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CHAPTER 1
Ancient America
Learning Objectives
After students have read and studied Chapter 1, they should be able to:
1. Discuss the concept of regularities in early cultural evolution as illustrated in Ancient
America.
2. Explain the relation between environment and cultural development in Ancient America.
3. Outline the stages in early cultural evolution (tribe, chiefdom, state), explain the concept of
Nuclear America, and outline the stages commonly assigned to the evolution of Nuclear
America (Formative, Classic, and Postclassic).
4. Describe the distinctive cultural achievements of the early civilizations of Ancient America.
Chapter Summary
The chapter opens by noting the similarity between the patterns of cultural development of
Ancient America and those patterns through which the peoples of the Old World once passed.
The relationship between environment and the levels of cultural development achieved by
particular groups is then examined. These levels, or categories (band or tribe, chiefdom, state),
are defined and illustrated by reference to specific societies. The chapter goes on to consider the
extensive indigenous high-culture area called Nuclear America, to explain the sequence of stages
(Formative, Classic, Postclassic) through which this area passed, and to survey in some detail the
cultural evolution of Mesoamerica and the Andean area. Although the main focus is on the
climaxes of cultural development in this area—the Aztec, Maya, and the Inca cultures—emphasis
is also placed on the achievements of their predecessors who laid the foundations on which those
great cultures built. The chapter closes by noting that continuing advances in research are
revolutionizing our understanding of the high civilizations of Ancient America and creating a
new respect for their accomplishments.
Classroom Discussion Questions
1. What was the correlation between environment and cultural development in Ancient America?
2. What are the differences between the tribal, chiefdom, and state levels of cultural development
and what were examples of each in Ancient America?
3. What are the various theories regarding the cause of Aztec cannibalism?
4. How have scholars’ interpretations of Maya economy and society changed over time?
5. Was the Inca Empire a socialist, totalitarian, or welfare state?
6. What was “gender parallelism” in Aztec and Inca societies, and what were the similarities and
differences in each?
Term Paper Suggestions
1. The Quetzalcóatl Story: Myth or Reality? What aspect of the story strikes you as having a
Copyright © 2008 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
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suspiciously non-indigenous character?
2. The Mesoamerican Ball Game: Forerunner of Basketball. What were the features of this ball
game? How widespread was its popularity? What was its ritual significance?
3. A Comparison of the Aztec and Inca Empires. What were some major similarities and
differences between the two states?
4. Montaigne on the Brazilian Cannibals. What were Montaigne’s conclusions about the
Brazilian cannibals? What impact did these conclusions have on European thought?
5. Aztec Agricultural Techniques. What agricultural problems did the Aztecs face and what
techniques did they develop to secure their food supply?
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. The first colonization of America by people from Asia probably began about
.a.
150,000 years ago.
.b. 5,000 years ago.
.c.
40,000 years ago.
.d. 10,000 years ago.
2. One revolutionary result of the development of agriculture was
.a.
the appearance of the state.
.b. the feasibility of the division of labor.
.c.
an improvement in the status of women.
.d. the abandonment of hunting.
3. A serious weakness of slash-and-burn farming was that it
. a. led to overpopulation.
.b. required a strong central authority.
.c.
soon exhausted the soil.
.d. encouraged tribal warfare.
4. The Classic period in Ancient America lasted from
.a.
A.D. 2500 to about 1500 B.C.
.b. A.D. 1 to about A.D. 1000.
.c.
A.D. 1000 to about A.D. 1500.
.d. A.D. 9000 to 2500 B.C.
5. The Postclassic period in Ancient America was characterized by the
.a.
rise of genuine cities and chronic warfare.
.b. introduction of maize and other domesticated plants.
.c.
decline of commerce.
.d. growing importance of the priestly class.
6. Olmec civilization was characterized by
.a.
a highly developed calendrical system.
.b. chronic warfare among Olmec states.
.c.
the carving of stone sculpture that featured colossal heads.
.d. the practice of human sacrifice and ritual cannibalism on a massive scale.
7. A factor that greatly aided Aztec imperial expansion was
.a.
the highly productive chinampa system of agriculture.
.b. Aztec superiority in weapons and military technique.
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.c.
.d.
belief in the sacrifice of war prisoners for the survival of the universe.
the geographical advantages of the Valley of Mexico for defense and offense.
8. The dominant Mesoamerican state in the Classic period was
.a.
Monte Albán.
.b. Teotihuacán.
.c.
Tula.
.d. La Venta.
9. The main integrating force in Aztec society was the
.a.
military.
.b. merchant class.
.c.
artisans.
.d. priesthood.
10. The Maya agricultural system was based on
.a.
slash-and-burn farming.
. b. chinampa farming.
.c.
large imports of grain from central Mexico.
.d. a mix of slash-and-burn farming and more intensive agricultural methods.
11. Our knowledge of Maya history has been much enhanced by the discovery
.a.
that many of the sculptured glyphs record important events in the lives of Maya rulers.
.b. of native codices containing much historical material.
.c.
that Maya writing was truly syllabic and could easily be deciphered.
.d. of a Spanish translation of Maya oral historical traditions.
12. The central Andean area in Inca times was characterized by
.a.
large amounts of arable land.
.b. a very limited number of edible plants.
.c.
a rich variety of environments, making possible extensive food production.
.d. a forbidding environment of coastal deserts, bleak plateaus, and snowcapped mountains.
13. The Mochica culture of Classic Peru was noted for
.a.
a very simple social organization.
.b. the absence of metallurgy.
. c. its peaceful nature.
.d. a pottery characterized by realistic modeling.
14. The emperor credited with many reforms and innovations in the Inca state is
.a.
Topa Inca.
.b. Pachacuti Inca.
.c.
Atahualpa.
.d. Huascar.
15. The Incas possessed
.a.
pictographic writing.
. b. alphabetic writing.
.c.
a system of communicating by signs.
.d. a record-keeping device called the quipu.
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16. The Inca state may best be described as a
.a. totalitarian state.
.b. socialist state.
.c. welfare state.
.d. class-structured state in which commoners were exploited by the rulers and nobility.
17. A serious weakness of the Inca Empire was
.a. chronic discontent and revolts on the part of conquered peoples.
.b. the difficulty of maintaining control over such a vast area.
.c. the emergence of a military caste that challenged the supremacy of Inca rulers.
.d. the rise of a feudal nobility that threatened Inca centralized authority.
18. Many activities thought to reflect the benevolence of the Inca state actually were
.a. invented by pro-Inca chroniclers writing after the conquest.
.b. traditional village cooperative functions taken over by the Inca state for its own ends.
.c. examples of the “divide-and-rule” policy of Inca rulers.
.d. designed to prevent rebellions on the part of conquered peoples.
19. The ayllu was a
.a. kinship group, the members of which married within the group.
.b. kinship group, the members of which married outside the group.
.c. territorial group, the members of which recognized no kinship bonds.
.d. group of people from the interior of the empire resettled in the newly conquered province.
20. Recent scholarly estimates of pre-Conquest populations for the Americas
.a. point to much smaller populations than were accepted previously.
.b. point to much larger populations than were accepted previously.
.c. range between 8 and 10 million.
.d. range between 100 and 150 million for the Americas.
21. Social stratification was most developed in the
.a. band.
.b. state.
.c. chiefdom.
.d. tribe.
22. Economic life in Aztec Mexico rested on a base of
.a. large-scale trade with the Inca Empire.
.b. hunting and fishing.
.c. intensive and extensive agriculture.
. d. craft industry.
23. Before the Spanish conquest, gender parallelism in the Andean world guaranteed women
.a. the right to share in political decisions of the Inca state.
.b. leadership positions in the ayllu.
.c. access to land, herds, water, and other material resources.
.d. a subordinate role in the gendered hierarchy of Inca society.
24. The Triple Alliance was an agreement to share the spoils of conquest among
.a.
Texcoco, Tenochtitlán, and Tlacopán, facilitating Aztec domination of Mesoamerica.
.b. Texcoco, Tenochtitlán, and Tlacopán, facilitating Inca domination of Mesoamerica.
Copyright © 2008 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
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.c.
.d.
Spain, Portugal, and England, thereby facilitating European domination of Mesoamerica.
Inca, Aztec, and Maya lords, thereby facilitating imperial domination of Mesoamerica.
25. In the classic Mesoamerican world, networks of commercial trade linked the great cities of
.a.
Texcoco, Tenochtitlán, and Tlacopán.
.b. Cuzco, Tenochtitlán, and Tikal.
.c.
Tikal, Palenque, and Chichén-Itzá.
.d. Monte Albán, Teotihuacán, and Tikal.
Identification Terms
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Pleistocene
Olmec
Archaic stage
Preclassic or Formative period
Classic period
Postclassic period
Teotihuacán
Quetzalcóatl
Nezahualcoyotl
Calpulli
chinampa
mayeque
Tikal
14. Chichén Itzá
15. Cuzco
16. Mochica
17. Pachacuti
18. ayllu
19. curaca
20. Triple Alliance
21. band
22. tribe
23. chiefdom
24. gender parallelism
25. Chibcha
26. Monte Albán
Essay Questions
1. Discuss the relationship between geographical environment, the type of agricultural system
adopted, and the kind of social and political organization developed in various parts of
Ancient America.
2. Summarize the salient features of the Preclassic, Classic, and Postclassic stages of the history
of Ancient America.
3. If Spanish conquerors had not arrived in Mexico in the early 1500s, how would the Aztec
Empire have evolved in the next hundred years?
4. How has the research of recent decades altered the traditional view of Maya civilization?
5. What strategies did the Inca rulers employ to maintain the loyalty and obedience of conquered
peoples? How successful were these strategies?
6. What roles did women play in Aztec and Inca societies and how was this affected by the
expansion of their respective empires?
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