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CHAPTER2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Definition of Translation There are some definitions of translation. In this part they are presented according to a dictionary and some experts' point of view such as Larson (1998), Catford (1965), and Newmark (1988). The point of views ofNida and Taber in terms of the aim of translation itself are also presented. According to Oxford Advanced Leamer's Dictionary (1995), the word ''translate" means to change something spoken or especially written into another language. While ''translation" means the activity of translating and a text or word that is translated. Larson (1998) says "Translation is basically a change of form of a language; we are referring to the actual word, phrases, clauses, sentences, paragraphs, etc., which are spoken or written" (p. 3). Catford and Newmark consider translation as a replacement and rendering of a text from one language into another language. Catford (1965) as quoted by Hoed (2000, p. 5) states ''translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language. (TL)." Similarly, Newmark (1988) as quoted by Hoed (2000, p. 5) says ''translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text." According to Larson (1998), a translator should master lexicon, grammar, situation, and cultural context of source language and target language in doing 7 Translation consists of studying the lexicon, grammatical structure, communication situation, and cultural context of the source language text, analyzing it in order to determine its meaning, and then reconstructing this same meaning using the lexicon and the grammatical structure which are appropriate in the receptor language and its cultural context. (p. 3) While according to Nida and Taber (2003, p. 12), when we do translation, the primary aim should be "reproducing the message" and to reproduce the message, one must make a good many grammatical and lexical adjustment. 2.2 Process of Translation Translation is a range of process and according to Larson (1998, p. 4) translation process can be described as the diagram below: OVERVIEW OF '1"/IE TRANSLifT/ON TASK SOURCE LANGUAGE RECEPTOR LANGUAGE Re .,prl!$!; cite meaning / Figure 2.1Process of Translation Source language is the form of language which the translation is made and receptor language is the form of!anguage which it is to be changed (Larson, 1998, p. 3). Actually, the model in describing translation process has been suggested over the 8 past thirty years and one model which has been particularly influential was proposed by 9 Eugene Nida. This model depends on the idea of decoding the source text language, analyzing it, and then reformulating the message in other words (Katan, 1999, p. 123). However, other scholars have also suggested different process. Bell (1991) as quoted by Katan (1999, p. 124) suggests that between the SL and TL text, the translator creates the "semantic representation" of the text. While Neubert and Shreve (1992) as quoted by Katan (1999, p. 124) are more explicit, they suggest that in the translator's mind there is a "virtual translation", which is a composite of the possible relations between a source text and a range of potential target texts. One other idea is proposed by James Holmes, his theory is known as "mapping theory." James Holmes (1988) as quoted by Katan (1999, p. 124) says: I have suggested that actually the translation process is a multi-level process. While we are translating sentences, we have a map of the original text in our minds and at the same time a map of the kind of text we want to produce in the target language. (p. 96) Although many ideas are proposed by different scholars with different point of view, but all of them agree that the essence of translation itself is to change words, sentences, or text from one language (source language) into another language (target language). 2.3 Kinds of Translation There are three kinds of translation: literal translation, idiomatic translation, and free translation. 1 0 2.3.1 Literal Translation Literal translation is sometimes called word-for-word translation. According to Larson (1998, p. 17), literal translation is a form-based translation that attempts to follow the form of the source language and it sounds like nonsense and has little communication value. In a literal translation, a translator seeks to match individual words of the source language as closely as possible to individual word of the target language and it is known as concordance (Lie, 2005, p. 1). The examples of literal translations from Indonesian into English are: 1) Aku ingin makan buah ape! u u u u I want to eat 2) Kulitrnu u Your skin an apple begitu halus. u is so smooth. Lie (2005) says that meaning is not only influenced by forms of words but there are many other factors: Because literal translation focuses on forms of language, it sometimes misses some of the meaning of those forms, since meaning is found not only in the forms of individual words, but also in relationship among words, phrases, idiomatic uses of words, and influences of speaker-hearer, cultural, and historical contexts. (p. 1) That's why; literal translation often is not the most accurate form of translation. According to Larson (1998, p. 17), the literal translation can often be understood if the two languages are related because the general grarmnatical form maybe similar. 10 2.3.2 Idiomatic Translation If literal translation may sometimes sounds like nonsense, idiomatic is on the other way around. Larson (1998) says "Idiomatic translations use the natural forms of the receptor language, both in the grammatical constructions and in the choice oflexical items" (p. 18). A truly idiomatic translation does not sound like a translation, it sounds like it was written originally in the receptor language instead. So, a good translator will try to translate idiomatically (Larson, 1998, p. 18-19). The examples of idiomatic translations are as below: 3) Omong - omong = By the way 4) Yang benar saja =Give me a break 5) Ini hal yang sangat gampang =It's a piece of cake 2.3.3 Free Translation According to Lie (2005, p. 4), free translation is synonymous with paraphrase; the translators read the text then restate it with their own words but the meaning is still the same. It is usually based on the personal opinions or interpretation of the translator. "Free translation reproduces the matter without the manner or the content without the form of the original" (Lie, 2005, p.4). The paraphrase is usually longer than the original text. The following is the example of free translation: 6) Original sentence: Teljadi di suatu kota kecil yang punya seorang dokter. Translated message: It happened at a small town with sparse population which had only one doctor. 11 2.4 Grammatical Issues in Translation When we think of English skills, the 'four skills' of listening, speaking, reading, and writing readily come to mind. Of course other skills such as pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and spelling all play a role in effective English communication too. English grammar is one of the basic that people deal with when they learn English. Even, grammar is what students often learn at schools compared with the other skills. According to Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary (1995), the meaning of grammar is the rule in language for changing the form of words and combining them into sentences. A grammar is a description of the rules that govern how language's sentences are formed and it attempts to explain why a sentence either can be accepted or not (Thornbury, 1999, p.1). A different grammatical structure will lead to a different or interpretation. That's why, to translate Indonesian text into English, a translator should have a good understanding of English grammar. Nida and Taber (2003) say that grammar is not merely a set of rule but it also has meaning. When one thinks of meaning, it is almost inevitably, in terms of words or idioms, for we generally take grammar for granted, since it seems to be merely a set of arbitrary rules about arrangement-rule that must be followed if one wants to be understood, but not rules that in themselves to have any meaning. (p. 34) According to Larson (1998, p. 54), there are three aspects that can be concerned in translation. They are accuracy, clearness, and naturalness. Accuracy concerns whether the translation communicates the same meaning as the source language. Clearness 11 2.4 Grammatical Issues in Translation concerns whether the audience for whom the translation is intended understands it or 12 read and natural in the receptor language grammar or style. So, the naturalness of translation is seen from the receptor language grammar. Since grammar can influence the naturalness in translation, it is an important aspect in the translation. Several important aspects of grammar are as below: 2.4.1 Nouns A noun is the name of a living being or lifeless thing: Mary, John, horse, dog, hat, house, tree, London, Chicago, virtue (Curme, 1925, p. 11). In other words, a noun is the name of object or idea (Fernald, 1968, p. 3). A noun in a sentence can be a subject or an object. For example: Indonesian 7) English Ani sedang makan coklat. s 0 Ani is eating a chocolate. s 0 From the example above, Ani and chocolate are categorized as nouns and Ani is a subject and a chocolate is an object. According to Fernald (1968, p. 3), nouns can be divided into two main classes, they are common and proper nouns. A common noun is the name of a class or group of objects for example; man, boy, girl, house, river, and tree. While a proper noun is the official name of a single objector a single group of objects for example; Galileo, God, the Romans, and the Alps. According to Chaer (1988, p. 108), nouns in Indonesian can be identified by their forms like: 12 1) preceded by a prefix, pe- for example; pemuda, pemenang, penyiar 13 2) ended with a suffix -an, for example; bendungan, bantuan, besarnya, pelebaran 3) combination of a prefix pe- and suffix -an, for example; pembangunan, pengembangan, pelebaran 4) combination of a prefix per- and suffix -an,for example; pertemuan, pertambangan, persatuan 5) combination of a prefix ke- and suffix -an, for example; keadilan, kebijaksanaan, kekayaan English nouns can also be identified by inflectional morphemes and nmmforming derivational suffixes added to verbs, adjectives, and nom1s. The inflectional morpheme is the noun plural (-s pi) and the noun possessive (-s ps) (Givon, 1993, p. 58). The derivational suffixes that form nouns in English are: -ic, -ment, -s, -ure, -um, ence l-ance, -ion, -ive, -sis, -y, -ism, -ity, -ist, -arium, -ory, -ent /-ant, -ate, -or 1-er, -ist, -ia, -le, -ole, -cle, -itis, -oma. The examples of noun-forming derivational suffixes added to verbs, adjectives, and nouns are as below: Table 2.1 the Example of Nouns Based on Derivational Suffixes Source verbs accept arrive assist Source adiectives kind important violent Source nouns fi·iend slave catioon Derived nouns Acceptance Arrival Assistant kindness importance violence fi·iendship slavery catioonist . 14 2.4.2 Adjectives An adjective is a word that is used with a noun or pronoun to describe the living being or lifeless thing, designated by the noun or pronoun, for example a little boy, a beautijitl girl (Curme, 1925, p. 18). According to Chaer (1988, p. 130), there is a characteristic of adjectives in Indonesian Firstly, they can be followed by the adverb sekali and they are formed as the repeated words with a combination of prefix se- and suffix -nya. For example: 1) indah (indah sekali, seindah-indahnya) 2) bagus (bagus sekali, sebagus-bagusnya) 3) besar (besar sekali, sebesar-besarnya) Adjectives in English can be identified by its inflectional and derivational suffix. For inflectional suffixes, it is shown by the adjectives that are preceded by more/most or ended with the suffixes -er/-est (Givon, 1993, p. 66). The examples of derivational suffixes that form adjectives in English are: -able I -ible, -a!, -ary I -ory, -ate, -ent I -ant, -ic, -ile, -ine, -ite, -ive, -ous, -aid. Table 2.2 the Example of Adjectives Based on Derivational Suff'JXes Source verbs collect expect Source adjectives dead red Source nouns child fortune Derived adjectives collective expectant deadly reddish childish fortunate 15 2.4.3 Verbs The verb is that part of speech by means of which we make an assertion or ask a question (Curme, 1925, p. 22). According to Fernald (1968, p. 80), verbs are divided according to their relation to objects into two classes; transitive and intransitive. A transitive verb is a verb that requires an object to express a complete meaning. On the contrary, an intransitive verb is a verb that does not require an object to complete a thought. Besides, verbs can also be divided according to their use; they are principal verbs and auxiliary verbs. A principal verb is one that expresses by itself some act or state for example; I read. I will go. While and auxiliary verb is a verb of incomplete predication that is used with a principal verb to form a verb phrase indicating tense, voice, or mood for example; I will run. I can read You may go. The common auxiliaries are be, can, do, have, ought, and sometimes let (Fernald, 1968, p. 80). According to Chaer (1988, p. 127), verbs in Indonesian can be divided into two, stem verbs (pergi, pulang, tulis, tanya) and verbs that are added with prefixes and suffixes as the examples below: 1) prefix me-, for example; menulis, membaca, melihat 2) prefix her-, for example; berdiri, berlatih, bernyanyi 3) prefix di- , for example; ditulis, dibaca, dilihat 4) prefix ter-, for example; tertulis, terbaca, terlihat 5) prefix per-, for example; perpanjang, percepat, persingkat 6) suffix -kan, for example; tuliskan, bacakan, damaikan 16 7) suffix -i, for example; tulisi, diami, datangi 17 In English, the derivational suffixes by which a verb is identified are few (Givon, 1993, p. 70), for example: -ate, ize, -scI -esc, -en, -ify. Table 2.3 the Example of Verbs Based on Derivational Sufirxes Source verbs bath beauty length Source ad.iectives ripe safe solid Derived verbs bathe beautifY lengthen ' ripen save solidifY 2.4.4 Tenses Tense is a form taken by a verb to indicate action in relation to time. There are three great divisions of time; past, present, and future (Fernald, 1968, p. 87). Nida (1964) says: Tense, which marks the relative time of events, is generally accepted as given by those who speak an Indo-European language for such distinctions as past, present, and future are considered to be a basic ingredient in any verbal expression. In English, the tenses will also influence the form of verbs, for example: Table 2.4 the Example of the Use of Tenses Tense Indonesian English Simple Present Ani menulis surat setiap hari. Ani writes a letter every day. Simple Past Ani menu/is surat kemarin. Ani wrote a letter yesterday. Simple Future Ani akan menu/is surat. Ani will write a letter. 18 From the examples above, we can see that there is no changing of verb in Indonesian when the activity is in different time. But, in English there is a difference between the verbs used in simple present, simple past and simple foture. So, in translating a text from Indonesian to English we have to know about this rule because by seeing the form of verb, one can directly conclude whether the activity is in the past, present, or future. 2.4.5 Comparatives "The comparatives indicate that the quality is found in the person or thing described in a higher degree than in some other person or thing" (Curme, 1925, p. 220). According to Fernald (1968, p. 66), there are two types of comparison, regular comparison and irregular comparison. For regular comparison, we add -er to the adjective if it consists of one or two syllables and adds more in the beginning of the adjective if it consists of more than two syllables and for the irregular comparison, we have to memorize them. We usually use a preposition than in comparatives. In Indonesian, we don't have those kinds of rules as English does. We use the words "lebih" and "daripada" to form a comparative sentence in Indonesian. Here below are the examples of comparative sentences in Indonesian and English: Table 2.5 the Example of the Use of Comparatives Indonesian English Andi lebih pintar daripada Andi is cleverer than Budi. Budi (2 syllables) 19 Regular Sinta lebih cantik daripada Sinta is more beautifUl than Comparison Santi. Santi (3 syllables) Irregular Saya merasa lebih baik Comparison darpada kemarin. I feel better than yesterday. 2.4.6 Gerunds and Infinitives A gerund is the present participial form of a verb used as a noun and it is frequently called a verbal noun (Fernald, 1968, p.93). Since the gerund functions as noun, it may be used as follows; 1) As the subjects of a verb; Singing is an art. 2) As the object of a verb; I study singing. 3) As a predicate nominative or complement; Seeing is believing. 4) As object of a preposition; There is a time for sowing. 5) As an appositive; His favorite sport, swimming, is healthful. According to Fernald (1968, p. 86), the infinitive form is the first principal part of a verb. It is usually, but not always, preceded by to. Since the infinitive has the functions of both a verb and a noun, it is called a verbal noun. Like a verb the infinitive can do the following; I) Take a subject; We wanted him to go. 2) Take an object; to study a lesson. 3) Take a predicate complement; to go home. 20 When it is used as a noun, the infinitive or infinitive phrase may be; 1) The subject of a finite verb; To lie is shameful. 2) The object of a transitive verb or participle; I wish to get breakfast. 3) The object of a preposition; He is about to go. 4) A predicate nominative; to see is to believe. The infinitive is sometimes used like an adjective, modifYing a noun; a desire to learn. 5) The infinitive is often used adverbially to denote a purpose, a motive, or describe a result; Be so kind as to inform to me. 6) An infinitive phrase may be used as an independent element of a sentence; To confess the truth, I do not care. In Indonesian, gerunds are also formed by verbs and they can take positions as nouns. For example: 1) Menyanyi adalah sebuah seni. 2) Saya belajar menari sejak kecil. The words menyanyi and menari in the sentences above take as a subject and object. While infinitive to in Indonesian tend to be translated as untuk, for example: 3) We wanted him to go= Kami menginginkan dia untuk pergi. 4) We are glad to inform you that you win= Kami senang untuk menginformasikan bahwa anda menang. 2.4.7 Singular Expressions of Quantity According to Azar (1989, p. 216), there are 3 kinds of singular expressions of 20 by singular count nouns (never plural nouns and noncount nouns). The examples of their usage in a sentence are as below: Table 2.6 the Example of the Use of Singular Expressions of Quantity English Indonesian One Satu murid terlambat One student was late. Each Masing-masing anak Each student has a schedule. mempunyai jadwal. Every Setiap anak mempunyai Every student has a schedule. jadwal. 2.4.8 Reflexive Pronouns According to Azar (1992, p. 81), reflexive pronouns end in -self /-selves. They are used when the subject and the object are the same person and the action of the verb is pointed back to the subject of the sentence. In Indonesian, reflexive pronouns are signed by the use of the word sendiri. The examples of reflexive pronouns' usage: Table 2.7 the Example of the Use of Reflexive Pronouns English Indonesian I saw myself in the mirror. Saya melihat saya sendiri di kaca. You (one person) saw yourself. Kamu melihat diri kamu sendiri. She saw herself. Dia (perempuan) melihat dirinya sendiri. He saw himself. Dia (laki-laki) melihat dirinya sendiri. It saw (e.g, the kitten) saw itself. Kucing itu melihat dirinya sendiri. 21 We saw ourselves. Kami me1ihat kami sendiri. You (plural) saw yourselves. Kalian melihat kalian sendiri. They saw themselves. Mereka melihat mereka sendiri. 2.4.9 Active and Passive Voice According to Nida (1964, p. 200), voice specifies the relationship between the participants and the event indicated in the verb and the most frequent problem of translation involving voice include difficulties of active and passive forms. In certain other languages, there are simply in passive forms and all the passive forms in source language must be changed into actives. In Indonesian, we have active and passive form that is usually marked by prefix me-, ber- for active and di-, ter- for passive. On the other band, passive form in English is marked by the usage of the verb to be+ past participle. For example: Table 2.8 the Example of the Use of Active and Passive Voice Voice Indonesian English Active Jolm memukul Bill. Jolm hit Bill. Passive Bill dipukul Jolm Bill was hit by Jolm. 2.4.10 Modal Auxiliaries Can and Could Can and could are used to express an ability, but there is a difference of the usage between both of them. According to Azar (1992, p. 95), can expresses ability in the present or future while could expresses ability in the past. In Indonesian, can and could 22 are translated as bisa and there is no difference between the past, present and future. For example: Table 2.9 the Example of the Use of Modal Anxiliaries Can and Could Tense Indonesian English Present Bob bisa bennain piano. Bob can play the piano. Past Dia bisa berbicara ketika dia He could talk when he was berusia 2 tahun. two years old.