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AP Biology, Chapter 38 Angiosperm Reproduction and Biotechnology Flowers of Deceit 38.1 Flowers, double fertilization, and fruits are unique features of the angiosperm life cycle Intro 1. Outline the angiosperm life cycle. Dominant diploid sorophyte Meiosis yields haploid microspores and megaspores Microspores male gametophyte sperm Megaspores female gametophyte egg Sperm + egg zygote diploid sporophyte Flower Structure and Function Intro 2. Describe the functions of sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. Sepals: green modified leaves surrounding and protecting the petals Petals: colored modified leaves in animals-pollinated flowers Stamens: male reproductive organs, produce pollen Carpels: female reproductive organs, produce ovules 3. Distinguish between: a) complete and incomplete flowers, b) bisexual and unisexual flowers, and c) monoecious and dioecious plant species. Complete and incomplete Complete have sepals, petals, stamens, carpals Incomplete don't Bisexual vs. unisexual Bisexual = perfect = having stamens and carpals Unisexual have either stamens or carpals Monoecious and dioecious Monoecious have both male and female on the same plant Dioecious have separate male and female plants 4. Explain by which generation, structures, and processes gametes are produced. Female One megaspore divides 3 times by mitosis one egg + 2 polar nuclei + 5 other Male Each microspore divides once by mitosis one tube nucleus + one generative nucleus Generative nucleus divides again by mitosis giving 2 sperm Development of Male Gametophytes in Pollen Grains Development of Female Gametophytes (Embryo Sacs) Pollination 5. Explain how pollen can be transferred between flowers. Grasses and most trees: by wind, large amounts of pollen Animal-pollinated make less pollen Coevolution of Flower and Pollinator Double Fertilization 6. Describe the sequence of events that lead from pollination to fruit formation. Pollen on the stigma sends pollen tube down the style Enters the ovary and grows through the micropyle One sperm + egg zygote One sperm + polar nuclei 3n endosperm Ovule seed; ovary wall fruit 7. Outline the process of double fertilization and describe the function of endosperm. Process One sperm + egg zygote One sperm + polar nuclei 3n nucleus 3n nucleus divides to form a multinucleate cell = endosperm Nourishes the embryo Stores nutrients for the seedling In dicots, transfers nutrients to the cotyledons 8. Explain the adaptive advantage of double fertilization in angiosperms. No food stored unless fertilization occurs Saves energy and resources Seed Development, Form and Function Intro Endosperm Development Embryo Development 9. Describe the development of a plant embryo from the first mitotic division to the embryonic plant with rudimentary organs. Zygote terminal cell + basal cell Terminal cell proembryo Basal cell suspensor Proembryo Forms two lobes in dicots, the cotyledons Apical shoot meristem forms between the cotyledons Apical root meristem forms where the embryo meets the suspensor Structure of the Mature Seed 10. From a diagram, identify the following structures of a seed and recall a function for each: seed coat, embryo, hypocotyl, radicle, epicotyl, plumule, endosperm, and cotyledon. See diagram, 9th edition, page 808 Functions Seed coat: protects and maintains dormancy Embryo: the dormant young sporophyte Hypocotyl: embryonic stem below the cotyledon Radicle: embryonic root, emerges first during germination Epicotyl: embryonic stem above the cotyledon Plumule: embryonic shoot tip and leaves Endosperm: food storage tissue in monocot seeds Cotyledon: seed leaves; store food for use by the seedling Seed Dormancy: An Adaptation for Tough Times 11. Explain how seed dormancy can be advantageous to a plant and describe some conditions for breaking dormancy. Dormancy ensures germination at advantageous time/place/conditions Variation in dormancy breaking Desert: after enough rain Crowded undergrowth: after fire After extended cold: germination in the spring Seed Germination and Seedling Development Fruit Form and Function 12. Explain how fruit forms and ripens. List the functions of fruit. Ovary wall thickens into pericarp Types Simple fruits form from one ovary in one flower Aggregate fruits form from multiple ovaries in one flower Multiple fruits form from many flowers Ripening Senescence of pod opening Softening enzymes digest cell walls Acids converted into sugars sweetening 38.2 Flowering plants reproduce sexually, asexually, or both Intro Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction 13. Describe the natural mechanisms of vegetative reproduction in plants, including fragmentation and apomixis. Fragmentation Pieces of leaf, stem, or root may separate and regenerate Stolons and adventitious roots may become separated fro the parent Apomixis = embryo formation from a diploid parent cell in the ovule Seed contains a clone of the parent Known to occur in dandlions Advantages and Disadvantages of Asexual Versus Sexual Reproduction 14. Explain the advantages of using both sexual and asexual reproduction. Sexual New combinations of traits for changing environments Slower and more complicated Young offspring small and vulnerable Asexual Fixed combination of traits for constant environment Simpler and faster Offspring less vulnerable since they are mature parts Mechanisms That Prevent Self-Fertilization 15. Describe mechanisms that prevent self-pollination and explain how this contributes to genetic variation. Some self-pollinate, most avoid it Separate sexes Different maturation times for stamens and carpals Physical arrangement of stamens and carpals Biochemical self-incompatibility Cross pollination increases combinations of traits Vegetative Propagation and Agriculture Intro 16. Describe various methods that horticulturists use to vegetatively propagate plants from cuttings. Cuttings Pieces removed, suitably treated, can give an entire plant Ex.: potato eyes, African violet leaves, vine sections Many cultivars are sterile, anyway Grafting Piece of one stem inserted into another Nearly all citrus (scion) are grafted onto lemon roots (stock) Plant tissue culture: excised cells grown in sterile conditions Clones from Cuttings Grafting Test-Tube Cloning and Related Techniques 17. Explain how the technique of plant tissue culture can be used to clone and genetically engineer plants. Entire plants can be grown from single cells Excised under sterile conditions Placed in defined growth medium with hormones Cell undifferentiated callus organs Excised cells may be genetically altered before culturing 18. Describe the process of protoplast fusion and its potential agricultural impact. Protoplast = plant cell with cell wall removed using enzymes Protoplasts from different species can be fused After tissue culture the fused product has a combination of parent traits 38.3 Humans modify crops by breeding and genetic engineering Intro Plant Breeding 19. Explain how selective breeding by humans has changed fruits. Increase size Increase number of flowers on the plant Increase sugar content Plant Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering Intro Reducing World Hunger and Malnutrition Reducing Fossil Fuel Dependency The Debate over Plant Biotechnology Intro 20. Summarize the major concerns about the safety of plant biotechnology. Issues of Human Health Concern: introduces new allergens like Bt protein No evidence of adverse effects Possible Effects on Nontarget Organisms Pollen from GMO toxic outside of agricultural environment Addressing the Problem of Transgene Escape Pesticide-resistance genes may be carried from GMO to weeds