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Bacterial resistance is becoming the most pressing matter in our society. This
resistance is caused by the overprotective nature that is so prone to occur in
our world, and inappropriate use of antibiotics/preventative measures. As the
bacteria grows and changes to be impervious to antibacterial measures, the
chance that we will find cures to certain epidemics becomes smaller and
smaller.
http://www.acponline.org/patients_families/diseases_conditions/antibiotic_res
istance/
Antibiotic resistance is a worldwide public health problem that continues to
grow. It occurs when strains of bacteria in the human body become resistant
to antibiotics due to improper use and abuse of antibiotics
In hospitals, 190 million doses of antibiotics are administered each day.
Among non-hospitalized patients, more than 133 million courses of
antibiotics are prescribed by doctors each year. It is estimated that 50 percent
of these latter prescriptions are unnecessary since they are being prescribed
for colds, coughs and other viral infections.
Patients should understand, though, that antibiotics are intended to treat
bacterial infections, not viral infections. And many times a common cold is a
viral infection.
The improper use and abuse of antibiotics has led to the development of
antibiotic resistance. The most common misuse and abuse of antibiotics are:
Physicians prescribing antibiotics for viral infections, Not finishing the full
dosage of the antibiotic. When an antibiotic prescription is not finished (even
leaving one or two pills), it leaves some bacteria alive and "resistant" to future
antibiotic treatment.
www.sciencedaily.com/articles/a/antibiotic_resistance.htmAntibiotic
resistance evolves naturally via natural selection through random mutation,
but it could also be engineered by applying an evolutionary stress on a
population. Once such a gene is generated, bacteria can then transfer the
genetic information in a horizontal fashion (between individuals) by plasmid
exchange. (Bacteria multiplication LOOK UP)
If a bacterium carries several resistance genes, it is called multiresistant or, informally, a
superbug. They will then pass this trait to their offspring, which will be a fully resistant
generation.
Several studies have demonstrated that patterns of antibiotic usage greatly affect the
number of resistant organisms, which develop.
Overuse of broad-spectrum antibiotics, such as second- and third-generation
cephalosporins, greatly hastens the development of methicillin resistance.
It was the first bacterium in which penicillin resistance was found—in 1947, just
four years after the drug started being mass-produced.
Researchers have recently demonstrated the bacterial protein LexA may play a key role
in the acquisition of bacterial mutations. Resistant pathogens Staphylococcus aureus
(colloquially known as "Staph aureus" or a Staph infection) is one of the major resistant
pathogens.
Found on the mucous membranes and the skin of around a third of the population, it
is extremely adaptable to antibiotic pressure.
It was the first bacterium in which penicillin resistance was found—in 1947, just
four years after the drug started being mass-produced. Methicillin was then the
antibiotic of choice, but has since been replaced by oxacillin due to significant
kidney toxicity. MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) was first
detected in Britain in 1961 and is now "quite common" in hospitals. MRSA was
responsible for 37% of fatal cases of blood poisoning in the UK in 1999, up from
4% in 1991. Half of all S. aureus infections in the US are resistant to penicillin,
methicillin, tetracycline and erythromycin. This left vancomycin as the only
effective agent available at the time.
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is the most frequently identified
antimicrobial drug-resistant pathogen in US hospitals.
The epidemiology of infections caused by MRSA is rapidly changing.
Penicillin-Resistant Enterococcus was seen in 1983, Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococcus
(VRE) in 1987, and Linezolid-Resistant Enterococcus (LRE) in the late 1990s.
Streptococcus pyogenes (Group A Streptococcus: GAS) infections can usually be treated
with many different antibiotics. Early treatment may reduce the risk of death from
invasive group A streptococcal disease.
http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Antibiotic_resistant_bact
eria
Some bacteria are naturally resistant to some antibiotics. For example, benzyl penicillin
has very little effect on most organisms found in the human digestive system (gut).
Some bacteria have developed resistance to antibiotics that were once commonly used to
treat them. For example, Staphylococcus aureus (‘golden staph’) and Neisseria
gonorrhoeae (the cause of gonorrhoea) are now almost always resistant to benzyl
penicillin. In the past, these infections were usually controlled by penicillin.
The most serious concern with antibiotic resistance is that some bacteria have become
resistant to almost all of the easily available antibiotics. These bacteria are able to cause
serious disease and this is a major public health problem
Antibiotic resistance is a serious public health problem.
Some bacteria that are capable of causing serious disease are becoming resistant to
most commonly available antibiotics.
Antibiotic resistant bacteria can spread from person to person in the community or
from patient to patient in hospital.
Careful infection control procedures will minimise spread of these bacteria in hospitals.
Good personal hygiene will minimise spread of these bacteria in the community.
Careful prescribing of antibiotics will minimise the development of more antibiotic
resistant strains of bacteria.
http://www.cdc.gov/getsmart/antibiotic-use/antibiotic-resistance-faqs.html
Antibiotics, also known as antimicrobial drugs
Alexander Fleming discovered the first antibiotic, penicillin, in 1928. After the first use
of antibiotics in the 1940s, they transformed medical care and dramatically reduced
illness and death from infectious diseases.
The term "antibiotic" originally referred to a natural compound produced by a fungus or
another microorganism that kills bacteria which cause disease in humans or animals.
Some antibiotics may be synthetic compounds (not produced by microorganisms) that
can also kill or inhibit the growth of microbes. Technically, the term "antimicrobial
agent" refers to both natural and synthetic compounds; however, many people use the
word "antibiotic" to refer to both. Although antibiotics have many beneficial effects, their
use has contributed to the problem of antibiotic resistance.
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs194/en/
New resistance mechanisms have emerged, making the latest generation of antibiotics
virtually ineffective.
Resistant organisms (they include bacteria, fungi, viruses and some parasites) are able to
withstand attack by antimicrobial medicines, such as antibiotics, antifungals, antivirals,
and antimalarials, so that standard treatments become ineffective and infections persist
increasing risk of spread to others. The evolution of resistant strains is a natural
phenomenon that happens when microorganisms are exposed to antimicrobial drugs, and
resistant traits can be exchanged between certain types of bacteria. The misuse of
antimicrobial medicines accelerates this natural phenomenon. Poor infection control
practices encourages the spread of AMR (antimicrobial resistance).
AMR kills
Infections caused by resistant microorganisms often fail to respond to the standard
treatment, resulting in prolonged illness and greater risk of death. The death rate for
patients with serious infections treated in hospitals is about twice that in patients with
infections caused by non-resistant bacteria.
AMR hampers the control of infectious diseases
AMR reduces the effectiveness of treatment, thus patients remain infectious for a longer
time, increasing the risk of spreading resistant microorganisms to others.
AMR threatens a return to the pre-antibiotic era
Many infectious diseases risk becoming untreatable and uncontrollable, which could
derail the progress made towards reaching the targets of the health-related United Nations
Millennium Development Goals set for 2015.
AMR increases the costs of health care
When infections become resistant to first-line medicines, more expensive therapies must
be used. The longer duration of illness and treatment, often in hospitals, increases healthcare costs and the economic burden to families and societies.
AMR jeopardizes health-care gains to society
The achievements of modern medicine are put at risk by AMR. Without effective
antimicrobials for care and prevention of infections, the success of treatments such as
organ transplantation, cancer chemotherapy and major surgery would be compromised.
AMR threatens health security, and damages trade and economies
The growth of global trade and travel allows resistant microorganisms to be spread
rapidly to distant countries and continents through humans and food.