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A CASE FOR EMOTIONAL
INTELLIGENCE
IN WORKPLACE
WELLNESS
ANNETTE PRINS
Introduction
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The changing world of work necessitates new
approaches to managing organisations and
employees together with a stronger focus on
employee wellbeing. EI is one such an approach.
Since employees represent many organisations’ only
true competitive advantage, leaders need to manage
and motivate their workforce to retain or enhance the
organisation’s market share.
The changing world of work includes
an increasingly diverse workforce with needs,
aspirations, and attitudes different from those of
their managers, necessitating creativity and
ingenuity from leaders.
Meta-theoretical perspective:
Positive psychology
• The current study niches in the
emerging paradigm of positive
psychology (Seligman, 1998c, 1999;
Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000) as
it finds application in both general and
industrial psychology.
Psychology
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General Psychology
Human behaviour and experience has traditionally
been dealt with from a pathogenic metaperspective.
This has led to “an obsessive proclivity for ‘deficit
detecting’ to the exclusion of acknowledging
strengths and resources” (Barnard, 1994, p.136).
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Organisational psychology
Luthans (2002) proposes that organisational
psychology is still more concerned with what is
wrong in organisations, teams, leaders and
employees, than with what was right.
According to him the field needs a “proactive,
positive approach emphasising strengths,
rather than … to fix weaknesses” (p.695).
The Cognitive Paradigm
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Simultaneous with the traditional paradigm, the
cognitive approach was an equally influential
line of thinking influencing the study of human
behaviour.
Whyte’s (1956) classic book The Organization
Man depicted effective business people as
logical, rational and reasoned decision makers.
Emotions were seen as subtracting from
objectivity and were therefore an unwanted
influence, to be controlled since it reflected
weakness and instability in the organisation
man.
This value system was long incubated by
organisations and likewise adopted by
researchers.
The emergence of emotions as an
explanatory model for work behaviour
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Lewis (1993), in the seminal work Handbook of Emotions
(Lewis & Haviland, 1993) argues that, in order to
understand human behaviour, emotions need to be
understood.
Muchinsky (2000) argues emotions are at the very core
of human experience
Industrial Organisational (I/O) psychology should take
the lead in explaining the role of emotions at work, since
we spend most of our time engaged in working rather
than in other activities
Emotions in the workplace are real, and individuals both
feel and think.
After a decade of recognising the complexity of cognitive
processes, the next decade may witness the recognition
of emotional processes in personnel selection and job
performance.
Affect in the workplace
The organisation by which people are employed offers
opportunities for experiencing numerous emotions
affecting employees’ thoughts, feelings and actions
both in the workplace and when they are away from it
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Time pressures and
Pressures to be successful
Link with work related stress and currently cause a huge
problem with modern man ‘on the run’
According to Muchinsky (2000) behaviour scientists now
have to acknowledge emotions as a “legitimate domain
of scientific inquiry” (p.803).
Explanatory models applied in
conceptualising the current research
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Affective Events Theory (AET)
(Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996)
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AET claims that workplace conditions
determine discrete affective events that lead to
affective responses (moods and emotions) in
workers.
Such moods and emotions are considered
mechanisms mediating stable features of the
work environment (such as job design) and
influence job attitudes and behaviour.
A judgement-driven behaviour such as a
decision to quit a job may, for example, flow
from the aggregate of affective experiences and
contribute to attitudes such as job dissatisfaction.
Affective Events Theory
(Adapted from Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996, p.12)
Work
Environment
Features
Judgement
Driven
Behaviors
Affective
Reactions
Work Events
Work
Attitudes
Affect Driven
Behaviors
Dispositions
The Broaden-and-Build Theory
(Fredrickson, 1998; 2001)
Complements the Affective Events Theory
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Fredrickson carefully studied the role of positive and negative
emotions and the gains that result when positive affect
supersedes negative affect, including:
The building of “a variety of enduring personal resources”
(Fredrickson, 2000, p.239).
These include:
enhanced physical, intellectual, social and psychological
resources.
A broadening
of the thought-action repertoires;
the scope of attention;
cognition and action
Positive emotions may furthermore serve to undo the effects of
negative emotions;
protect health, and
fuel emotional resilience, all of which contribute to freeing up
employee energy that may be channelled into work and other
activities, thereby enhancing work engagement.
Impetus for the current research
Burke, Brief, George, Roberson, and Webster (1989
conclude that the influence of the work context on
affective experience is largely unexplored.
Fisher (2000) agrees that there are relatively few
studies regarding emotions experienced at work,
while Weiss and Cropanzano (1996) indicate that
meaningfully distinct affective experiences at work
have, in general, been ignored by researchers.
Potential dysfunctions rather than functions of
everyday emotions have been more salient to both
managers and researchers (Ashforth & Humphrey,
1995). These researchers argue that this pejorative
view of emotion has blinded many scholars and
practitioners to the value of emotions. For
example, business schools and organisations would
rather emphasise technical than social skills.
Purpose and aim of the research
One purpose of the research was to investigate
whether employee emotional intelligence is
 related to psychological climate,
 affective experiences, and
 indices of work-related well-being
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Secondly, the researcher was interested in the
process by which the proposed effect takes
place
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Lastly, the measuring instruments were
revalidated to ascertain their applicability in the
particular South African population.
Research
DESIGN
A cross sectional correlational design was used.
PROCEDURES AND MEASURES
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The study was conducted among the employees of
six private hospitals in South Africa who granted
permission in this regard.
Both rural and urban areas were included
A total of 265 questionnaires were distributed
229 Members participated in the study constituting
an overall response rate of 86%
After statistical control for missing data, 198
participants remained in the study.
Senior managers, nursing sisters in management
positions, senior sisters, and group leaders of work
teams were included together with subordinates
Measuring instruments
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A biographical questionnaire was compiled to obtain
information on gender, language, age, hospital section,
type of career, management level, years of service with
current employer, service period under current manager
and educational level of respondent.
The Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence Test
(SUEIT self-report) by Palmer and Stough (2001), was
applied to evaluate employees’ levels of emotional
intelligence.
The self-report Psychological Climate Inventory
(Brown & Leigh, 1996), was used to measure the firstorder factors of psychological safety and psychological
meaningfulness, with psychological climate as the
second-order factor.
The self-report Job Affect Scale (JAS) by Brief, Burke,
George, Robbinson and Webster (1988), was used to
measure positive and negative job affect.
Measuring instruments
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The self-report Utrecht Work Engagement
Scale (Schaufeli et al., 2002), was used to
measure employees’ levels of work engagement,
reflecting vigour, dedication and absorption.
The self-report Maslach Burnout Inventory for
workers in the human services by Maslach and
Jackson (1986), was used to measure emotional
exhaustion, depersonalisation, and lack of
personal accomplishment.
With regard to contemplated quitting, a selfdeveloped Guttman scale in accordance with that
suggested by Cohen (1993), was used.
A self-compiled Health Questionnaire was
constructed to probe the general physical and
mental health of the respondent.
Statistical analysis
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A priori models, depicting tentative causal
relationships between emotionally
intelligent employees, their perceived
psychological (work) climate, job affect,
work engagement, health, burnout and
contemplated quitting, were investigated.
Descriptive statistics, Product-moment
correlations, multiple regressions, and
structural equations modelling (SEM) were
applied to analyse the data. SEM was used
to test the goodness-of-fit indexes of the
hypothesised model on the data. The
subscales of the questionnaires served as
manifest variables.
Emotional intelligence (EI)
Main Construct
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Paradigmatic shift
Researchers currently look for characteristics:
predictive of successful living
supportive of successful coping at work
Discussions of EI proliferate and the EI model
seems to be emerging as an influential
framework in (organisational) psychology
(Goleman, 2001)
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EI much debated topic
Many claims made on behalf of the EI construct
The current research aimed to put some of the
claims to the test
Emotional intelligence (EI)
The internal environment of an organisation
includes a social setting that requires
continued and substantial interpersonal
interaction among the employees and it is here
that emotions form a core ingredient.
EI literature propagates that an individual’s
ability to accurately perceive his/her emotions,
to effectively control and regulate such
emotions and interact effectively with others,
will, to a large extent, influence the individual’s
workplace effectiveness (Bosman, 2003).
EI competencies influence organisational
effectiveness in areas such as employee
recruitment and retention, development of
talent, employee commitment, morale, and
health (Bar-On, 1997).
EI Definitions
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Bar-On (1997)
“an array of non-cognitive
capabilities, competencies, skills that
influence one’s ability to succeed in
coping with environmental demands
and pressures”
EI an NB predictor of success in life
- directly influences general
psychological well-being and
health
EI Definitions
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Goleman (2001): “learned capability
based on EI that results in outstanding
performance at work”
Mayer, Salovey, Caruso (2000)
argue EI represents a set of mental
abilities, including the ability to:
• Perceive emotions
• Access and generate emotions to assist
thought
• Understand and reason about emotion,
• Reflectively regulate emotions to
promote emotional and intellectual
growth
EI Models / Definitions
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Ability
Mixed
Personality
Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence
Test (SUEIT) Palmer and Stough (2001)
In order to determine the most definitive common elements
constituting the EI construct, Palmer et al. (2003)
performed a large factor analytic study including the six
more prominent measures of emotional intelligence at the
time.
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These include the MSCEIT; Mayer et al. (1999); the BarOn
Emotional Quotient Inventory (Bar-On, 1997); the Trait
Meta Mood Scale (Salovey et al., 1995); the twenty-item
Toronto Alexithymia Scale-11 (TAS-30; Bagby, Taylor &
Parker, 1994); the Schutte et al. (1998) scale; as well as
the scale developed by Tett et al. (1997).
This battery was highly representative of and covered all
the measures of emotional intelligence available at the
time. A lengthy process of statistical analyses (cf. Gardner
and Stough, 2002)
The following factors were derived
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Emotional Recognition and Expression (in oneself), that
is, the ability to recognise one’s emotions and the ability
to express those emotions appropriately to others;
Understanding Emotions External, that is, the ability to
perceive and understand the emotions of others and
those inherent in the workplace environments (e.g., staff
meetings, boardrooms etc.);
Emotions Direct Cognition, that is, the extent to which
emotions and emotional information are incorporated into
reasoning and decision making;
Emotional Management, that is, the ability to manage
both positive and negative moods within oneself and
Emotional Control, that is the ability to effectively control
strong, emotional states experienced at work such as
anger, stress, anxiety, and frustration.
Palmer et al. (2003, p.92)
Mediators of employee wellbeing at work
Psychological climate (PC)
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PC reflects how organisational
environments are perceived and
interpreted by its employees (James,
James, & Ashe, 1990).
It is argued that a salubrious work
climate should be promoted to facilitate
the achievement of job satisfaction and
organisational goals whilst
simultaneously promoting wellness.
DIMENSIONS OF
PSYCHOLOGICAL CLIMATE
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PCg factor represents the employee’s total
interpretation of “the degree to which the
environment is personally beneficial versus
personally detrimental to one’s sense of wellbeing”.
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A. Psychological Safety
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Supportive management
Clarity
Self-expression
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B. Psychological Meaningfulness
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Perceived meaningfulness of contribution
Recognition
Challenge
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JOB AFFECT
Positive and Negative affect
The two-factor structure of affect by Watson & Telegen, 1985,p.221
HIGH
ACTIVATION
distressed
scornful
hostile
fearful
nervous
jittery
ENTHUSIASM
NERVOUSNESS
UNPLEASANT
PLEASANT
RELAXATION
FATIGUE
dull
drowsy
sluggish
sleepy
active
strong
enthusiastic
excited
peppy
elated
LOW
ACTIVATION
relaxed
at rest
placid
calm
Indices of wellbeing
These indices include
Positive indices:
- work engagement
- health
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Negative indices:
- burnout
- contemplated quitting.
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Positive indicators of well-being
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WORK ENGAGEMENT
Schaufeli et al. (2002) define engagement as a positive,
fulfilling, work-related state of mind characterised by
vigour, dedication, and absorption.
Dimensions of work engagement
Vigour, characterised by high levels of energy and mental
resilience whilst working; the willingness to invest effort in
the work; not fatiguing easily, and persisting even in the
face of difficulties.
Dedication, characterised by finding one’s work
significant; feeling enthusiastic and proud about one’s job,
and by experiencing both challenge and inspiration in the
work.
Absorption, characterised by being happily and totally
immersed in one’s work whilst finding it difficult to detach
oneself from it. Time passes quickly and one becomes
oblivious of one’s surroundings.
Engagement vs Burnout
A taxonomy of well-being at work (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2001)
ENERGETIC
WORKHOLISM
ENGAGEMENT
Evaluation
Activation
PLEASURABLE
NINE-TO-FIVE
UNPLEASURABLE
BURNOUT
EXHAUSTED
POSITIVE INDICATORS OF WELL-BEING
Health Indicators
The World Health Organisation (WHO) views health not merely as
the absence of disease but as physical, mental, and social wellbeing (Van Niekerk, 2005).
Physical health
An individual’s body, experiencing chronic stress (for example
when under constant deadline pressure), reacts with physical
changes as if under acute stress According to (Pelletier, 1996).
“Catecholamines trigger a cascade of physiological changes that
marshal the body to readiness: Heart rate, blood pressure, and
muscle tension all rise sharply; the stomach and intestines
become less active; and the blood level of glucose or blood sugar,
rises for quick energy” (p.23).
Mental Health
A healthy mind includes but is not limited to a “ state of
successful performance of mental function, resulting in productive
activities, fulfilling relationships with people, and the ability to
adapt to change and to cope with adversity” (U.S. Department of
Health and Human Sciences (in Keyes & Lopez, 2002, p.55).
NEGATIVE INDICATORS OF WELL-BEING
AT WORK
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Burnout
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According to Maslach, Schaufeli and Leiter (2001, p. 397):
“Burnout is a prolonged response to chronic emotional and
interpersonal stressors on the job, and is defined by the three
dimensions of exhaustion, cynicism, and inefficacy”. Burnout has
become more widespread and is reaching epidemic proportions
among North American workers (and globally) (Maslach & Leiter,
1997).
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People values have become increasingly subordinate to
economic ones. Economic forces have become the primary
driving force, with other values being regarded as subsidiary.
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Profits are favoured over the welfare of people in the
reengineering and downsising of organisations in a quest to
increase profits (‘doing more with less’) so that capable
employees, rather than being rewarded for hard work, are set
adrift (Turner et al., 2002). Increased profit, pursued at the cost of
subordinates’ jobs, is eroding the concept of job security.
Dimensions of burnout
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Emotional exhaustion - the draining of emotional resources
resulting from demanding interpersonal contacts with others.
Employees’ emotional resources are depleted and they no
longer feel they can give of themselves at a psychological level.
Employees feel overextended, both emotionally and physically.
They struggle to unwind and recover. They are as tired when
getting up as when they had gone to bed. They lack the energy
to face another day.
Depersonalisation/ cynicism - a negative, callous, and cynical
attitude and feeling towards the recipients of the burnt out
individual’s care or services. The person develops a
dehumanised perception of others and may even feel that
his/her clients/patients deserve their troubles. According to
Wills (1978), the described negative attitude towards clients in
human service workers is well documented. Burnt out
individuals take on a cold, distant attitude to their work and
people involved, attempting to minimize their job involvement,
and give up their ideals. They thus try to protect themselves
from further exhaustion and disillusionment.
Lack of personal accomplishment - the tendency to evaluate
one’s work with clients/patients negatively. Workers feel
unhappy about themselves and are dissatisfied with their work
accomplishments They experience a growing sense of
inadequacy. All new projects seem overwhelming. They lose
confidence in the belief that they can make a difference.
CONTEMPLATED QUITTING
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Mood and turnover intentions
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It is argued that the affective context at work is instrumental in
turnover.
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According to George (1989) mood provides the affective context
for thought processes and behaviours, and Clark and Isen (1982,
p. 76) state that “feelings have an important effect on cognition
and behaviour”.
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Mood at work may best be conceptualised as determined by both
situational factors and personality (Lewin, 1951). Individuals with
higher levels of positive affectivity, are inclined to experience a
sense of well-being and are more often pleasurably and
effectively engaged at work (Tellegen, 1982).
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George (1989) suggests that situational factors may exert a
greater influence on positive affect whilst negative effect seems
more mediated by internal factors.
A priori model
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MEDIATORS
CAUSES
CONSEQUENCES
WE
H
EEQ
PC
JA
B
CQ
Conclusion
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Emotions previously seen as illegitimate area of
research:
Viewed through cognitive lens
According to so-called norms of rationality
Recent trends in neuroscience provide much
support for the role of emotion in reasoning.
EI exciting and developing research area in relation
to organisational behaviour
Measure of debate surrounding EI reflects healthy
process in scientific research
Neural plasticity allows for lifelong learning and
adaptation, also in affective realm