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The Sentence: Parts, Structures, and Types Acknowledgements: Bigby-Jenkins, Dr. Pauline, et al. Prentice Hall: Writing and Grammar. Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Education, Inc., 2008 Lester, Mark. Grammar and Usage in the Classroom. 2nd ed. Needham Heights, Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon: A Pearson Education Company, 2001. Basic Sentence Parts Traditional Definition of a sentence: A group of words that expresses a complete thought (must be able to stand alone and make sense). A sentence must be able to stand alone as a fully formed idea, not dependent on some previous context or understood sentence to fill significant missing pieces. The biggest problem English speakers have in identifying fragments is that they unconsciously provide some context or imaginary dialog to make the fragments into meaningful complete sentences. Basic Sentence Parts (continued) Characteristics of a Complete Sentence Subject The word or group of words that answers to “whom?” or “what?” a verb refers. Verb The word or group of words that tells what the subject does, what is done to the subject, or what the condition of the subject is. Must be able to stand alone as a complete thought. Basic Sentence Parts (continued) The “I Know That” Test for Complete Sentences If a group of words can be used correctly after “I know that” to make a new grammatical sentence, then that group of words must be a complete sentence. This test cannot be used with questions and commands. Example: Katrina really loves ice cream. I know that Katrina really loves ice cream. YES! Wherever we decide to go. I know that wherever we decide to go. NO! Types of Sentences Sentences can be: Declarative Imperative Commands Must have an understood “you” as the subject Can be punctuated with either periods or exclamation marks Interrogative Make a statement Can be + or – Can only be punctuated with a period Questions Must be punctuated with question marks Exclamatory Declarative sentences that are punctuated with an exclamation mark for emphasis. Can never have an understood “you” as the subject Subjects and Predicates All of the words within a sentence must be either part of the subject or part of the predicate. Complete Subject Subject + any words related to it (noun phrase)=Complete Subject Simple Subject Subject only Example: My favorite legendary actor is James Stewart. Complete Predicate Verb + any words related to it (verb phrase)=Complete Predicate Basically everything in the sentence that is not part of the subject, must be part of the predicate. Simple Predicate Verb only Example: We decided to go fishing Friday afternoon. Compound Subjects and Compound Verbs Compound Subject Two or more subjects with the same verb(s) and that are joined by a conjunction Example: Bailey and Sydney enjoy writing poetry. Compound Verb Two or more verbs that have the same subject and that are joined by a conjunction Example: Natalie laughed and cried during the movie. Hard-to-Find Subjects The pattern most often used in English: Subject followed by the verb However, some sentences do not follow the normal word order. Such is the case with questions. In some other sentences, the subject seems to be missing entirely. Also, some subjects may follow their verbs or come between parts of a verb phrase. Hard-to-Find Subjects (continued) Finding the Subject in Questions A sentence that is not in normal word order (subject first, predicate second), is usually in inverted word order. The subject in such a sentence is found after the verb. This order is most often seen in questions. Not all questions use inverted word order, but those that do can be reworded to make a statement in order to make the subject easier to find. Example: Have you opened your birthday present? You have opened your birthday present. Hard-to-Find Subjects (continued) Finding the Subject in Orders and Directions In sentences that give orders or directions, the subject is understood to be “you.” Examples: Drive carefully! (You) Drive carefully! After waiting a moment, sing the song again. After waiting a moment, (you) sing the song again. Lucy, leave the room. Lucy, (you) leave the room. Hard-to-Find Subjects (continued) Finding the Subject in Sentences Beginning with “There” or “Here” “There” or “here” is never the subject of a sentence. These sentences are usually in inverted word order Reword the sentence in normal order (subject first, predicate second) Example: Here comes the star of the show. The star of the show comes here. “There” or “here” is usually being used as an adverb and must be kept in the sentence, or it is used as a sentence starter and can be removed. Example: There is a mistake on your paper. A mistake is on your paper. Hard-to-Find Subjects (continued) Finding the Subject in Sentences Inverted for Emphasis These sentences are placed in inverted word order for emphasis. To find the subject in these sentences, you once again need to reword the sentence so that it is in normal word order (subject first, predicate second). Example: In the midst of the crowd outside the theatre stood the famous celebrity. The famous celebrity stood in the midst of the crowd outside the theatre. Complements Sentences that cannot express a complete thought with just a subject and a verb need complements. Complement—A word or group of words that completes the meaning of a subject and verb Complements are usually nouns, pronouns, or adjectives Complements are located right after or very close to the verb Direct Objects Complements used after action verbs Receive the action of the “transitive” verb Must be a noun or a pronoun Can be compound Can be found by asking to “whom?” or “what?” is the action being done Not all action verbs have a direct object Be careful not to confuse the direct object with an adverb or an object of a preposition The direct object can never be adverb or a noun/pronoun found at the end of a prepositional phrase. In questions, direct objects are sometimes found near the beginning of the sentence If you have trouble finding a direct object in a question, try rephrasing the word into normal words order Indirect Objects Names the person or thing to which something is given or done Noun/pronoun that comes after an action verb, but before the direct object Answers the question “to” or “for whom?” or “to” or “for what?” after an action verb. Sentences cannot have an indirect object without a direct object Typical pattern = Subject + Verb + IO + DO Almost always comes between the verb and the direct object Can be compound like a subject, verb, and a direct object Do not confuse the indirect object with the object of the preposition An indirect object never follows the preposition “to” or “for” Subject Complements Used with linking verbs The subjects are not the do-ers of any action in these sentences The subjects are rather “topics” that the linking verb and the complement describe. They are nouns, pronouns, or adjectives that follow a linking verb and tell something about the subject Like other sentence parts, they can be compound. Subject Complements (continued) Predicate Nouns/Pronouns Follow a linking verb Renames or identifies the subject of the sentence The linking verb acts like an equal sign between the subject and the predicate noun The subject and the predicate noun refer to the same thing Predicate Adjectives Follow a linking verb Describes the subject of the sentence Considered a part of the complete predicate; however, it does not modify the words in the predicate, but rather, it describes the noun that serves as the subject of the linking verb. Types of Complements Direct Object Indirect Object Example: Toni bought cars. Example: The eyewitness told us the story. Subject Complements Predicate Nouns/Pronouns Example: Spencer is a poet. Predicate Adjectives Example: Robert felt sick. Phrase Group of words that functions in a sentence as a single part of speech Do not contain a subject and verb Types of Phrases Get their names from the word that begins the phrase or from the most important word in it. Prepositional—Begin with a preposition and end with a noun or a pronoun (called the object of the preposition) Appositive—A noun or pronoun used after another noun or pronoun used to identify, rename, or explain Verbals Participial—Verb form used as an adjective Gerund—Verb form used as a noun Infinitive—Verb form used as a noun, adjective, or adverb Prepositional Phrase Can act as an adjective and modify a noun or pronoun Called “adjective phrase” adjective phrase—A prepositional phrase that modifies a noun or pronoun by telling “what kind” or “which one” Answer the same questions as one-word adjectives Can act as an adverb and modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb Called “adverb phrase” adverb phrase—A prepositional phrase that modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb by pointing out “where,” “when,” “in what way,” or “to what extent.” Answer the same questions as one-word adverbs Appositives A noun or a pronoun placed after another noun or pronoun to identify, rename, or explain the preceding word Like an adjective phrase, they are used to give information about a noun or a pronoun An appositive + its own modifiers = Appositive Phrase Placed next to a noun or a pronoun and adds information and details Verbals Verb forms used as another part of speech Participles—Used as adjectives Gerunds—Used as nouns Infinitives—Used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs Participles Many of the adjectives you use are actually participles (the form a verb used as an adjective). Present Participles—End in –ing Example: Marissa bought a new swimming suit. Past Participles—End in -ed, -t, or –en Example: His favorite side for dinner is a baked potato. Participle vs. Verb Phrase When used in the present or past participle form as a verb, the verb phrase always begins with a helping verb. Participial Phrase A present or a past participle, acting as an adjective in a sentence, that is modified by an adverb or adverb phrase or that has a complement. Participle + Modifiers and/or Complements Must be located next to the nouns they modify or else it will create a misplaced modifier. Gerunds A verb form ending in -ing that is used as a noun. Like other nouns, gerunds can be used as subjects, direct objects, predicate nouns, and objects of prepositions. Example: Swimming is my favorite summer activity. Gerund Phrase = Gerund + Modifiers or Complement, all acting as a noun Infinitives A verb form used as nouns, adjectives, and/or adverbs. This is the form of a verb that comes after the word “to” Example: We wanted to dance. Infinitive Phrase = Infinitive + Modifiers or Complement, all acting as a single part of speech Types of Phrases Prepositional Phrase Adjective Phrase Adverb Phrase Example: The shipwrecked sailors journeyed for eight years. Appositive Example: Ruins around this area can still be seen today. Example: Aunt Linda, my dad’s sister, is older than he is. Verbals Participial Phrase Gerund Phrase Example: The diner, chewing rapidly, called for the waiter. Example: Setting turquoise stones in silver is a common jewelrymaking practice. Infinitive Phrase Example: It will be important to listen carefully. Clause A group of words with its own subject and verb Two Types Independent Subordinate/Dependent NO! Not this guy! Independent Clauses Have a subject and a verb and can stand by itself as a complete sentence Example: The reporter shouted very loudly. Subordinate/Dependent Clauses Have a subject and a verb but cannot stand by itself as a sentence; it is only part of a sentence. Begin with a subordinating conjunction or relative pronouns Must be combined with an independent clause to make sense Example: when the phone rang Adjective Clauses Subordinate clauses that modify a noun or a pronoun Answer “What kind?” or “Which one?” Most begin with “that,” “which,” “who,” “whom,” or “whose” You can combine sentences with adjective clauses Example: That British stamp, which depicts Queen Victoria, will be sold at auction. Adverb Clauses Subordinate clauses that modify a verb, adjective, or other adverb Answer “Where?” “When?” “In what manner?” “To what extent?” “Under what condition?” or “Why?” Begin with subordinating conjunctions You can combine sentences with adverb clauses Example: Because most of the region is desert, climate dictates where people live in the Middle East. Elliptical Adverb Clauses In some adverb clauses words are left out, so they are called “elliptical.” Many elliptical adverb clauses are introduced by one of two subordinating conjunctions: “as” or “than.” The missing words are understood. Example: I liked this book more than (I liked) that one. Classifying Sentences by Structure 4 Types of Sentence Structure Simple Single independent clause Compound Two or more independent clauses Example: The population of Israel is approximately 4, 700, 000, but only eight percent of the people live in rural areas. Complex One independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses Example: A written history dating back to 600 B.C. was found in a cave near Jerusalem. Example: When the fog lifted, we continued our trip. Compound-Complex Two or more independent clauses and one or more subordinate clauses Example: As he was leaving for school, Larry remembered to take his lunch, but he forgot his report that he finished the night before.