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CHAP'TER2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Language is very important far human For a writer, language is needed to comm micate his/her thought and feeling. Leech and Short (1995, p. 257) said that "Language is a vehicle communication whereby one person conveys messages to another for a range of different purposes, informing, ordering, persuading, reassuring." Language needs to contain several things so it can be interpreted by the readers way that the writer mear1t it, To be fuily understood, aspects of language need to be considered, because language does not concern only with what is being communicated, but it cares about how it Vv'l.lS cmmnunicated, and So, according. to Fh1eg;an (1999, 'win, why, where and when' it is communicate too. 7-8) language has three faces, wh.ie!l are meaning, expression, and contexL 2.1. Three Faces of Language Expressions in language include words, phrases, seatences, and pronunciation (such as intonation and stress). Meaning refers to the sense and referents 7 the elements 8 sitllatilon in which the expression is u,.'tered and what of expression. Context is has been said earlier in that situa1iml. 1r.ese three components of language (expression, meaning, and context) are t.l;e concern oflingulstic study, be•cal!Se "linguistic concern with the nature of language and commu..t'Jication" (Akrntajian, De1ne!'S, Farmer, and Hamish, 1998, p. 5). On the other hand, stylistics whole linguistic properties morphology, sermrr1tics, syntax, phonology of the text. Stylistics is one methods linguist, the word stylistics to of human language: literary critici&"'!. According to Elgin (1979), a application of the theory and methodology of linguistics to literary il!!ltguage'" litera.;r c=iti.c, "styHstics is a critic<ll approach which uses the methods and findings of the science of linguistics only with the questions literary texts" (p. 202). So, stylistics deals not 'why and 'why the author used this author choose tc express himself in this way' of words', but also 'how the lang-uage creates t.lje artistic effe.cL' These two main questions (the way and t.IJ.e words that authors choose to express stylistic criticlsm The goals to uncover. stylistics ac<:orcling to Barry (1995) are to provide hard data to support intuitions about Iit< ra:r:v based on linguistic evi.der1ce, to suggest new interpretations of literary works to establish genernl points about !low goals are su ::po:tib:eyd Todd (1987), who wrote that: literary Literary stylistics is the area of study where the linguist combines with the critic so as to achieve a fuUer understanding and appreciation of literature, and studies have shovm that a knowledge of phonology, morphology, vocabulary, syntax, rhetorical and gecgraphical devices can help to make always been covertly overt what the sensitive reader cf literature aware of. (p. 11 2.2.Theme A theme is an impor<t part of a story. It is ustllilly known as something that coiirrects a - r, parts ot-hfel stones" story tries to meaning communicate.. &1J (!991) said that "The theme a piece of fiction is its controlling idea or its central insight. It is the unifying ge!ler:a!ilcati'on "t h-e story."f ,.p. 1.. 0·.1., ')· ·u'.-h...me 1. s a soa about human of a story, which can be stated, by a narrator or one of stated or implied by that becomes the main idea characters, or implied in the story. And because theme is the central and unifYing concept of a story, it should describe aJ.!the major details in the story. AU the important events or characters should bear the theme, and there should not be contradiction be1t'lv< en the theme and any detail of the story. Even though to'Jeme is a vital element in a story, but not all stories have a theme, because some stories are created just for entertainment effect. Some stories are created to m ke people !augh or scared. Others are created to raise questions and Slli>}lense. DiYanni (2000, 86) said tha:"the theme a parab!e is its teaching; and the theme of a a story is is its moral; the theme of inl]pli<:d view of life and he continued,"Most fiction is not designed to teach o:r preach." So, it ca11 co:llOilct" concluded that even though certain types of stories have a t.heme, but not all fictions a theme. Because the theme does not necessa...ily exist in a fiction, so whenever a theme a story, it means that L'le author really wanted to say something through the According to Arp (1991): only (a) when an author has seriously attempted to reeord life acc:ur<ttely or to reveal some truth about it or (b) when an author has deliber3:tely introduced as a unifYing element some concept or theory of story illwnim1tes.(pp. 102-103). It author wanted to tel! an important trJth about sense, a theme rea<:iers should know, or the finding of a theme in a storf (that contains one) IS Althcrugh a is very significant in a stOrf, but it does not mean that the the story is is not author wanted to reveal an idea or philosophy of to proclaim the theme to the readers. The value of a of the story, but t'aere are also artistic and entertainment acl:1ie11en ertt :We theme is the way a writer reveal life to the readers and the truth about to explain can be something new (give insight to readers about son1etl1i11i;) or already well known (to remind the readers of existing lesson). Arp (1991) in his writing about theme: rc'li'elactio,n offered by a good story may be somethl.'lg fresh or sornothin.g old. The story may bring us some insight into life tbu we had l1 not had before, and thus expand our horizons, or it may make us feel or fed again some truth of which we have long been merely intellectually aware. ... Story writers perform a service for us - interpret life for us whether they give us new insight or refresh and extent old ones. (p. 105) 2.3.Li!IT!guistic arnd Stylistic Categories To analyze the literary work, it is needed to state the categories of what will be seen that can help to analyze the work, because just as Leech and Short (1995) said, "Every analysis of style is an attempt to find the artistic principles underlying a writer's choice oflanguzge." (p. 74). So in order to be able to analyze the work we need to know the language choices that the writer made. The linguistic and stylistic categories can be separated under four categories: lexical, grammatical, figures of speech, and cohesion and context. 2.3.1. Lexical Categories Lexical categories concern with lexical choicesof the writer. The word choices will have important impact because the words that the author chooses are the means to translate meaning from the writer's mind to the hearer's mind. Tirrough the words authors try to express their meaning, creativity, and style. Lexical categories can be divided into major and minor word classes. The major word classes are Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, and Adverbs, whlle the minor word classes are Prepositions, Pronouns, Determiners, Conjunctions, Auxiliaries, and Negatives. 12 In this·thesis, t.1e lexica!categories will be divided into 4 parts, which are nouns, verbs, 1!djectives, a!ld adverbs. 2.3.:1.1. Nouns A noun is a part of speech that rnu11es a place, thing, idea, animal, quality, or action. Along with verbs, nouns are the basic of any sentence. nouns ca.'l be ciassified intc several categories: common a!ld proper nouns, compound nouns, collective nouns, ar.<d co:1crete and abstract nouns. A ccrrunon noun names a class of people, pla<ces, thi11gs, or ideas, while a proper noun is the officic.l n&'ne of a particular pel'SOll, place, begins with a capital letter. Proper nouns and religions, geographic names, names of or idea, and it always names of nationalities &'ld names of time tmits. For example: Common noun This country is beautiful Proper noun Indonesia is beautiful A compound noun consists of two or more words used tcgether to form a single noun. There are four kinds of compou..'ld nouns: " Com;_:>our.:d ncuns tc at formed by joining two or more words. For example: football, bookstore, hew'lache, stoplight, notebook, undergraduate, etc. Compound no1.1.'1.S that consist \VO-rds by hyphens. exa1nple: city-state, mother-in-law, author-editor, break-b, baby-sitter, !:o!tu:rre··te:!teJr, etc. '" Compound noU!!S that consist of two words that of'.en used together. For example: mind reading, seat belt, living room, ice skate, etc. ,. Proper noun that consists of more Queen of Engla,.'ld, River of Nile, House A collective considered a OOUI1 one word. For example: Missour:River, Representative, etc. refers to a group of people, place, things, or ideas that is For example: band, committee, team, class, m.ajority, etc. These nouns can use sin:gul;ar or plural form according to the emphasis (on coilection or individuai n1ember group) Concrete nouns refer to material things, people, or places, which are physical, visible, &id tangible. Abstract nouns n&'!le quality of mental concepts, such as ideas, emotions, or attitudes. For example: Concrete nouns Abstract nouns Book beauty love Atom A verb is a thought t.expresses an action or a state of being. Brown, Niison, Shaw, and Weldon (1984) wrote tl:!at oan make the difference between an ordin&]piece of vvriting and ore that stirs readet's imagination. For this reason, good \1\-'l'iters use of verbs: acticm tell how something happened." (p. 16). linking verbs, and auxiliary verbs. are three kinds 14 An action verb describes the behavior or action of someone or something. Action verbs may express physical actions or mental activity. For example: The athlete runs toward the finish line. A linking verb connects a noun or a pronoun with a word or words that identify or describe the noun or pronoun. For example: Although he was sleepy, he still f<illt hungry. An :auxiliary verb is a verb that helps another verb. The verb that it helps is cal.!ed the main verb. For example: He did not pass the test. A main verb and an auxiliary verb fmm a verb phrase. For example: Our package had arrived!. 2.3.1.3. Adjectives An adjective is a word that modifies a noun, a pronoun, or any other word or group of words playing the part of a noun. An adjective modifies a word by qualifying, describing, or limiting it. For example: TI1e winning team played an offensive game. Little knowledge is a !Jig danger.{Francis Bacon) Adjectives provide the means for creating a mood or a lasting impression of a person, a place, or a thing. For example: The room is very large and loflty. The windows are lm1g, nllrmw, and pointed. 23.1.4. Adverbs A.'l adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. It explains how the verbs are done, gives information about adjectives, and it also used to 15 express l<X:ati,on, mi!!Jinet, and degree. Adverbs QCCW' the middle of the sentence or at Bmv.n, NiisOJt!, Shaw, and Weidon (19114) said that adverbs such as rather, really, certainly, indeed, and truly are "adverbs of extent and are nsed for empbasis" (p. 23). categories ooncem with words, connected categories are stn1c1:icrre of the words and se tences. It aiso concerns with punctuaiions 2.3.:2.1.Sentence types A sentence a group of words that expresses a r.as a subject and a predicate and that (BroWt!, Nilson, Shaw, and Weldon, 1984, p. 34). There are four types of :se!l:tertce:s:declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory. sentence l:ll!lk:es a statement and ends Vlith a period. An A An exclamatory sentence shows >u •u16 feeling and ends with an exclllmation point. An imperative or makes a request. A mild collil!Ilalld or request ends with a period, but a strong commi!IJd or request ends with an exclamation Declarative read a noveL example: 16 Why read the novel? start, he will never stop! t<JllC!:! that hook! 2.3.2.2.Sell!te!llee IOO!llillpie:rlty Sentence oomplexity differs acoording to the number and kinds of clauses that me four kinds of senteru::es: simple, compound, complex, and !hey contain. A sim:ple serltellce is a sentence that contains one indepe!ldent clause and no e:ralm!Jle: I like banana. A compound sentence is a. se Jtence cor .. sting two or more il:>.d-'f)endent chruses. For e:raunple: jurnped on the horse and rode away. A complex sentence is a sentence that consist one indep :ndrot clause and one o:r more subordinate c!.auses. For example: While Han:y was sleeping, I used his phone. compound-complex sentence is a sentence consisting of two or more one or more subordinate clauses. For example:Whlle Sam tried design or fmm of the completed meam to look important part a structure paitl'erns, fur tb.e shape of oontent of the whole story. Structure is a DiYru:mi (2000) declared that: 8tl1.l!;;tll.re is impor'..ant in for a number of reaso!'l3. lt satisfies our order, for proposition, for !imllllgement. A story's symmetzy or need balance of detills may please us, as may its alternation of moments of w.rctll.re is impomnt for a'lother resson: it tension and relaxation.... The alert signals fur a story's structu.< Js are repeated elements and repeated detsils, balances and parallelism, changes focus, and shifts in direction. For example e-vening was coming and that the sky the sentence: 'He knew Wl!S red and doom was new-'. Thls sentence is slrowing its structure by u ing repeated details al'ld parallelism: He knew that evening was coming, that the sky Wl!S red beautiful. He knew 23..2.4. his doom Wl!S nea.r. types A clause i.s a group of related wards that oontail:>.s both a subject and a predicate. There are two lcinds of clauses: L"ldepe!ldent clauses and aubordinate clauses. An Independent clause can stand by as a senrence, while a subordinate clause cannot s+.an.d by itself. The subordinate clause or dependent clause begins with the words whicJJ. while, and although. example: Tom was late, which surprised me. Independent cl. Dependent 18 .;;;d,.'w.Clause !itnl!<et< .R Usually a clausein this order: " Subject-verb-direct object "' Subject-verb-ii'Jiirect object-<lli-ect object "' Subje :t-verl:Hfuect object-to/for-indirect object "' Subject-verb-compiem.ent word does not change except there is the use of expletive, altered The changes inword order for emphasis add variety and (iUesiion, or indicates color ro writing. For example: a. The door sht."tS b. With a click, a dick. door shuts. These two sentences .ave the same content. differences are just the word order. sentence (a}puts the stress on the voice of the door when it is shut, which is 'click'. The sentence (b) puts the stress on the condition of the door, which is 'shut'. example shows i:.lmt the change in word order implies something. 2.3.2.5.Phrue A phrase a group of related words that I'IL'lctions as a single part of speech but lacks a subject, a predicate, or both. COlllli'lO!l of pl:imlles are preposi.tioml A prepositionaL p!h'"ll!Se consists of a preposition md its object, indmfulg my modifiers of t.'lai object. a example: the last years (preposition + modifiers + 19 oll;ject). PrepositionzJ x:llrases can used as adjective (adjective plllase) and adverb (adverb pb.rese). An appositive plw.!.se e:tq>iains or identifies a nmm or a pronoun placed near example: His hobby, reading and writing novels, will mother noun or pronoun. probably lead to an inllerestir g "hobby"). two (''reading a.'ld writing novels" in this part explains !l.P!XlSithee plllases: esseniial (necessary to the meaning of fue rence)andnor. er necessary to ilie mea..VIing of the sentence) appositive phrases. A verbal phrase is uhrase cdverb. There are foll!JS tb.at functioning as a noun, adjective, or ver·phrases: participigerund, and infinitive phrases. A pa.'1:icipiai pl-ul'asl'll! C<Jnsists of a participle and its modifiers and complements. The participial phrnse as an adjective to modifY a noun or a prooow. example: Disappointed by his scores in the fi=l test, he locked himself in his bedroom for days ("Disappointed by hls scores in fue final test" here modify "he"). A gerund pb.rnse consists of a gerwd and its modifiers and complements. It may perfurm all functions of a noun. eX!mllJJle: The cheering of the crowd gives the ream more to fight An infinifu"e ohx·ase OOll!l:is:ts of an irlJIDJtive and its modi.."'iers and compliments. It can function as a noml, mlldjec ve, or anlldverb. Example: To finish this thesis is my goal. smneone speaks, he/she may not mean what w-ords lirernlly mean. That is why figures 20 speech are Johnson (2005, p. 70), "figure oo:ordiing to speech is any way of the ordinary way." The non-ordi!:W"y way in this meaning saying son1etlid g is usee to cmr:munieate more tfum wilm: a word, pi1>'11Se, or sentooce can convey. to create imaginative and detailed writing beCiillse figures Figures of speech are used in the imaglMtive mther than the !item! sense. readers to make connection between tlte writer's thoo.gllts and of speech help external world. And according to r !rtin (1996, p. 26), figures of speech appreciate noveL tbe readers to Accordirtg to n;·v . ,.,; {2000, p. 81), in the discussion "''"'= language and style of fiction, most and metaphor), imr>nn> tnt figurative languages are the figures of comparison (simile symbol. 2.3.3.1. Simile Simile is to compare thl:- gs that essentially unlike. expressed by some word or phrase, such as: like, comparison is than, similar to, resembles, or sec I S. are as white as snow ha;;d is like a hammer 2.3.3.2. Metaph®r Like simile, l!ls.compares two tr.ings. But comparison in me taplior is not expressed by the used of certain words. simile, the comparison 21 is created when a figuratire term is substitllted for or identify with the literal term (Arp and Jol'mscm, 2005, p. 70). So, in metaphor two things are brought together amd asserted to be one, or in other words, tire two thilllgS are declared as one thing. For example: Her face is the moon, 2.3.3.3. lii'GIIY Irony is a technique used to convey a uuth about human experience by exposing some stTa.ngeness in a character's behavior or a socidy's traditio11.. This is why it is often used to employ humor in a novel or short story. Inmy is divided imo three kinds: verbal irony, dramatic irony, and irony of siruation. Verbal irony is a figure of speech in which the speaker says the opposite of what one means. It is a literary device of figure that may be used in the service of sarcasm (language one person uses to ridicule another). Arp (i99l) said that "Though verbal irony aiways implies the opposite of what is said, it has many gradations, ami only in its simplest form does it mean only the opposite of what is said" (p. 663). Sometimes, the irony means both what is said and the opposite of what is said. Example: I got bad news for you: you aU got As and Bs[ Dramatic irony is the contrast between what a character says or thinks and what the reader knows to be true. Sometimes a character thinks or says negative things about someone without realizing that he/she actually criticizing himsel£'herself (but the readers are fully aware of this). Aql mdl Jo!:mson (2006) declared iliat "It is ironic that the judgment she m<!kes of them is exactly the same one of the story makes of her" (p. 277). The example of dramatic imny is when a character said ''Ifl have a time like him, 22 I will be rich," when in fad the reader can read that this character has more froo time for leisure than the one he/she spoke of. lrony of sitllation is the discrepancy betwoonllJPpearanre aru:l reality, or between expectation and fulfillment, or bel.woon what is alilld what would seem appropriate. When someone or something became a reversal of his/her/it expected or appropriate role, it is ironic. For example: When a ron artist was being fooled by hlsfher victim. As a figure of speech, irony can suggest complex meaning without really stated it. And the beauty of irony is when it Ehieves its effect through indirectness. Arp and Johnson (2005) stated that: Irony is most delightful and most effective when it is subtlest. It sets up a special understanding between the writer and reader that may add either grace or force. IT irony is too obvious, it sometimes seems merely crude. But if effectively used, it, !ike aU figurative language, is capable of adding extra dimensions to meaning_ (p_ 117). 2.3.3.4.Sym!Jcls Symbols are signs which represent something else. They are objects, actions, or events than convey meaning beyond their litem!sigruficance. Arp and Johnson (2006) defined it as: A literary symbol is something that means more than what it suggests on the surfuce. It may be an object, a person, a situation, an action, or some other element that has a literal meaning in the story but that suggest or represents other mearung as well. (p_ 216). 23 order not to overly is itself must give a be taken symbolically, the meaning of the context of the story, and it must S'Jggest a symbol must different kind of meaning (\1 .. 9" ::r 6) J ' are some traditiomi symbols that readers interpret from the story: Some trnditio!!al symbols are the dove (symbolizing peace), the heat-t (syrr1bolizing strengt.h), and so on.. ln (symbolizing love), the literature we often traditional symbols (for example, spring and 'VIIinter often symbolizing birth literary traditions (for death), as welt as symbols from more a rose symbolizing iove). (p. 24). A paradox is :m appare11t C\)OO'OOictk•n is nevertheless somehow true.It may be either a situation or a staten:1ent, element contradiction speeoh, paradox is a statement. sw:pri.se, because what starts off as &'"l apparent are more interesting than everyday ones. unheard are sweeter. Cohesion context are important to interpret the me!!lliirrg of a story in a right v."ay, in the wayillat the mrthor origi:nally intended. 24 Cohesion deals ·with The text V;-ays in which one part of text is linked to enother. a story is not just a ra\'!dom collection of sentences, but the sente Wel> are botmd together by meening end references. &"zy (1995) sUited that: between sentences, binding into a single continuous utterance, even though they are g;:amrnztically separnte sentences. (p. 217) focus is to In stylistic ar.alysis, means are cross-reference means that signals connections between linkage. Crnss-reference is the various meen.s which language uses to indicate that "the sa.'lle thing" is being referred to or mentioned in different parts of text Its devices are definite reference (personal pronoun, defini'te art.icle, dei,cti,c, implied), substitution (one, ones, do, so), elllipsils (omission or deletion of elements whc-se meaning is "understood"), formal repetition (repeated used va1iation (the use re;:>iacement an altemative expression a pronoun or Sl!bstitute) as a an expression). Linkage is showed by two t,l;ings: coordinating conjunctions (and, or, but, ..and, neither...nor, etc) and Hnlg adverbials (for, so, yet, however, therefore, meanwhlle, example, etc). As st.ated above, Ian,gw: ge m a vel"liclle of communication so messages cll!l be eJq>re:lseti. In a novel or short story, writer has fu.e goal to inform the reader about a 25 particular fictiorm[ world and (in the same time) ro build relatiorn;hlp with the resder so Inorder ro rlo so, the writer 11re:ls to jY-lt a context that shields the messages from the writer to readers. Co!!text will help readers to see connection between a text or a of the text with the message fuat the writer want ro say to reade1·s (or characters to always interpretation of the message would not be co!ltext, therefOre that the 'Writer view of narrator, character or the mi.'lor cha.-acter (an observer to others) events novel. The choice of the first person can bring tl.1e reader very close to the personality of the w.rrator, and al.so make events seem mo:re are described by an 'eye- smce witness'. This kind of rwrntor lla.s its own advantages disad1nmt3J!;es, such as Martin a.'l.d Hill (I996) stared: Of course the fi:rst-person !l.!il!:I1l.tl:r :is supposed to be just an ordinary person: hefshe cannot bow what is going on the heads of other chac-ac!ers, or !mow .all the fiicts of a sitU<"'tion. lkncwledge i;as its adva,·r..ages: it :is ofteu used in up, where tlte psychologi.ca! developmeot of element. x_P. 6,'. - < this 'limited' novels aboll!t growing !llUYator is the oomral 26 Third-person lliM!I12tor presents when the story is told by 11 ll:i8l!Yator outside the story, who refers to the characters by their !WI'Ies, or by 'he', 'she', or 'they'. Two main points of view are nmmally used in tliird-pemon naJ!1l'll.tor novel: the omrnsciell.t point of view and the limited poill.t of view. The omnisciell.t point of view meam that the narrator !mow everything about the events and the characters (their thougilt and motives), even thougil the narrator does not reveals a!! the fact Omnisciell.t p_arrntm divided into two: the intrusive narrator (who explicitly tells the reader things, commenting on !:he chwrllders and expla.illring events) and objective narrator (who shows tliilllgS vvithout commenting or explaining). The limited point of view mearu; that the narrator limited himself to the feeling of one character in the novel, so he only presents one point of view of events. These theories about theme and linguistic and stylistic categories will help to do the analysis of The Magiciom's Nephew in chapter three. The understanding of the terms and definitions will. support the awareness in finding the theme and to oonnect the linguistic ami stylistic categories wi.th the theme.