Download LESSON XXI This lesson begins with a discussion of Greek History

LESSON XXI
This lesson begins with a discussion of Greek History after the Peloponnesian War by the
English historian H.D.F. Kitto. Professor Kitto was writing in the years after the Second World
War, 1939-1945 A.D.
The rule of Sparta did not last long. Her high-handed violence raised against her an alliance
of other cities. Peace came again in 387 B.C. The three leading cities of Greece were now
Athens, Sparta and Thebes, any two of which were ready to combine to prevent the third from
becoming too powerful. Athens was slowly reviving, economically and politically; she even
formed a second league.
In 371 B.C. occurred an event which shook Greece to its foundations. Thebes defeated the
Spartan army in a straight fight at Leuctra. They had at that moment two men of genius and
these men had devised a new military tactic. Instead of lining up their heavy infantry in a line
eight men deep, they thinned one wing in the center and drew up the other wing to the
extraordinary depth of fifty men. This mass of men broke through the Spartan line by its sheer
weight and the unbelievable had happened - Sparta was beaten in battle.
But while this was happening, an unsuspected menace was rising in the north. Macedonia
had never counted as part of Greece. It was a wild and primitive country. In 359 B.C. Philip
came to the throne by the usual method, through a family assassination. He was ambitious,
energetic and clever. He had spent part of his youth in Thebes, and there he had seen how weak
Greece was becoming and had learned something about the new military tactics of Thebes.
These he adopted and improved, devising the famous Macedonian phalanx which dominated the
battle field until the Roman Legion beat it. The goal that young Philip set before himself was to
control the Greek worlds.
On a superficial view it seemed impossible. Macedonia was threatened from the northwest
by wild tribes. She was a backward country. She was cut off from the Aegean by a ring of Greek
cities and the Athenian navy was once again supreme.
But Philip had some great advantages. He had many men and there was a recently
discovered gold mine among them. But besides these he had the advantages that the tyrant
always has - secrecy, speed and dishonesty.
He conquered the tribesmen to the north in a short time and then he seized the Greek city of
Amphipolis which stood in his way south. Amphipolis was the Athenian colony which Thucydides
had failed to save from Brasidas. Philip, naturally, said he was conquering it only to save the
Athenians the trouble. He would hand it over to them at once - or soon after. He turned his
attention to the other Greek cities, notably Olynthus (oh-LINN-thuss), which is near Potidaea.
The city of Olynthus had been the center of a large confederacy. But Sparta had not liked
confederacies and she broke up the Olynthian league and this made things easier for Philip.
Now began a long and tragic duel between the two greatest figures in fourth century politics.
Philip himself, and an Athenian private citizen, a professional speech writer, a patriot steeped in
Thucydides, perhaps the greatest orator of all times: Demosthenes (deh-MAHS-the-neez). . He
saw the danger, and in speech after speech, with ever increasing desperation, he begged the
Athenians to take a stand against Philip.
Athens in the 350's makes a sad contrast with Athens in the 450's. Then the Athenian
forces were everywhere, the citizens ready for anything. Now, Demosthenes had to beg them to
defend their most vital interests, to send out a force, some part of which at least should be
composed of citizens, for the use of mercenaries had become common. "Only your friends," he
said, "are frightened to death by mercenary armies." But the Athenians were unwilling to see
unpleasant truths and they were willing to believe Philip when he talked about "positively my last
territorial demand". And they were willing to listen to less honest advisors who laughed at
Demosthenes and promised the Athenians that Philip was an honest, cultured man and their best
friend. In 1937, an English newspaper put out a headline "Hitler dead?" In 357 B.C.
Demosthenes said to his fellow citizens, "You run around asking each other, 'is Philip dead?' and
then someone says, 'no, he's not dead, but he's ill.' What difference does it make if he is dead
nor not? The way you act you would soon bring another Philip to life."
The parallel throughout is close enough to make bitter reading of Demosthenes' political
speeches called The Philippics. Recent history might have been very different if we had had a
leading statesman who knew his Demosthenes and a House of Commons capable of thinking
that Greek History might have something to say about the problems of today, and that what
happened longer ago than the week before last is not necessarily irrelevant today.
In the end, when Athenian laziness, Greek feuds and the downright dishonesty of some of
Philip's Athenian friends had done their worse, Demosthenes finally won: Athens made a great
and praiseworthy effort. Her age-long quarrel with Thebes was ended, and their combined
armies marched out against Philip. But the result was, in the words of John Milton the poet, "that
dishonest victory at Chaeronea fatal to liberty". At last the Greeks had to do what they were told.
Philip put Macedonian soldiers in three strategic cities. These were called the chains of Greece.
Three years later he died. Had his son been the usual Macedonian king the country might
have returned once more into darkness and Greece might have recovered her freedom. But
Philip's son was not typical. He was Alexander the Great, one of the most amazing men of whom
we know. He was a young man of twenty and he moved like lightning. Within fifteen months, he
marched into Greece. He captured Thebes and destroyed it. In the next spring, in the year 334
B.C., Alexander crossed into Asia. Eleven years later he died, at the age of thirty-three. When
he died the whole of the Persian Empire was now Macedonia, and for a short time, India was too,
which the Persians had never ruled. Nor had Alexander only conducted a whirlwind of conquest.
Wherever he had gone, he founded Greek cities, some of which, like Alexandria in Egypt, bear to
this day the name he gave them.
When Philip died, states like Athens and Thebes were considered large and powerful.
When Alexander died, Greeks of the homeland looked out on an empire which stretched from the
Adriatic to India and from the Black Sea to upper Egypt. These thirteen years had made a great
change. Classical Greece was at an end.
This lesson will continue with the Life of Demonsthenes by Plutarch. Demosthenes was
born in 384 B.C.
Demosthenes, the father of Demosthenes, was a citizen of high rank and quality called the
'sword-maker', because he had a large factory. The father of Demosthenes died when he was
only seven years old, but he left his son a great deal of money. But Demosthenes was betrayed
by his guardians who stole most of his inheritance. They stole so much that there wasn't even
enough left to pay the teachers of Demosthenes. This was the reason that he did not get the
liberal education that he should have.
When Demosthenes was still a boy he snuck into the law court where only adults were
allowed to hear the speakers. It is said that when he heard one great speech he said goodbye to
to other kinds of learning and began to practice public speaking himself as if he meant to become
an orator. Therefore, as soon as he was an adult, he took his guardians to court and began to
write speeches against them. It was in this way that Demosthenes learned his business, and by
his efforts he was successful in this case even though by that time there was not much money
left.
After this, he built himself a place to study in underground, and here he would go every day
to practice and to exercise his voice. Here he would stay, sometimes without a break, for two or
three months. It is said that when he went to this place, he would shave one-half of his head so
that he would be embarrassed to go out in public and therefore he would stay and continue to
practice. This shows how much he wanted to go out.
Demosthenes also made his day-to-day conversation with people help him in his studies.
For he would take from every conversation some subject to practice on, for as soon as he was
alone, he would go at once into his study and run over in his mind everything that had happened
in order: what the other person had said and what arguments they had used; and, if he
happened to hear any speeches, he would go over them again in his mind and whatever anyone
said to him or he said to them, he would correct and change around. It was because of this that
he was said to be a person of no great natural ability but one who owed all the power and ability
he had to hard labor. That this is true can be seen by the fact that he was rarely heard to speak
at a moment's notice, for often, even though he was called upon by the people, he would stand
silent in the Assembly, and he would not rise to speak unless he had come prepared to speak.
Demosthenes said that although he never wrote out his speeches completely beforehand,
neither did he speak off the cuff. He said that it was more democratic to prepare what you were
going to say in advance, because such preparation shows a respect for the people; while those
who stand up and say the first thing that comes into their head, show what he called an
oligarchical spirit, for they intended to succeed more by force than by persuasion.
A story is told that when Demosthenes was old, he explained how he had gotten rid of
certain natural defects that he had. Demosthenes spoke very quietly and stumbled over his
words. To overcome this, he practiced speaking with pebbles in his mouth. His voice, which
was not very loud, he disciplined by reciting speeches or verses when he was out of breath or
while running or climbing up steep ledges. In his house he had a large mirror, before which he
would stand and practice speaking.
It is said that someone once came to ask for his help and told him that he had been attacked
and beaten. Demosthenes said, "I can't believe anything like that could happen to you", upon
which the other, raising his voice, shouted at Demosthenes, "What? What do you mean that
nothing of this kind has happened to me? I've just been beaten." "Ah," replied Demosthenes,
"Now I hear the voice of one that has been injured!" This shows how strongly he believed that
the tone of the speaker was all-important. The way he spoke was very pleasing to the common
people, but the well-educated people looked down on it. Yet his written speeches, beyond any
question, are characterized by great seriousness and simplicity.
The object which he chose for himself in the city was noble and just: the defense of the
Athenians and all of the Greeks against Philip. In this he behaved himself so well that he soon
grew famous everywhere for his eloquence and his courage in speaking. He is especially
admired for the speeches in which he attacked Philip and showed what he was doing - a series of
speeches called The Philippics.
The remainder of this lesson will be a speech delivered by Demosthenes known as the Third
Philippic. It should be pointed out that all of the speeches that have been read in Three
Democracies come to us indirectly. For example, the "Funeral Oration" of Pericles was recorded
by Thucydides, and for that reason we do not know if it is the actual words of Pericles; nor do we
know this of Critias, Theramenes or any of the other speakers that have been studied thus far.
But the speeches of Demosthenes were written down by him, and therefore we can be sure that
we have his own words. What follows then, is an excerpt from the Third Philippic of
Demosthenes the Athenian.
Speech after speech, O men of Athens, is made every day in the Assembly about the
crimes of Philip: crimes which he has been committing against you and all the other Greeks.
And it seems that everyone agrees that we must do something about it. Nevertheless, so low
have we been brought by cowardice and negligence, that I fear that it is the truth that if every
speaker had tried to persuade you to do things that would ruin you, we would be no worse off
than we are.
Many things have brought us down. Our affairs have not fallen apart from one or two
causes only. But if you examine the matter, you will find that it is mostly because of the speakers
who try only to give you pleasure, but not to advise you for the best. These speakers, who care
for nothing except their own skins, care nothing for the future, and advise you not to think about it
either. Others attack statesmen like myself and try to make Athens punish Athens so that Philip
may have the liberty to do whatever he wants. Politics of thin kind has become common here in
Athens and it is the cause of your failures.
I beg, Athenians, that you will not be angry at my speaking the truth. Remember that you
consider freedom of speech to be the right of all residents in Athens, and many slaves can be
seen among you speaking their thoughts more freely than citizens do in some other cities. Yet
freedom of speech has been banished from the Assembly. The result has been that here you
hear nothing except compliments and flattery. If that is all you want to hear right now, I must be
silent. But if you will listen to good advice without flattery, I am ready to speak.
For even though our affairs are in a terrible condition, if you will choose to perform your duty,
it is still possible to repair it all. I am about to say a paradox: that which was worse in the past is
our best hope for the future. 'How can this be?' you ask. Because before, you did nothing that
you should have done, and therefore you suffered. But if you had done the things you should
have done, and still were in a bad position, then there would be no hope.
It is true that Philip has won a victory over your laziness and ignorance, but not over our country.
You have not been beaten, you have just not begun to fight.
If we all agreed that Philip is at war with Athens, all a speaker would have to do is advise the
best way of resisting him. But since, at the very time that Philip is capturing cities, stealing our
lands, and attacking Greece all over, there are still men here in Athens - in this Assembly - that
accuse anyone who speaks for defense as being a man who is whipping up a war.
First I will examine and decide this point: whether it is in our power to decide on peace or
war. If Athens is at peace - if it depends on us to begin a war - I say that we ought to keep the
peace.
But if somebody else, having a weapon in his hand and a large force around him, flatters
you with the name of peace while he carries on a war, what is left but to defend yourselves? You
may say that you are at peace, if you like, as he does. I will not fight with you about that. But if
any man supposes this is a peace - which will make Philip able to master everything and finally
destroy you - that person is a madman.
This is what Philip has won by the money he has spent; the privilege of attacking you
without being attacked in return. If we really wait until he comes right out and declares war, we
are simpletons. He would not declare war even though he was already in Attica or the Piraeus, at
least if we may judge from what he has done to others!
For example, when he was only a mile from Olynthus, he sent a messenger saying that
there was no alternative - that either they must leave Olynthus or he must leave Macedon. For
before that time, whenever he was accused of being hostile to the Olynthians, he was insulted
and sent ambassadors to defend himself.
Many cities, who would never have harmed him, though they might have tried to defend
themselves, he lied to rather than warn them of his attack. And do you think that he would
declare war against you before he began it? Impossible! He would be the stupidest of mankind.
He sees that you, who are the ones being injured, make no complaints against him. You
accuse your own countrymen. He would be a fool if he would put an end to your internal fights
and warn you to turn against him. He would be a fool to remove the pretext of the men he hires
here in Athens who tell you that he makes no war upon Athens.
Oh, my God! Would any sensible man judged by word rather than by deeds who is at peace
with him and who at war? Surely nobody would.
I say that for months he has been breaking the peace and making war upon you. Will you
say that those who build battering rams are not at war until they start smashing your walls? That
you cannot say, for whoever prepares to conquer is at war even before he draws his bow and
fires.
Defend yourselves now, and I will say that you are wise! But delay, and you will wish in vain
you had done so before.
The fact is that Philip, from a humble beginning, has grown great. The fact is that the Greek
cities are jealous and always quarreling among themselves. The fact is that it was more amazing
for him to rise than it would be now, after so many gains, to conquer that is left. Thee facts, which
I might talk about, I will pass over.
But I do point out that the Greeks have given to Philip the thing that in previous history has
always been fought about; and what is this? The right of doing whatever he wants: openly
attacking, enslaving and robbing the Greeks, one after another.
You Athenians were at the head of the Greeks for 73 years. The Spartans for 29 years, and
the Thebans had some power in these latter times after the battle of Leuctra. Yet neither you ,
my countrymen, nor the Thebans, nor the Spartans were ever allowed by the rest of the Greeks
to do whatever you wanted (or rather the Athenians of that time). All the rest of the Greeks, even
those that had no complaints against you, thought it was a good idea to side with the injured
parties in a war against Athens. So, when the Spartans became masters and took over your
empire - when they tried to enslave cities - a war was declared against them; even by those cities
that had no reason to hate them.
In the Peloponnesian War, the Spartans did not accuse us of wronging them nor did we
accuse the Spartans of wronging us. We thought it proper to make a war because of the
injustices that were done to our neighbors. Yet, all the faults committed by the Spartans in those
thirty years and by your ancestors in the 70 are less, men of Athens, than the crimes which in 13
short years Philip has accomplished.
Nay, these crimes are hardly a fraction of these and this may easily be shown in a few
words. Olynthus and 32 cities on the borders of Thrace, I pass over; all of which he has so
cruelly destroyed that a visitor could hardly tell if they were ever inhabited. And of the Phocians,
a great people that have been exterminated, I will say nothing. But what is the condition of
Thessaly? Has he not taken away her constitutions and her cities and established his own rulers
and enslaved them? Is not Euboea governed by his tyrants; and that in an island close by
Thebes and Athens? Does he not write in his own letters, 'I am at peace with those who are
willing to obey me'? Nor does he write so and not act so.
Philip has gone to the Hellespont. He possesses cities in the Peloponnese. He plotted to
get Megara. Neither Greek nor Persian land is enough for this man's ambition, and we, the
Greek community, seeing and hearing this, instead of making alliances with each other, are in
such a miserable state that we do nothing that our interest or even necessity requires us to do.
We do not combine. We do not form any kind of association. We just stand there looking at
Philip as he grows more powerful every day. Each city things that it will enjoy peace and cares
nothing for the salvation of all of Greece.
No one can be ignorant that Philip, like a fever or some other disease, is right now attacking
those who still seem to be well, and you must realize that whatever injuries the Greeks received
from the Spartans or from us were at least done to them by genuine Greeks! It would be like a
son receiving a great inheritance and mismanaging it and wasting it. Such conduct would not be
praiseworthy, but at least it could be said that he deserved the property. But if a slave or bastard
child wasted and spoiled what he had no right to - my God, how much worse would all that have
been? Just look at Philip - he is not a Greek! He is not akin to the Greeks! He is a barbarian! A
vile slave of Macedon - a place from which you can't even buy a decent slave!
What has caused our problems? There must be some cause - some good reason why the
Greeks who were so eager for liberty back in the days of the Persian Wars are now so eager for
slavery.
There was something, men of Athens, something in the hearts of the people then which is
not there now, which beat back the wealth of Persia and saved the freedom of Greece. They
were not frightened by any battle on sea or land, the loss of which would have ruined everything
and destroyed Greece. What was this thing? Nothing fancy. Nothing hard to see. Simply this that whoever took money from the enemies of Greece was hated. It was dreadful to be convicted
of bribery. Death was inflicted on anyone guilty of it, and there was no chance for pardon.
But now, all these principles have been sold on an open market and new principles have
been imported in exchange, by which Greece has been ruined and diseased. What are they?
Envy for the man who gets the bribe - laughter if he admits it - mercy for the convicted - hatred of
those that reveal the crime - all the usual attendants upon corruption.
For as to ships and men and money, all that may be reckoned as constituting national
strength, assuredly the Greeks of our day are more powerful than the Greeks of the olden days
were. But all these advantages are made useless, worthless, ridiculous, because of the actions
of traitors.
That what I am saying is the truth, you will see without needing me to say it. That it was
different in the past, I will now demonstrate - not by speaking my own words but by showing you
something your ancestors wrote - something they engraved on a column, not for their own
benefit, but for a memorial; an example to instruct you.
There is a column, on which is written "Let Arthmius, the son of Pythonax the Zelite, be
declared an outlaw and an enemy of the Athenian people and their allies, him and his family."
Then the cause is written, why this was done: because he brought Persian gold into the
Peloponnese. That is the inscription.
By God! Only consider and reflect among yourselves what must have been the spirit - what
must have been the dignity of the Athenians who did this. A man, Arthmias, a Zelite, a subject of
the Persian King, for Zelea is in Asia - because in his master's service he brought gold into the
Peloponnese - not to Athens. But because of this, the Athenians proclaimed him an enemy of the
Athenians and their allies, him and his family, and outlawed him. And what did that outlawry
mean? Surely a Zelite didn't care if he couldn't take part in Athenian elections. What it meant
was, that since he was an outlaw, anyone could kill him and not be prosecuted for doing it.
The Athenians of the old days thought that the preservation of all of Greece was their
concern and whoever took bribes was punished. The result was that Greece was impossible for
the barbarian to conquer. The barbarian feared Greece but Greece did not fear the barbarian.
But none of this is true today.
It is not enough just to make war on Philip. The first thing you must do is get rid of the
people here in Athens that are being paid by him. You must remember that it is impossible to
beat your enemies abroad until you have beaten your enemies at home, which by God, you
cannot and will not do!
You have become so crazy, you have become so foolish, I hardly know what to call it. I
am often tempted to think that some evil spirit is driving you to ruin - for the sake of scandal, or
envy, or jest, or for some other cause.
You command traitors to speak, some of whom you do not even deny that they are traitors,
and you laugh when they abuse honest people, and bad as this is, is not the worst.
You have allowed these people more freedom than you have allowed your faithful servants.
See what evils are caused by listening to these men!
I will mention one example you will remember. In Olynthus, some of the statesmen were in
Philip's pay, and doing everything for him. Some were on the honest side, trying to preserve their
citizens from slavery. Which party destroyed their country? Which betrayed the army which
caused Olynthus to fall? The servants of Philip - those men, that while the city stood, slandered
and attacked the honest men so effectively that the Olynthians decided to banish their most
patriotic statesman.
What can be the reason, perhaps you wonder, why the Olynthians listened more to Philip's
friends than to their own? The same reason which operates here with you today.
The men who advise for the best cannot always please their audience, though they would
like to. For they see that the safety of the city must be considered, and that their opponents
advance the interests of Philip with advice that is very pleasant to hear.
One party asks for more money. One side makes speeches that please for the moment.
One prepares you for war. The other comforts you with empty talk of peace.
The Olynthians finally gave in at last, seeing that they could do nothing else. I pray, men of
Athens, that it never comes to this! Better to die a thousand deaths than to be a slave to Philip,
or to lose your loyal patriots! It is nothing but foolishness to listen to those who defend your
enemies and to think that you have a city that is so powerful that it can never be beaten.
And it is disgraceful to say when it is too late, "Who would have thought it? If only we had
done this or not done that!" Well, my fellow Athenians, there are many things that the Olynthians
could mention now which, if they had foreseen, would have prevented their destruction. Many
things could the Phocians point out, and many another ruined city. But what good would it do
them?
As long as a ship is still floating, whether it be great or small, the sea captain and every
member of the crew should do his best to prevent it from being sunk. But when the sea has
rolled over and smashed it, all their efforts are useless, and we likewise, oh Athenians, while we
are safe with a great city, with much money, with a great reputation, what must we do? Many of
you, I dare say, have been longing to ask.
Well, then, I will tell you. I will make a resolution. Pass it.
First let us prepare for our own defense, provide ourselves with ships and money and
troops. For even though other people have agreed to be slaves, we at least we Athenians ought
to struggle for our freedom!
When we have completed our own preparations, let us show them to the rest of the Greeks
and invite the rest of them to join us - the Peloponnese and all the islands, and ask them to help
us so that you may have allies in danger. And do not trust in mercenaries!
This work belongs to you. This privilege your ancestors left to you - the prize of freeing
Greece! But if everyone of you will sit back looking after his own pleasure and being lazy and
trying to find someone else to do the work, I fear we shall be destroyed.
Such is the advice I give. Follow it, and even now, I believe, we can still be saved. If any
man has better advice to offer let him give it. Whatever you decide I pray to God for a happy
result!"
Needless to say, Athens and the rest of Greece watched the Macedonians destroy their
freedom.
This ends the Athenian section of Three Democracies.
Lesson XIX
Supplement: Excerpts from Xenophon’s Anabasis
A Note on Vocabulary
Building of vocabulary and learning precise definitions of key words is essential for success
in Three Democracies. Where ever possible, these definitions will be based on etymology, the
study of the true or original meanings of words. For example, logy is originally a Greek word
meaning "speech about" or " reason behind" and etymos is originally a Greek word meaning
"true". All key words will appear in bold print, and precise definitions for each key word will be
given at the end of each lesson. In Lesson I, the key words will be defined before the lesson.
They are as follows:
dialogue-conversation between two or more people.
monarchy- the form of government ruled by one. Etymology: "one rule".
oligarchy- the form of government ruled by few. Etymology: "few rule".
democracy- the form of government ruled by many. Etymology: "people power".
revolution- change in the form of government.
conspiracy- secret revolutionary plot.
empire- one city or nation ruling other cities or nations.
ethics- science which discriminates between virtue and vice.
virtue- something good.
vice- something bad.
tyrant- vicious monarch.
politics- the science of the city and the citizen.
faction- political party.
music- the science of the muses. The muses, according to myth (story), were nine
daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne (memory). The Hellenes (Greeks) believed that each one of
The Nine Muses presided over each branch of what they called Music, as follows:
Calliope- epic poetry; Erato- lyric poetry; Melpomene- tragic poetry; Thalia- comic poetry;
Euterpe- instrumental music; Polyhymnia- vocal music; Terpsichore- dance; Urania- astronomy;
Clio- history; (etymology- "fame")`
As Socrates explains it in Plato's dialogue called Ion, all great musical performances come
from inspiration. In other words, the muse inspires (Latin- "breathes into") the musician who, in
turn, inspires the audience. From the Greek perspective, then, history is a form of music, and the
primary source of any history book is the muse Clio.
A primary source is the original person to whom we are indebted for our knowledge about
something. A secondary source stands between the primary source and us.
1
By chance, like drawing straws.
The secondary source for Lesson I, Edith Hamilton, transfers
this detail, quite inaccurately, to the Battle of Marathon. See
above, p. 10 Note: the Latin for 'See Above' is vide supra. From
now on, the abbreviation for 'See Above' will be' v.s.'
'dearth' means 'shortage'.
i.e., living on his salary as a jury man. The Athenians
used beans for recording their votes.
Place where the Public Assembly of Athens was held.
This was the salary paid to the jurors, the jury of citizens who
tried cases. It was one obol at first, but Cleon had raised it to
three.
A town in Messina, opposite the little island of Sphacteris;
Demosthenes had seized it, and the Spartans had vainly tried to
retake it, having even been obliged to leave four hundred
soldiers shut up in Sphacteria. Cleon,
sent out with additional forces, had forced the Spartans to
surrender and had thus robbed Demosthenes of the glory of the
capture.
The common people, who at Athens were superstitious took
delight in oracles, especially when they were favorable, and
Cleon served them up to suit their taste and to advance his own
ambition.
The public meals were given in the Prytaneum; to these were
admitted those whose services entitiled them to be fed at the
cost of the State. This distinction depended on the popular vote.
The Athenian citizens were divided into four classes - the
Pentacosiomedimini, who possessed five hundred minae; the
Knights, who had three hundred and were obliged to maintain a
charger (hence their name); the Zeugitae and the Thetes.
Cleon wanted the Spartans to purchase the prisoners of
Sphacteria from him.
An allusion to the pederastic habits ascribed to some of the
orators by popular rumor.
It was customary in Athens for the accuser to fix the fine to be
paid by the defendant.
14 Demagogues constantly made the use of terms belonging to
the different trades.
Aristophanes had presented his plays under an assumed name.
A Comic Poet, who had carried off the prize eleven times; not a
fragment of his works remains to us.
An allusion to the titles of some of his plays, viz. "the
Flute Players, the Birds, the Lydians, the Gnats, the Frogs."
The Comic Poet, rival of Aristophanes.
These were the opening lines of poems by Cratinus, often sung
at festivities.
The place of honor in the Dionysiac Theatre, reserved for
distinguished citizens.
Cleaenetus had passed a law to limit the number of citizens to
be fed at the Prytaneum; it may be supposed that those who
aspired to this distinction, sought to conciliate Cleaenetus in their
favor.
The Senate was a body composed of five hundred members
elected annually like the magistrates from the
three first classes to the exclusion of the fourth, the Thetes,
which were composed of the poorest citizens.
23 On which the citizens sat in the Public Assembly in the Pnyx
to hear the orators.
Lysicles was a dealer in sheep, who had held great power
in Athens after the death of Pericles. Cynna and Salabaccha
were two prostitutes.
When they rowed their ships.
Assassin of the tyrant Hippias, the son of Pisistratus. His
memory was held in great honor at Athens.
Driven out by the invasions of the Peloponnesians, the people of
the outlying districts had been obliged to seek
refuge within the walls of Athens, where they were lodged
wherever they could find room.
Themistocles joined the Piraeus to Athens by the construction of
the Long Walls.
Mitylene, chief city of the Island of Lesbos, rebelled against the
Athenians and was retaken. By a popular decree of the men of
the town were to suffer death, but this
decree was withdrawn the next day. Aristophanes insinuates
that Cleon, bought over with Mitylanaean gold, brought about
this change of opinion. On the contrary, Thucydides says that
the decree was revoked in spite of Cleon's opposition.
When shields were hung up as trophies, it was usual to detach
the ring or brace, so as to render them useless for warlike
purposes.
A politician of homosexual habits.
A plant from Cyrenaica, which was imported into Athens in large
quantities after the conclusion of a treaty of navigation, which
Cleon made with this country. It was a very highly valued
flavoring for sauces.
The name of a supposed informer. The Greek word for brown,
the color of ordure, is contained in the
construction of this name; thus a disgusting piece of word-play is
intended.
The orators were always claiming the protection of Athena.
A very expensive burden, which was imposed upon the
rich citizen. The trierarchs had to furnish both the equipment of
the triremes or war-galleys and their upkeep. They varied
considerably in number and ended in reaching a total of 1200;
the richest found the money, and were later repaid partly and
little by little by those not so well circumstanced. Later is was
permissible for anyone, appointed as a trierarch, to point out
someone richer than himself and to ask to have him take his
place with the condition that if the other prferred, he should
exchange fortunes with him and continue his office of trierarch.
This is an allusion to some crime of Cleon's.
The name Agoracritus is compounded of agora, a market-place,
and krino, to judge. It means " the choice of the market-place".
One of the most noisy demagogues of Cleon's party; he was
later ostracized.
A town in Bithynia, situated at the entrance of the Bosphorus
and nearly opposite Byzantium. It was one of the most important
towns in Asia Minor. Doubtless Hyperbolus only demanded so
large a fleet to terrorize the towns and oppress them at will.
These temples were inviolable places of refuge, where even
slaves were secure.
The key speeches of Nicias and Alcibiades are give below.
This means a ship from Salamis.
The tragic poet Sophocles was a member of this Committee
45
*Theramenes was one of the two men who had been appointed
by the generals to pick up the survivors from the 25 sunken
Athenian ships.
46
*It was unconstitutional to deprive anyone of a jury trial and to
try more than one person at a time.
Not the same as the Demosthenes who captured Pylos and died
in Sicily.
This is what Adolph Hitler said in 1938 when he took over
Czechoslovakia.
The legislature of England.
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