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FRANCY STROOP – 2018642
C O N TR A S TI V E
G R A MM A R
SUMMARIES OF: ‘AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR
STUDENTS IN HIGHER EDUCATION’
(BY P.L. KONING AND DR. P.J. VAN DER VOORT)
Summaries of
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Francy Stroop
2018642
an English Grammar for students in higher education
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Summaries of
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.. Francy Stroop
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an English Grammar for students in higher education
Contents
10 The bare infinitive ................................................................................................................................ 7
10.1 Bare infinitive after see, hear, feel, watch and notice ................................................................. 7
10.2 Bare infinitive after have and make .............................................................................................. 7
10.3 Bare infinitive after dare and need ................................................................................................ 7
10.4 Bare infinitive after had better, would rather, rather than, sooner than, cannot but, and
could not but ............................................................................................................................................ 7
10.5 Bare infinitive after help ................................................................................................................. 8
11 The to-infinitive ..................................................................................................................................... 9
11.1 Noun phrase + to-infinitive after verbs expressing wish, liking and permission .................. 9
11.2 Noun phrase + to-infinitive after verbs expressing believe or opinion .................................. 9
11.3 To-infinitive used as subject .......................................................................................................... 9
11.4 To-infinitive after a form of to be ................................................................................................ 9
11.5 To-infinitive to express purpose ................................................................................................... 9
11.6 To-infinitive after certain verbs................................................................................................... 10
12 The passive infinitive ......................................................................................................................... 11
12.1 Passive infinitive when the meaning is passive ......................................................................... 11
12.2 Active infinitive in spite op passive meaning ............................................................................ 11
12.3 Both active and passive infinitive possible ................................................................................ 11
13 The –ing form ....................................................................................................................................... 12
13.1 –ing form as (part of) the subject ............................................................................................... 12
13.2 –ing form after a form of to be ................................................................................................... 12
13.3 –ing form after prepositions ........................................................................................................ 12
13.4 –ing form after a number of verbs ............................................................................................. 12
13.5 –ing form after busy, worth, ït’s no use, it’s no good and there’s no… ............................... 12
13.6 –ing form preceded by a subject. ................................................................................................ 13
13.7 –ing form in English / past participle in Dutch ....................................................................... 13
14 Verbs followed by –ing form or to-infinitive ................................................................................ 14
14.1 –ing form or to-infinitive without difference in meaning ....................................................... 14
14.2 –ing form or to-infinitive with difference in meaning ............................................................. 14
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15 Auxiliaries .............................................................................................................................................. 16
15.1 Definition ....................................................................................................................................... 16
15.2 Do .................................................................................................................................................... 16
15.3 No form of do used ...................................................................................................................... 16
15.4 The use of do with have ............................................................................................................... 16
15.5 Be + to-infinitive ........................................................................................................................... 17
15.6 Have to............................................................................................................................................ 17
15.7 Can................................................................................................................................................... 17
15.8 Could ............................................................................................................................................... 17
15.9 May .................................................................................................................................................. 18
15.10 Might ............................................................................................................................................. 18
15.11 The translation of Dutch had kunnen...................................................................................... 18
15.12 The translation of Dutch had mogen ....................................................................................... 19
15.13 Must............................................................................................................................................... 19
15.14 Shall ............................................................................................................................................... 19
15.15 Should ........................................................................................................................................... 19
15.16 Ought to ....................................................................................................................................... 20
15.17 The translation of Dutch had moeten...................................................................................... 20
15.18 Will ................................................................................................................................................ 20
15.19 Would............................................................................................................................................ 21
15.20 Used to .......................................................................................................................................... 21
15.21 Dare ............................................................................................................................................... 21
12.22 Need .............................................................................................................................................. 21
15.23 Question tags ............................................................................................................................... 22
24 Personal pronouns ............................................................................................................................. 23
24.1 Two forms of personal pronouns ............................................................................................... 23
24.2 It to refer to a thing....................................................................................................................... 23
24.3 It to identify a person ................................................................................................................... 23
24.4 It takes a singular verb .................................................................................................................. 23
24.5 It not used ...................................................................................................................................... 23
24.6 So ..................................................................................................................................................... 24
25 Reflexive pronouns ............................................................................................................................ 25
25.1 Usage of the reflexive pronoun ................................................................................................... 25
25.2 No reflexive pronoun after prepositions of place .................................................................... 25
25.3 Verbs that are reflexive in Dutch but not in English ............................................................... 25
25.4 Verbs that are reflexive in English but not in Dutch ............................................................... 26
26 Possessive pronouns.......................................................................................................................... 27
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26.1 Forms of the possessive pronouns ............................................................................................. 27
26.2 Usage of the independent possessive pronouns ....................................................................... 27
26.3 The translation of eigen ................................................................................................................ 27
27 Demonstrative pronouns.................................................................................................................. 28
27.1 Forms of the demonstrative pronoun ........................................................................................ 28
27.2 Usage of demonstrative pronouns .............................................................................................. 28
28 Interrogative pronouns ..................................................................................................................... 29
28.1 Who / whose / whom ................................................................................................................. 29
28.2 Which .............................................................................................................................................. 29
28.3 What ................................................................................................................................................ 29
28.4 Whoever / whatever ..................................................................................................................... 29
28.5 What in exclamations .................................................................................................................... 29
29 Relative pronouns .............................................................................................................................. 30
29.1 who / whose / whom .................................................................................................................. 30
29.2 Collective nouns followed by who or which ............................................................................. 30
29.3 Which ............................................................................................................................................. 30
29.4 That ................................................................................................................................................. 30
29.5 Restrictive relative clause: that / which / who ......................................................................... 31
29.6 Non-restrictive relative clause ..................................................................................................... 31
29.7 That obligatory............................................................................................................................... 31
29.8 That more common that which / who ...................................................................................... 31
29.9 Leaving out the relative pronoun ................................................................................................ 31
29.10 That instead of when / where / why ....................................................................................... 32
30 Indefinite pronoun ............................................................................................................................. 33
30.1 Al/ alle(n)/allemaal: all ................................................................................................................. 33
30.2 Alle: every ....................................................................................................................................... 33
30.3 Alles: everything / anything / all ................................................................................................ 33
30.4 Elke / iedere: each / every / any / either / every one ............................................................ 33
30.5 Some in affirmative sentences ..................................................................................................... 34
30.6 Some / any in questions ............................................................................................................... 34
30.7 Any in clauses expressing condition ........................................................................................... 34
30.8 Geen: no / not any........................................................................................................................ 34
30.9 Geen: none / not any ................................................................................................................... 34
30.10 Geen: neither ............................................................................................................................... 34
30.11 Geen: not a / not ........................................................................................................................ 34
30.12 Bijna geen: hardly any ................................................................................................................. 34
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30.13 Niets: nothing / not anything / none / not any .................................................................... 34
30.14 Iemand: somebody / someone / anybody / anyone ............................................................. 35
30.15 Iets: something / anything ......................................................................................................... 35
30.16 Niemand: nobody / not anybody / no one / none / not any / one .................................. 35
30.17 Iedereen: everybody / everyone /anybody / anyone ............................................................ 36
30.18 Both /the two / either ............................................................................................................... 36
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10 The bare infinitive
10.1 Bare infinitive after see, hear, feel, watch and notice
The bare infinitive is used after see, feel, watch and notice when these verbs express physical
perception. (Note: See can also be followed by a that-clause.)
A) The bare infinitive is NOT used after see, feel, watch and notice when a state is expressed. In this
case we must use a that-clause. (I saw him look pale  I saw that he looked pale.)
When one of these verbs denotes mental perception, a that-clause must be used.
B) Also the –ing form may be used when see, feel, watch and notice express physical perception.
Bare infinitive: * Duration irrelevant (Have you ever heard her sing?)
* Duration too short (Suddenly I felt the rope snap.)
-ing form:
* Going on for some time (I saw him crossing the street, when there was a loud noise.)
C) When the noun does not perform the action shown by the verb but undergoes it, the past
participle is being used. (I heard the national anthem played)
10.2 Bare infinitive after have and make
After have/make in the meaning of cause  bare infinitive
When the meaning of a sentence with have/make is passive  past participle
After the verb cause  to-infinitive
10.3 Bare infinitive after dare and need
Dare/need in negative sentences and questions without do  bare infinitive
Dare in sentences with do  bare infinitive / to-infinitive
Need in sentences with do  to-infinitive
10.4 Bare infinitive after had better, would rather, rather than, sooner than,
cannot but, and could not but
You had better go now (kunt beter; moest maar liever)
I had rather / would rather stay a bit longer. (zou liever)
Would you rather stay at home than go to the cinema? (zou liever)
Rather than / sooner than give in, he would do anything to prove that he was right. (Eerder dan)
He cannot but realize that he has made a mistake. (moet wel)
She could not but admit that it was all her fault. (moest wel)
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10.5 Bare infinitive after help
After help  bare infinitive (Also allowed but more formal: to-infinitive)
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11 The to-infinitive
11.1 Noun phrase + to-infinitive after verbs expressing wish, liking and
permission
After verbs expressing wish, liking and permission: to-infinitive.
allow
hate
permit
want
expect
like
prefer
wish
( = require)
love
tell ( = order)
etc.
When the meaning is passive, the passive to-infinitive must be used.
I would like this motion to be withdrawn. (note: After what, to be can be omitted)
11.2 Noun phrase + to-infinitive after verbs expressing believe or opinion
After verbs expressing believe or opinion: to-infinitive of to be
assume
declare
prove*
expect ( = Regarded as likely)
believe*
find
suppose
etc.
consider*
know
think*
* to be may be left out with these verbs.
A) In formal English a that-clause is used after the above mentioned verbs.
B) A that-clause must be used with other verbs than to be.
11.3 To-infinitive used as subject
When the verb is (part of) the subject: to-infinitive / -ing form
Specific occasions / general statements 
 General statements
11.4 To-infinitive after a form of to be
After a form of to be: to-infinitive / -ing form
Specific occasions / 
 General statements
general statements
11.5 To-infinitive to express purpose
He had to sell his house to pay of his debts.
A
This may be emphasised by putting in order or so as (= formal English) before the to-infinitive.
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11.6 To-infinitive after certain verbs
Words that are followed by a to-infinitive:
afford
fail
manage
consent
hesitate
offer
decline
learn
refuse
deserve
long
tend
undertake
want
wish
dare ( = het wagen)
Words that can also be followed by a that clause:
agree
decide
pretend
arrange
demand
promise
claim
hope
swear
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threaten
expect ( = think)
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12 The passive infinitive
12.1 Passive infinitive when the meaning is passive
When the preceding Noun Phrase undergoes the to-infinitive: passive infinitive
That was to be expected.
12.2 Active infinitive in spite op passive meaning
A) In some fixed expressions (This house it to let. / You are not to blame.)
B) When the underlying meaning is active. (There was nothing to drink.)
C) An active infinitive is used after:
a. Certain adjectives (easy, difficult, hard, touch, impossible, safe, good and ready)
b. Too + adjective (The soup is too hot to eat.)
But: when by + noun follows: passive infinitive (This novel is to hard to be read by children)
12.3 Both active and passive infinitive possible
Sometimes both forms are possible. In formal English, the active form is more common.
Sometimes there’s a difference in meaning:
We went to the exhibition, but there was nothing to see. (i.e. worth seeing)
It was so dark that there was nothing to be seen. (i.e. visible, owning to the dark)
Last night I went to the club, but there was nothing to do. (i.e. I felt bored)
They sent for a doctor, but there was nothing to be done. (i.e. there was no remedy)
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13 The –ing form
13.1 –ing form as (part of) the subject
When the verb is (part of) the subject: to-infinitive / -ing form
Specific occasions / general statements 
 General statement
13.2 –ing form after a form of to be
After a form of to be: to-infinitive / -ing form
Specific occasions / 
 General statements
general statements
+ bare infinitive when the preceding clause contains a form of to be.
13.3 –ing form after prepositions
-ing form must be used after prepositions.
13.4 –ing form after a number of verbs
Words that are followed by a to-infinitive:
avoid
consider
finish
burst out
delay
go on
cannot stand
detest
give up
couldn’t stand
dislike
involve
cannot help
enjoy
keep (on)
couldn’t help
excuse
miss
carry on
fancy
postpone
practise
put off
quit
resent
resist
risk
spend
stop
waste
etc.
Words that can also be followed by a that clause:
admit
appreciate
imagine
acknowledge
confess
mention
propose
recall
suggest
etc.
13.5 –ing form after busy, worth, ït’s no use, it’s no good and there’s no…
The –ing form is used after: busy (druk bezig)
worth (de moeite waard)
it’s no use / good (het heft geen zin)
there’s no … (het valt niet te…)
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13.6 –ing form preceded by a subject.
If the subject of the –ing form differs from the subject of the sentence, the subject must be
mentioned. (She insisted on Jack going there)
If the subject of a sentence is a personal pronoun  subject form (see chapter 24)
If the subject of an –ing form is a personal pronoun  object form (see chapter 24)
Note: in formal English the subject of an –ing form may also have an ending on –‘s or be a
possessive pronoun!
13.7 –ing form in English / past participle in Dutch
Taking everything in consideration, …
Generally speaking, …
Considering the situation, …
Stricktly speaking, …
Honestly speaking, …
(Alles in aanmerking genomen, …)
(In het algemeen gesproken, …)
(Gezien de situatie, …)
(Strikt genomen, …)
(Eerlijk gezegd, …)
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14 Verbs followed by –ing form or to-infinitive
14.1 –ing form or to-infinitive without difference in meaning
After a number of verbs
attempt
cannot bear
begin
couldn’t bear
propose
cease
To intent:
+ -ing form
+ to-infinitive
continue
dread
intend
neglect
omit
plan
start
To suggest:
+ -ing form
A) After a continuous tense  to-infinitive is preferred
B) After advise, allow, permit and recommend  -ing form
BUT: if the verb is followed by a direct object  to-infinitive
14.2 –ing form or to-infinitive with difference in meaning
A) After hate, like, love, prefer and it’s no use: to-infinitive / -ing form
to infinitive  Specific occasions and general statements
-ing form General statements
!!! I prefer going by train to driving / I would prefer to go by train rather than drive.
B) After regret, remember and forget
to infinitive  present or future time
-ing form  past time
C) After mean
to infinitive  the meaning ‘intend’
-ing form  the meaning ‘entail’
D) After go on
to infinitive  Implies that the subject of the sentence has been doing something else before
the new activity started.
-ing form  the meaning ‘continue’
E) After stop
to infinitive  to express purpose
-ing form  to express that an habit or activity is/was not continued.
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F) After try
to infinitive  if try means ‘an attempt’
-ing form  if try means ‘make an experiment’
G) After want/need
to infinitive  active meaning
-ing form  passive meaning
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15 Auxiliaries
15.1 Definition
An auxiliary is a verb that can not be used on its own but has to be followed by another verb.
15.2 Do
Do is used as an auxiliary:
A) In negative statements
B) In questions
C) To express emphasis
15.3 No form of do used
A) No auxiliary do with a form of be (Exceptions: negative imperative / emphatic imperative)
B) No do with an auxiliary (Exception: have)
C) No do in questions beginning with the subject.
But: when the question contains not, be must be used.
D) No do when not does not make the preceding verb negative.
15.4 The use of do with have
The use or non-use of do with have when have is not an auxiliary.
A) Possess
 Possibilities in negative statements
 Haven’t got (BrE)
 Don’t have (AmE but also frequently heard in BrE)
 Haven’t got (very formal BrE)
 Possibilities in questions
 Have got / haven’t … got (BrE)
 Do have / don’t … have (AmE but also frequently heard in BrE)
 Have / haven’t … (very formal BrE)
B) When have means take / experience / order / etc…  it takes do in negative and interrogative
sentences.
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15.5 Be + to-infinitive
A) be + to-infinitive can be used to express arrangement for the future.
B) be + to-infinitive can be used to express a command (the will of another person)
C) be + to-infinitive can be used to express destiny
15.6 Have to
Have to expresses obligation or necessity.
In the present tense have to does never take do in questions and negations  it takes got
15.7 Can
Can is used to express:
a) Ability
b) Permission in an informal way
c) General possibility
d) Specific possibility (only in questions beginning with can)
15.8 Could
Could is used to express:
a) Real ability in the past (refers to something that really took place)  could
A particular occasion of real ability in the past  was/were able to
But: could is used to refer to a particular occasion…
a. In negative sentences
b. In questions
c. Before verbs of perception (see, hear, feel, smell, taste, believe, imagine, etc.)
b) Unreal ability in the past (refers to something that didn’t take place)  could
(But often a if-clause is or may be used)
c) - to ask permission (when you don’t want to sound to sure)
- to give permission (informal way, when the reference is general)
- to denote a particular occasion of permission in the past  was/were allowed
- to denote a particular occasion of permission in the past in indirect speech  could +
was/were allowed.
d) General possibility in the past
e) Specific possibility in the present + in questions
f) Polite request in the present
g) Suggestion in the present (might is also allowed, with no difference in meaning)
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15.9 May
May is used to express:
a) Permission in the present tense.
Permission in other tenses  be allowed to
(When asking permission may is more formal than could and can.)
b) Specific possibility in statements  May (Specific possibility in questions  Could)
(Could is less certain than may, and might is less certain that could)
c) Wish
15.10 Might
Might is used to express:
a) Permission in indirect speech. (Could and allowed to are also allowed)
+ in questions  permission in a very hesitant or a very polite way.
b) Specific possibility in statements  Might (Specific possibility in questions  Could)
(Could is less certain than may, and might is less certain that could)
c) Suggestions (Could is also allowed without difference in meaning)
15.11 The translation of Dutch had kunnen
Had kunnen
Fact:
- had been able to
Non fact:
- could have
- had been able to
NB: Clause of condition: had been able to
Dutch had kunnen is translated into English as follows:
a) had kunnen expresses ability  had been able to
b) had kunnen expresses ability which was not realized  would have been able to / could have
c) had kunnen expresses a suggestion or reproach  could have / might have
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an English Grammar for students in higher education
15.12 The translation of Dutch had mogen
Had mogen
Fact:
- had been allowed
- (could have)
Non fact:
- would have been allowed
- (could have)
When you use could have it is not clear whether permission
or ability is meant.
NB: Clause of condition: had been able to
Dutch had mogen is translated into English as follows:
a) had mogen expresses that the permission is given  had been allowed
(be permitted to is also allowed but more formal)
b) had mogen expresses permission was given but not used  would have been allowed
c) had mogen expresses a suggestion or reproach  could have / might have
15.13 Must
Must is used to express:
a) Obligation or necessity  both must and have are allowed, but must is more emphatic.
Must not / musn’t expresses prohibition (= much stronger that may not)
b) Logical conclusion (…you must be very tired)
15.14 Shall
Shall can be used instead of will in the first person of the present future tense and to express:
a) Strong will of the speaker  shall
Strong will of the subject of the sentence  will
b) Promise (also will is allowed without difference in meaning)
c) In the first person shall is used to make offers and suggestions.
15.15 Should
Should is used in the following cases:
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a) To express moral obligation/duty/advice
(also ought to can be used without difference in meaning)
b) In clauses denoting condition (if may be omitted if the clause begins with should)
NB: The use of should in a clause of condition instead of the use of the present tense
 emphasises the uncertain nature of the action referred to
c) After words that express personal feelings:
amazing
happy
ridiculous
astonishing
natural
disappointed
incomprehensible normal
glad
interesting
odd
proud
But: in informal English should is mostly omitted.
shocked
sorry
surprising
a shame
etc.
d) to express a logical conclusion (also ought to is allowed)
e) in rhetorical questions (questions that are really statements)
15.16 Ought to
Ought to is used to express:
a) To express moral obligation/duty/advice
(also should can be used without difference in meaning)
b) to express a logical conclusion (also should is allowed)
15.17 The translation of Dutch had moeten
Dutch had moeten is translated as follows:
a) had moeten expresses obligation  had had to / had been obliged to
b) had moeten expresses moral obligation / duty / advice  should have / ought to have
15.18 Will
Will is used in the present future tense and to express:
a) Strong will of the speaker  shall
Strong will of the subject of the sentence  will
Will not / won’t means refuses.
b) A request (Won’t you come in?)
c) Inevitability (Accidents will happen.)
d) Habit or repetition. (He will sit here for hous without saying a word.)
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15.19 Would
Would is used to express past future tense in indirect speech and to express:
a) Strong will of the subject of the sentence in a past time context  would
Would not / wouldn’t means refuses.
b) A habit in the past  used to / would
States and actions 
 only actions
15.20 Used to
Used to is used to express:
a) The existence of something in the past
b) A habit in the past  used to / would
States and actions 
 only actions
15.21 Dare
Modal
Lexical
positive
XXX
He dares (to) swim.*
He needs to wash.
negative
He daren’t swim.
He needn’t wash.
He doesn’t dare (to) swim.*
He doesn’t need to wash.
question
Dare he swim?
Need he wash?
Does he dare (to) swim? *
Does he need to wash?
* After dare, a bare infinitive is sometimes used.
When indignation is expressed:
A) Dare doesn’t take to.
B) He /she / it doesn’t take –s.
12.22 Need
Modal
Lexical
positive
XXX
He dares (to) swim.*
He needs to wash.
negative
He daren’t swim.
He needn’t wash.
He doesn’t dare (to) swim.*
He doesn’t need to wash.
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question
Dare he swim?
Need he wash?
Does he dare (to) swim? *
Does he need to wash?
* After dare, a bare infinitive is sometimes used.
A) Past tense  did need
Past tense + indirect speech  need not / did not need
B) In affirmative statements, need is always followed by a to-infinitive.
C) The translation of had niet hoeven  need not have + past participle
15.23 Question tags
Negative statement  affirmative question tag
Affirmative statement  negative question tag
- a form of be or an auxiliary is repeated in the question tag
- in other cases a form of do is used.
NB: Statement and question tag both affirmative  doubt, disbelieve, anger, sarcasm, etc.
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24 Personal pronouns
24.1 Two forms of personal pronouns
Subject form
When personal pronoun is:
- subject
( I – you – he – she – it – we – you – they )
Object form
When personal pronoun is
- direct object
- indirect object
- preceded by a preposition
( me – you – him – her – it – us – you – them )
Note: John and I  subjectform
John and me  object form
A)
B)
C)
D)
After be  object form! (But: in formal or written English: subject form.)
In one-word sentences  object form (Who did it? Me!)
After than, except, as and but  subject form=formal English / object form=(in)formal English
After like  object form
24.2 It to refer to a thing
It  used to refer to a thing
She  used to refer to ships, planes, cars and motorbikes to express an affectionate attitude
24.3 It to identify a person
It  used to refer to a person
But, when further information is given  he/she
They is used to refer to more than one person or thing. (Note: when more than one person or thing is
regarded as a group of which the members have a special relation  it)
24.4 It takes a singular verb
It always takes a singular verb, also when a plural noun follows.
24.5 It not used
After ask, forget, know, mind, remember, show, tell, try and understand, ‘it’ is usually omitted.
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24.6 So
A) After appear, believe, do, epect, hope, remain, say, seem, suppose, tell, think and I am afraid  So
Instead of so, sometimes you may also use that. This causes more emphasis.
B) At the head of a sentence in which an affirmative statement is applied to another subject  So
When a negative statement is applied to another subject  not/neither
In both cases the subject follows the verb and if first sentence contains a form of to be / auxiliary
 the same verb is used in the second sentence.
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25 Reflexive pronouns
Oneself, myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves and themselves.
25.1 Usage of the reflexive pronoun
used to refer to the same person as the subject of the sentence
used for emphasis (then; at the end of the sentence or after the word it emphasises.)
25.2 No reflexive pronoun after prepositions of place
In this case the personal pronouns are used.
25.3 Verbs that are reflexive in Dutch but not in English
zich aankleden
zich aanpassen
zich afvragen
zich bemoeien met
zich bukken
zich ergeren
zich haasten
zich herinneren
zich inscherpen
zich omdraaien
zich onthouden van
zich overgeven
zich realiseren
zich scheren
zich uitbereiden
zich uitstrekken
zich verbergen
zich verheugen op
zich veroorloven
zich verspreiden
zich verzetten tegen
zich voegen bij
dress / get dressed
adapt / adjust
wonder
mind
meddle with
interfere with
bend
be annoyed
hurry
remember
embark
turn round
refrain from
abstain from
surrender
realise
shave
expand
extend
hide
look forward to
(followd by -ing form)
afford
spread
oppose
resist
join
zich aansluiten bij
zich abonneren (op)
zich beklagen over
zich beroemen op
zich bewezgen
zich bewust zijn van
zich concentreren
zich gedragen
join
subscribe (to)
complain about
boast of
move
be aware of
concentrate
behave (behave onself =
zich goed gedragen)
zich herstellen
recover
zich inschrijven
register
zich onderwerpen aan submit to
zich ontspannen
relax
zich ontwikkelen
develop
zich opwinden
get excited
zich schamen (over)
be ashamed of
zich reterugtrekken
withdraw
retire
zich verbazen
be surprised
zich vergissen
be mistaken
be wrong
zich verontschuldigen apologise
zich verslapen
oversleep
zich vervelen
be bored
zich verzoenen
be reconciled
zich vestigen
settle
zich voelen
feel
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zich voorbereiden
zich wagen
zich wenden tot
prepare
venture
apply to (apply oneself to
= zich toeleggen op)
zich voorstellen
zich wassen
zich zorgen maken
imagine
wash
worry
Adapt, adjust, dress, hide, surrender, wash and shave are sometimes used with a reflexive pronoun.
25.4 Verbs that are reflexive in English but not in Dutch
Resign oneself to
Avail oneself of an opportunity
Perjure oneself
Pride oneself on
Berusten in
Van een gelegenheid gebruik maken
Een meineed doen
Prat gaan op
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26 Possessive pronouns
26.1 Forms of the possessive pronouns
A) dependent forms  used before nouns
B) independent forms  used without a following noun
26.2 Usage of the independent possessive pronouns
A) After be.
B) When, in Dutch, the possessive pronoun is preceded by die van or de.
C) When the headword is preceded by:
a. The indefinite article
b. A numeral
c. A quantifier
d. An indefinite pronoun
e. A demonstrative pronoun
f. An interrogative pronoun
…and when the headword is plural and not qualified by a preceding word.
26.3 The translation of eigen
eigen - own  can only be preceded by a possessive pronoun or a genitive.
But: She has a room of her own.
Exception: An own goal.
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27 Demonstrative pronouns
27.1 Forms of the demonstrative pronoun
Singular
Plural
Close to speaker
this
these
More distant of speaker
That
those
27.2 Usage of demonstrative pronouns
Used the same as in Dutch but:
A) Plural nouns always take these/those
B) Dutch often uses die / dat / deze to refer to a preceding noun. In English however:
a. A personal pronoun is used
Waar zijn vader en moeder? Die zijn uitgegaan.
Where are father and mother? They have gone out
b. The one(s) is used before a preposition or a clause
Welke schoenen bedoel je? Die in de etalage / die ik in de etalage gezien heb.
Which shoes do you mean? The ones in the window / the ones I saw in the window.
C) In informal English this/that  so (He has never come home so/this late.)
+ In negative sentences all may be added.
It isn’t (all) that important really.
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28 Interrogative pronouns
Who, which and what.
28.1 Who / whose / whom
who is used for persons
who  used as subject
whose  used to denote possession
to whom  used as indirect object
who/whom  used as direct object
whom  used after prepositions
A) whom = formal English
B) who(m) as indirect object = accompanied by to
28.2 Which
Used when we choose from a limited number of persons or things.
(Which is followed by one/ones when it is necessary to express number.)
28.3 What
Used for things when we do not choose from a limited number
28.4 Whoever / whatever
Who and what followed by –ever  express emotion such as surprise / anger / irritation.
If the meaning is ‘anything that’ / ‘anyone who’  written as one word!!!
28.5 What in exclamations
Exclamatory what can only be followed by a before a singular countnoun.
If the interrogative pronoun refers to something different from a noun  how is used.
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29 Relative pronouns
Who, what, which and that are used at the beginning of a relative clause and it usually refers to a
preceding noun (=antecedent).
29.1 who / whose / whom
who is used for persons and pet animals.
who  used as subject
whose  used to denote possession
to whom  used as indirect object
who/whom  used as direct object
whom  used after prepositions
A) whom = formal English
B) who(m) as indirect object = accompanied by to
C) whose = sometimes used to refer to things (but this is often avoided by using of which)
29.2 Collective nouns followed by who or which
If the antecedent is a collective noun:
Who + plural verb  individual members of the group are being thought of
Which + singular verb  group as a whole is being thought of.
Note: People and police never take which!!!
29.3 Which
A) After nouns denoting things or animals, which is used (With pet animals, also who is allowed.)
B) Which is also used to refer to a preceding clause.
29.4 That
Only used in a restrictive relative clause. (See scheme on the following page)
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premodifier + noun + postmodifier
clause
Appositive
(beginning with that)
Relative
infinitive
past participle
-ing participle
Restrictive relative clause
(beginning with who(m), whose, which, that and gives essential information about the head)
Non-restrictive relative clause
(beginning with who(m), whose, which and provides information which can be left out.)
29.5 Restrictive relative clause: that / which / who
See scheme above. (This clause is not preceded by a comma!)
29.6 Non-restrictive relative clause
See scheme above. (This clause is preceded by a comma!)
29.7 That obligatory
A) After all denoting things (All that remained to do for me was to pack my luggage.)
B) After mixed antecedents (He decided to visit the people and places that were so dear to him.)
29.8 That more common that which / who
A) After a superlative
B) After everything, anything, something and nothing
C) After much, little and the few
29.9 Leaving out the relative pronoun
If the relative pronoun (in a restricted relative clause) is not the subject in the clause, it may be left
out.
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29.10 That instead of when / where / why
That can be used instead of when / why after antecedents denoting time, place and (the word) reason.
Which, preceded by a preposition, you may use instead of when / where.
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30 Indefinite pronoun
30.1 Al/ alle(n)/allemaal: all
all  alle(n) / allemaal
all the  reference to a particular group
30.2 Alle: every
If alle means alle mogelijke  Every
30.3 Alles: everything / anything / all
Alles is stranslated into English in the following ways:
a) Everything
b) When alles means no matter what  anything (He will believe anything you tell him.)
c) Alles is translated by all in the following cases:
 When it’s followed by a subclause / phrase (also everything is possible)
 After a form of be. (That’s all.)
30.4 Elke / iedere: each / every / any / either / every one
elke/iedere is translated into English by:
a) Each
 Individual members of the group are thought of
 Two or more persons or things
Two persons or things  either / each
More than two person or things + followed by of  every one
b) Every
 Members of a group are though of collectively
 3 or more persons
c) Any  no matter which out of more that 2
Either  no matter which out of 2
Note: these indefinite pronouns may always be accompanied by a plural personal pronoun!
(This does not refer to the sex of the subject)
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30.5 Some in affirmative sentences
Some means sommige / enkele / enige / een paar / wat / een ander.
30.6 Some / any in questions
a) Some is used when the speaker expects an affirmative answer.
b) Any is used when the speaker is uncertain whether the answer will be affirmative or negative.
30.7 Any in clauses expressing condition
In clauses expressing condition, any expresses the same uncertainty as in questions.
If any of you is interested, I would like to here so.
30.8 Geen: no / not any
Geen can be translated by no / not any.
30.9 Geen: none / not any
Geen is translated by none / not any when it is used independently (i.e. without a following noun)
Note: None takes a singular or a plural verb form.
30.10 Geen: neither
Geen referring to 2 people or things  neither
Note: Neither takes a singular or a plural verb form.
30.11 Geen: not a / not
Geen followed by an occupation, a profession, a religion, a title, a nationality or another position in life  not a
(but: when plural  not)
30.12 Bijna geen: hardly any
Bijna geen = hardly any
30.13 Niets: nothing / not anything / none / not any
Niets is translated in the following ways:
Nothing / anything (at the beginning of the sentence  always nothing)
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None / not any  when the reference is to a noun mentioned before.
30.14 Iemand: somebody / someone / anybody / anyone
Iemand is translated by:
a) Somebody / someone
 In affirmative sentences
 In questions to which an affirmative answer is expected.
b) Anybody / anyone
 In questions when the speaker is uncertain whether the answer will be affirmative or
negative.
 In clauses expressing condition.
c) Someone / any(one)
 With reference to a limited number.
30.15 Iets: something / anything
Iets is translated by:
a) Something
 In affirmative sentences
 In questions to which an affirmative answer is expected.
b) Anything
 In questions when the speaker is uncertain whether the answer will be affirmative or
negative.
 In clauses expressing condition.
30.16 Niemand: nobody / not anybody / no one / none / not any / one
a) Nobody / no one knows what happened.
She did not tell anybody / anyone*
She did not tell nobody.
* Not allowed at the beginning of the sentence.
b) When niemand is followed by van  none / no one
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30.17 Iedereen: everybody / everyone /anybody / anyone
When iedereen means all  everybody / everyone
When iedereen means it does not matter who  anybody / anyone
30.18 Both /the two / either
a) When it is stressed  Both
b) When it is unstressed (beide can be replaced by twee)  The two
c) Not matter which of the two  either
Occasionally: both  either (at either end / on either side of the road)
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