Download CHAPTER2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Definition of

CHAPTER2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Definition of Translation
There are some definitions of translation. In this part they are presented
according to a dictionary and some experts' point of view such as Larson (1998),
Catford (1965), and Newmark (1988). The point of views ofNida and Taber in terms of
the aim of translation itself are also presented.
According to
Oxford
Advanced
Leamer's Dictionary
(1995),
the word
''translate" means to change something spoken or especially written into another
language. While ''translation" means the activity of translating and a text or word that is
translated. Larson (1998) says "Translation is basically a change of form of a language;
we are referring to the actual word, phrases, clauses, sentences, paragraphs, etc., which
are spoken or written" (p. 3).
Catford and Newmark consider translation as a replacement and rendering of a
text from one language into another language. Catford (1965) as quoted by Hoed (2000,
p. 5) states ''translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by
equivalent textual material in another language. (TL)." Similarly, Newmark (1988) as
quoted by Hoed (2000, p. 5) says ''translation is rendering the meaning of a text into
another language in the way that the author intended the text."
According to Larson (1998), a translator should master lexicon, grammar,
situation, and cultural context of source language and target language in doing
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Translation consists of studying the lexicon, grammatical structure,
communication situation, and cultural context of the source language text,
analyzing it in order to determine its meaning, and then reconstructing this same
meaning using the lexicon and the grammatical structure which are appropriate
in the receptor language and its cultural context. (p. 3)
While according to Nida and Taber (2003, p. 12), when we do translation, the
primary aim should be "reproducing the message" and to reproduce the message, one
must make a good many grammatical and lexical adjustment.
2.2 Process of Translation
Translation is a range of process and according to Larson (1998, p. 4) translation
process can be described as the diagram below:
OVERVIEW OF '1"/IE TRANSLifT/ON TASK
SOURCE LANGUAGE
RECEPTOR LANGUAGE
Re .,prl!$!;
cite meaning
/
Figure 2.1Process of Translation
Source language is the form of language which the translation is made and receptor
language is the form of!anguage which it is to be changed (Larson, 1998, p. 3).
Actually, the model in describing translation process has been suggested over the
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past thirty years and one model which has been particularly influential was proposed by
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Eugene Nida. This model depends on the idea of decoding the source text language,
analyzing it, and then reformulating the message in other words (Katan, 1999, p. 123).
However, other scholars have also suggested different process. Bell (1991) as
quoted by Katan (1999, p. 124) suggests that between the SL and TL text, the translator
creates the "semantic representation" of the text.
While Neubert and Shreve (1992) as
quoted by Katan (1999, p. 124) are more explicit, they suggest that in the translator's
mind there is a "virtual translation", which is a composite of the possible relations
between a source text and a range of potential target texts.
One other idea is proposed by James Holmes, his theory is known as "mapping
theory." James Holmes (1988) as quoted by Katan (1999, p. 124) says:
I have suggested that actually the translation process is a multi-level process.
While we are translating sentences, we have a map of the original text in our
minds and at the same time a map of the kind of text we want to produce in the
target language. (p. 96)
Although many ideas are proposed by different scholars with different point of
view, but all of them agree that the essence of translation itself is to change words,
sentences, or text from one language (source language) into another language (target
language).
2.3 Kinds of Translation
There are three kinds of translation: literal translation, idiomatic translation, and
free translation.
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0
2.3.1 Literal Translation
Literal translation is sometimes called word-for-word translation. According to
Larson (1998, p. 17), literal translation is a form-based translation that attempts to
follow the form of the source language and it sounds like nonsense and has little
communication value. In a literal translation, a translator seeks to match individual
words of the source language as closely as possible to individual word of the target
language and it is known as concordance (Lie, 2005, p. 1). The examples of literal
translations from Indonesian into English are:
1) Aku
ingin
makan
buah ape!
u
u
u
u
I
want
to eat
2) Kulitrnu
u
Your skin
an apple
begitu halus.
u
is so smooth.
Lie (2005) says that meaning is not only influenced by forms of words but there are
many other factors:
Because literal translation focuses on forms of language, it sometimes misses
some of the meaning of those forms, since meaning is found not only in the
forms of individual words, but also in relationship among words, phrases,
idiomatic uses of words, and influences of speaker-hearer, cultural, and
historical contexts. (p. 1)
That's why; literal translation often is not the most accurate form of translation.
According to Larson (1998, p. 17), the literal translation can often be understood if the
two languages are related because the general grarmnatical form maybe similar.
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2.3.2 Idiomatic Translation
If literal translation may sometimes sounds like nonsense, idiomatic is on the
other way around. Larson (1998) says "Idiomatic translations use the natural forms of
the receptor language, both in the grammatical constructions and in the choice oflexical
items" (p. 18). A truly idiomatic translation does not sound like a translation, it sounds
like it was written originally in the receptor language instead. So, a good translator will
try to translate
idiomatically (Larson, 1998, p. 18-19). The examples of idiomatic
translations are as below:
3) Omong - omong = By the way
4) Yang benar saja =Give me a break
5) Ini hal yang sangat gampang =It's a piece of cake
2.3.3 Free Translation
According to Lie (2005, p. 4), free translation is synonymous with paraphrase;
the translators read the text then restate it with their own words but the meaning is still
the same. It is usually based on the personal opinions or interpretation of the translator.
"Free translation reproduces the matter without the manner or the content without the
form of the original" (Lie, 2005, p.4). The paraphrase is usually longer than the original
text. The following is the example of free translation:
6) Original sentence: Teljadi di suatu kota kecil yang punya seorang dokter.
Translated message: It happened at a small town with sparse population
which had only one doctor.
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2.4 Grammatical Issues in Translation
When we think of English skills, the 'four skills' of listening, speaking, reading,
and writing readily come to mind. Of course other skills such as pronunciation,
grammar, vocabulary, and spelling all play a role in effective English communication
too. English grammar is one of the basic that people deal with when they learn English.
Even, grammar is what students often learn at schools compared with the other skills.
According to Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary (1995), the meaning of
grammar is the rule in language for changing the form of words and combining them
into sentences. A grammar is a description of the rules that govern how language's
sentences are formed and it attempts to explain why a sentence either can be accepted or
not (Thornbury, 1999, p.1).
A different grammatical structure will lead to a different or interpretation. That's
why,
to translate Indonesian text
into
English, a translator should have
a good
understanding of English grammar.
Nida and Taber (2003) say that grammar is not merely a set of rule but it also has
meaning.
When one thinks of meaning, it is almost inevitably, in terms of words or
idioms, for we generally take grammar for granted, since it seems to be merely a
set of arbitrary rules about arrangement-rule that must be followed if one wants
to be understood, but not rules that in themselves to have any meaning. (p. 34)
According to Larson (1998, p. 54), there are three aspects that can be concerned
in translation. They are accuracy, clearness, and naturalness. Accuracy concerns whether
the translation communicates the same meaning as the source language. Clearness
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2.4 Grammatical Issues in Translation
concerns whether the audience for whom the translation is intended understands it or
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read and natural in the receptor language grammar or style. So, the naturalness of
translation is seen from the receptor language grammar.
Since grammar can influence the naturalness in translation, it is an important
aspect in the translation. Several important aspects of grammar are as below:
2.4.1 Nouns
A noun is the name of a living being or lifeless thing: Mary, John, horse, dog,
hat, house, tree, London, Chicago, virtue (Curme, 1925, p. 11). In other words, a noun is
the name of object or idea (Fernald, 1968, p. 3). A noun in a sentence can be a subject or
an object. For example:
Indonesian
7)
English
Ani sedang makan coklat.
s
0
Ani is eating a chocolate.
s
0
From the example above, Ani and chocolate are categorized as nouns and Ani is a
subject and a chocolate is an object.
According to Fernald (1968, p. 3), nouns can be divided into two main classes,
they are common and proper nouns. A common noun is the name of a class or group of
objects for example; man, boy, girl, house, river, and tree. While a proper noun is the
official name of a single objector a single group of objects for example; Galileo, God,
the Romans, and the Alps.
According to Chaer (1988, p. 108), nouns in Indonesian can be identified by their
forms like:
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1) preceded by a prefix, pe- for example; pemuda, pemenang, penyiar
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2) ended with a suffix -an, for example; bendungan, bantuan, besarnya, pelebaran
3) combination of a prefix
pe-
and suffix
-an, for
example; pembangunan,
pengembangan, pelebaran
4) combination of a prefix per- and suffix -an,for example; pertemuan, pertambangan,
persatuan
5) combination of a prefix ke- and suffix -an, for example; keadilan, kebijaksanaan,
kekayaan
English nouns can also be identified by inflectional morphemes and nmmforming derivational suffixes added to verbs, adjectives, and nom1s. The inflectional
morpheme is the noun plural (-s pi) and the noun possessive (-s ps) (Givon, 1993, p.
58). The derivational suffixes that form nouns in English are: -ic, -ment, -s, -ure, -um, ence l-ance, -ion, -ive, -sis, -y, -ism, -ity, -ist, -arium, -ory, -ent /-ant, -ate, -or 1-er, -ist,
-ia, -le, -ole, -cle, -itis, -oma. The examples of noun-forming derivational suffixes
added to verbs, adjectives, and nouns are as below:
Table 2.1 the Example of Nouns Based on Derivational Suffixes
Source verbs
accept
arrive
assist
Source adiectives
kind
important
violent
Source nouns
fi·iend
slave
catioon
Derived nouns
Acceptance
Arrival
Assistant
kindness
importance
violence
fi·iendship
slavery
catioonist
.
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2.4.2 Adjectives
An adjective is a word that is used with a noun or pronoun to describe the living
being or lifeless thing, designated by the noun or pronoun, for example a little boy, a
beautijitl girl (Curme, 1925, p. 18). According to Chaer (1988, p. 130), there is a
characteristic of adjectives in Indonesian Firstly, they can be followed by the adverb
sekali and they are formed as the repeated words with a combination of prefix se- and
suffix -nya. For example:
1) indah (indah sekali, seindah-indahnya)
2) bagus (bagus sekali, sebagus-bagusnya)
3) besar (besar sekali, sebesar-besarnya)
Adjectives in English can be identified by its inflectional and derivational suffix. For
inflectional suffixes, it is shown by the adjectives that are preceded by more/most or
ended with the suffixes -er/-est (Givon, 1993, p. 66). The examples of derivational
suffixes that form adjectives in English are: -able I -ible, -a!, -ary I -ory, -ate, -ent I -ant,
-ic, -ile, -ine, -ite, -ive, -ous, -aid.
Table 2.2 the Example of Adjectives Based on Derivational Suff'JXes
Source verbs
collect
expect
Source adjectives
dead
red
Source nouns
child
fortune
Derived adjectives
collective
expectant
deadly
reddish
childish
fortunate
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2.4.3 Verbs
The verb is that part of speech by means of which we make an assertion or ask a
question (Curme, 1925, p. 22). According to Fernald (1968, p. 80), verbs are divided
according to their relation to objects into two classes; transitive and intransitive. A
transitive verb is a verb that requires an object to express a complete meaning. On the
contrary, an intransitive verb is a verb that does not require an object to complete a
thought.
Besides, verbs can also be divided according to their use; they are principal
verbs and auxiliary verbs. A principal verb is one that expresses by itself some act or
state for example; I read. I will go. While and auxiliary verb is a verb of incomplete
predication that is used with a principal verb to form a verb phrase indicating tense,
voice, or mood for example; I will run. I can read You may go. The common auxiliaries
are be, can, do, have, ought, and sometimes let (Fernald, 1968, p. 80).
According to Chaer (1988, p. 127), verbs in Indonesian can be divided into two,
stem verbs (pergi, pulang, tulis, tanya) and verbs that are added with prefixes and
suffixes as the examples below:
1) prefix me-, for example; menulis, membaca, melihat
2) prefix her-, for example; berdiri, berlatih, bernyanyi
3) prefix di- , for example; ditulis, dibaca, dilihat
4) prefix ter-, for example; tertulis, terbaca, terlihat
5) prefix per-, for example; perpanjang, percepat, persingkat
6) suffix -kan, for example; tuliskan, bacakan, damaikan
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7) suffix -i, for example; tulisi, diami, datangi
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In English, the derivational suffixes by which a verb is identified are few (Givon,
1993, p. 70), for example: -ate, ize, -scI -esc, -en, -ify.
Table 2.3 the Example of Verbs Based on Derivational Sufirxes
Source verbs
bath
beauty
length
Source ad.iectives
ripe
safe
solid
Derived verbs
bathe
beautifY
lengthen
'
ripen
save
solidifY
2.4.4 Tenses
Tense is a form taken by a verb to indicate action in relation to time. There are
three great divisions of time; past, present, and future (Fernald, 1968, p. 87). Nida
(1964) says:
Tense, which marks the relative time of events, is generally accepted as
given by those who speak an Indo-European language for such distinctions
as past, present, and future are considered to be a basic ingredient in any
verbal expression.
In English, the tenses will also influence the form of verbs, for example:
Table 2.4 the Example of the Use of Tenses
Tense
Indonesian
English
Simple Present
Ani menulis surat setiap hari.
Ani writes a letter every day.
Simple Past
Ani menu/is surat kemarin.
Ani wrote a letter yesterday.
Simple Future
Ani akan menu/is surat.
Ani will write a letter.
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From the examples above, we can see that there is no changing of verb in
Indonesian when the activity is in different time. But, in English there is a difference
between the verbs used in simple present, simple past and simple foture. So, in
translating a text from Indonesian to English we have to know about this rule because by
seeing the form of verb, one can directly conclude whether the activity is in the past,
present, or future.
2.4.5 Comparatives
"The comparatives indicate that the quality is found in the person or thing
described in a higher degree than in some other person or thing" (Curme, 1925, p. 220).
According to Fernald (1968, p. 66), there are two types of comparison, regular
comparison and irregular comparison. For regular comparison, we add -er to the
adjective if it consists of one or two syllables and adds more in the beginning of the
adjective if it consists of more than two syllables and for the irregular comparison, we
have to memorize them. We usually use a preposition than in comparatives. In
Indonesian, we don't have those kinds of rules as English does. We use the words
"lebih" and "daripada" to form a comparative sentence in Indonesian. Here below are
the examples of comparative sentences in Indonesian and English:
Table 2.5 the Example of the Use of Comparatives
Indonesian
English
Andi lebih pintar daripada
Andi is cleverer than Budi.
Budi
(2 syllables)
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Regular
Sinta lebih cantik daripada
Sinta is more beautifUl than
Comparison
Santi.
Santi
(3 syllables)
Irregular
Saya merasa lebih baik
Comparison
darpada kemarin.
I feel better than yesterday.
2.4.6 Gerunds and Infinitives
A gerund is the present participial form of a verb used as a noun and it is
frequently called a verbal noun (Fernald, 1968, p.93). Since the gerund functions as
noun, it may be used as follows;
1) As the subjects of a verb; Singing is an art.
2) As the object of a verb; I study singing.
3) As a predicate nominative or complement; Seeing is believing.
4) As object of a preposition; There is a time for sowing.
5) As an appositive; His favorite sport, swimming, is healthful.
According to Fernald (1968, p. 86), the infinitive form is the first principal part
of a verb. It is usually, but not always, preceded by to. Since the infinitive has the
functions of both a verb and a noun, it is called a verbal noun. Like a verb the infinitive
can do the following;
I) Take a subject; We wanted him to go.
2) Take an object; to study a lesson.
3) Take a predicate complement; to go home.
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When it is used as a noun, the infinitive or infinitive phrase may be;
1) The subject of a finite verb; To lie is shameful.
2) The object of a transitive verb or participle; I wish to get breakfast.
3) The object of a preposition; He is about to go.
4) A predicate nominative; to see is to believe.
The infinitive is sometimes used like an adjective, modifYing a noun; a desire to learn.
5) The infinitive is often used adverbially to denote a purpose, a motive, or describe a
result; Be so kind as to inform to me.
6) An infinitive phrase may be used as an independent element of a sentence; To
confess the truth, I do not care.
In Indonesian, gerunds are also formed by verbs and they can take positions as
nouns. For example:
1) Menyanyi adalah sebuah seni.
2) Saya belajar menari sejak kecil.
The words menyanyi and menari in the sentences above take as a subject and object.
While infinitive to in Indonesian tend to be translated as untuk, for example:
3) We wanted him to go= Kami menginginkan dia untuk pergi.
4) We are glad to inform you that you win= Kami senang untuk menginformasikan
bahwa anda menang.
2.4.7 Singular Expressions of Quantity
According to Azar (1989, p. 216), there are 3 kinds of singular expressions of
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by singular count nouns (never plural nouns and noncount nouns). The examples of their
usage in a sentence are as below:
Table 2.6 the Example of the Use of Singular Expressions of Quantity
English
Indonesian
One
Satu murid terlambat
One student was late.
Each
Masing-masing anak
Each student has a schedule.
mempunyai jadwal.
Every
Setiap anak mempunyai
Every student has a schedule.
jadwal.
2.4.8 Reflexive Pronouns
According to Azar (1992, p. 81), reflexive pronouns end in -self /-selves. They
are used when the subject and the object are the same person and the action of the verb
is pointed back to the subject of the sentence. In Indonesian, reflexive pronouns are
signed by the use of the word sendiri. The examples of reflexive pronouns' usage:
Table 2.7 the Example of the Use of Reflexive Pronouns
English
Indonesian
I saw myself in the mirror.
Saya melihat saya sendiri di kaca.
You (one person) saw yourself.
Kamu melihat diri kamu sendiri.
She saw herself.
Dia (perempuan) melihat dirinya sendiri.
He saw himself.
Dia (laki-laki) melihat dirinya sendiri.
It saw (e.g, the kitten) saw itself.
Kucing itu melihat dirinya sendiri.
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We saw ourselves.
Kami me1ihat kami sendiri.
You (plural) saw yourselves.
Kalian melihat kalian sendiri.
They saw themselves.
Mereka melihat mereka sendiri.
2.4.9 Active and Passive Voice
According to Nida (1964, p. 200), voice specifies the relationship between the
participants and the event indicated in the verb and the most frequent problem of
translation involving voice include difficulties of active and passive forms. In certain
other languages, there are simply in passive forms and all the passive forms in source
language must be changed into actives.
In Indonesian, we have active and passive form that is usually marked by prefix
me-, ber- for active and di-, ter- for passive. On the other band, passive form in English
is marked by the usage of the verb to be+ past participle. For example:
Table 2.8 the Example of the Use of Active and Passive Voice
Voice
Indonesian
English
Active
Jolm memukul Bill.
Jolm hit Bill.
Passive
Bill dipukul Jolm
Bill was hit by Jolm.
2.4.10 Modal Auxiliaries Can and Could
Can and could are used to express an ability, but there is a difference of the usage
between both of them. According to Azar (1992, p. 95), can expresses ability in the
present or future while could expresses ability in the past. In Indonesian, can and could
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are translated as bisa and there is no difference between the past, present and future. For
example:
Table 2.9 the Example of the Use of Modal Anxiliaries Can and Could
Tense
Indonesian
English
Present
Bob bisa bennain piano.
Bob can play the piano.
Past
Dia bisa berbicara ketika dia
He could talk when he was
berusia 2 tahun.
two years old.