked Activities – All cultures have a division of labor based on gender, but the particular tasks assigned to men and women vary from culture to culture. Almost universally, the greater size, strength, and mobility of men have led to their exclusive service in the roles of hunters and warriors. McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 11 Gender Among Foragers • Lactation and pregnancy also tend to preclude the possibility of women being the primary hunters in foraging societies • However, these distinctions are very general, and there is always overlap – Kung San McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Gender among Horticulturalists 12 • Reduced Gender Stratification— Matrifocal Societies – Survey of matrifocal (mother-centered, often with no resident husband-father) societies indicates that male travel combined with a prominent female economic role reduced gender stratification The example of the Igbo (Nigeria) demonstrated that gender roles might be filled by members of either sex McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 13 Gender among Horticulturalists • Increased Gender StratificationPatrilineal-Patrilocal Societies – The spread of patrilineal-patrilocal societies has been associated with pressure on resources and increased local warfare – As resources become scarcer, warfare often increases – The patrilineal-patrilocal complex concentrates related males in villages, which solidifies their alliances for warfare McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14 Gender Among Horticulturalists • This combination tends to enhance male prestige opportunities and result in relatively high gender stratification (e.g., highland Papua-New Guinea) – Women do most of the cultivation, cooking, and raising children, but are isolated from the public domain – Males dominate the public domain (politics, feasts, warfare) McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 15 Gender Among Horticulturalists • Women found to be main producers in horticultural societies • Women dominated horticulture in 64% of the matrilineal societies and in 50% of the patrilineal societies McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Gender among Agriculturalists 16 • When economy based on agriculture, women typically lose role as primary cultivators – Women were main workers in 50% of horticultural societies but in only 15% of agricultural societies Gender stratification associated with plow agriculture rather than with intensive cultivation McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Patriarchy and Violence 17 • Patriarchy—political system ruled by men in which women have inferior social and political status Societies that feature a full-fledged patriarchy, replete with warfare and intervillage raiding, adopt such practices as dowry murders, female infanticide, and clitoridectomy McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 18 Patriarchy and Violence • Family violence and domestic abuse of women worldwide problems – With spread of women’s rights movement and human rights movement, attention to domestic violence and abuse of women increased – Patriarchal institutions persist in what should be a more enlightened world McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 19 Gender and Industrialism • Gender roles changing rapidly in North America – “Traditional” idea that “a woman’s place is in the home” developed among middleand upper-class Americans as industrialism spread after 1900 • Attitudes about gendered work varied with class and region • Woman’s role in the home stressed during periods of high unemployment McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Gender and Industrialism 20 • Gender roles changing rapidly in North America Now cash employment of American married men falling while that of American married women rising McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 21 Gender and Industrialism • Cash Employment of American Mothers, Wives, and Husbands – Insert Table 20.9 McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 22 Gender and Industrialism • Earnings in the United States by Gender and Job Type for Year-Round Full-Time – Insert Table 20.10 McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 23 Gender and Industrialism • Median Annual Income of U.S. Households by Household Type, 2001 – Insert Table 20.11 McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 24 Gender and Industrialism • Both men and women constrained by their cultural training, stereotypes, and expectations McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 25 Gender and Industrialism • The Feminization of Poverty – Increasing representation of women and their children among America’s poorest people • Consequences in regard to living standards and health are widespread even among wage earners • Married couples more secure economically than single mothers are • Percentage of female-headed households increasing worldwide McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Gender and Industrialism 26 • The Feminization of Poverty – Male migration, civil strife, divorce, abandonment, widowhood, and unwed adolescent parenthood contribute to problem Widely believed that one way to improve situation of poor women is encourage them to organize McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 27 Sexual Orientation • Person’s habitual sexual attraction to, and sexual activities with – Persons of the opposite sex, heterosexuality – Persons of the same sex, homosexuality – Both sexes, bisexuality McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Sexual Orientation 28 • Recently in U.S., tendency has been to see sexual orientation as fixed and biologically based Culture always plays a role in molding individual sexual urges to a collective norm McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 29 Sexual Orientation • Sex acts involving people of the same sex were absent, rare, or secret in only 37% of 76 societies studied by Ford and Beach (1051) McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 30 Sexual Orientation – Various forms of same-sex sexual activity considered normal and acceptable • Sudanese Azande males had no difficulty shifting from sex with older men (as male brides), to sex with younger men (as warriors), to sex with women (as husbands) • Etoro in Papua New Guinea believed men had limited lifetime supply of semen, and that boys had to acquire semen orally from older men McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 31 Sexual Orientation • Flexibility in sexual expression seems to be an aspect of our primitive heritage McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 32 Sexual Orientation • The Location of the Etoro, Kaluli and Sambia in Papua New Guinea – Insert Figure 20.4 McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.