Download CHAP`TER2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Language is very

CHAP'TER2
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Language is very important far human
For a writer, language is needed to
comm micate his/her thought and feeling. Leech and Short (1995, p. 257) said that
"Language is a vehicle
communication whereby one person conveys messages to
another for a range of different purposes,
informing, ordering, persuading,
reassuring." Language needs to contain several things so it can be interpreted by the
readers
way that the writer mear1t it,
To be fuily understood,
aspects of language need to be considered, because
language does not concern only with what is being communicated, but it cares about
how it
Vv'l.lS
cmmnunicated, and
So, according. to Fh1eg;an (1999,
'win, why, where and when' it is communicate too.
7-8) language has three faces, wh.ie!l are meaning,
expression, and contexL
2.1. Three Faces of Language
Expressions in language include words, phrases, seatences, and pronunciation
(such as intonation and stress). Meaning refers to the sense and referents
7
the elements
8
sitllatilon in which the expression is u,.'tered and what
of expression. Context is
has been said earlier in that situa1iml.
1r.ese three components of language (expression, meaning, and context) are t.l;e
concern oflingulstic study, be•cal!Se "linguistic concern with the nature of language and
commu..t'Jication" (Akrntajian, De1ne!'S, Farmer, and Hamish, 1998, p. 5). On the other
hand, stylistics
whole linguistic properties
morphology, sermrr1tics, syntax,
phonology of the text.
Stylistics is one
methods
linguist, the word stylistics
to
of human language:
literary critici&"'!. According to Elgin (1979), a
application of the theory and methodology of
linguistics to literary il!!ltguage'"
litera.;r c=iti.c, "styHstics is a critic<ll approach which uses the methods and findings of
the science of linguistics
only with the questions
literary texts" (p. 202). So, stylistics deals not
'why
and 'why the author used this
author choose tc express himself in this way'
of words', but also 'how the lang-uage creates t.lje
artistic effe.cL'
These two main questions (the way and t.IJ.e words that authors choose to express
stylistic criticlsm
The goals
to uncover.
stylistics ac<:orcling to Barry (1995) are to provide hard data to
support intuitions about Iit< ra:r:v
based on linguistic evi.der1ce,
to suggest new interpretations of literary works
to establish genernl points about !low
goals are su ::po:tib:eyd Todd (1987), who wrote that:
literary
Literary stylistics is the area of study where the linguist combines with the
critic so as to achieve a fuUer understanding and appreciation of literature,
and
studies have shovm that a knowledge of phonology, morphology,
vocabulary, syntax, rhetorical and gecgraphical devices can help to make
always been covertly
overt what the sensitive reader cf literature
aware of. (p. 11
2.2.Theme
A theme is an impor<t part of a story. It is ustllilly known as something that
coiirrects a
- r, parts ot-hfel stones"
story tries to
meaning
communicate.. &1J (!991) said that "The theme
a piece of fiction is its controlling
idea or its central insight. It is the unifying ge!ler:a!ilcati'on
"t h-e story."f ,.p. 1.. 0·.1., ')·
·u'.-h...me 1. s a
soa
about human
of a story, which can be stated, by a narrator or one of
stated or implied by
that becomes the main idea
characters, or implied in the
story. And because theme is the central and unifYing concept of a story, it should
describe aJ.!the major details in the story. AU the important events or characters should
bear the theme, and there should not be contradiction be1t'lv< en the theme and any detail
of the story.
Even though to'Jeme is a vital element in a story, but not all stories have a theme,
because some stories are created just for
entertainment effect. Some stories are
created to m ke people !augh or scared. Others are created to raise questions and
Slli>}lense. DiYanni (2000,
86) said tha:"the theme
a parab!e is its teaching; and the theme of a
a
story is
is its moral; the theme of
inl]pli<:d view of life and
he continued,"Most fiction is not designed to teach o:r preach." So, it ca11
co:llOilct"
concluded that even though certain types of stories have a t.heme, but not all fictions
a theme.
Because the theme does not necessa...ily exist in a fiction, so whenever a theme
a story, it means that L'le author really wanted to say something through the
According to Arp (1991):
only (a) when an author has seriously attempted to reeord life
acc:ur<ttely or to reveal some truth about it or (b) when an author has
deliber3:tely introduced as a unifYing element some concept or theory of
story illwnim1tes.(pp. 102-103).
It
author wanted to tel! an important trJth about
sense, a theme
rea<:iers should know, or
the finding of a theme in a storf (that contains one)
IS
Althcrugh a
is very significant in a stOrf, but it does not mean that the
the story is
is not
author wanted to reveal an idea or philosophy of
to proclaim the theme to the readers. The value of a
of the story, but t'aere are also artistic and entertainment
acl:1ie11en ertt :We theme is the way a writer reveal life to the readers and the truth about
to explain can be something new (give insight to readers about
son1etl1i11i;) or already well known (to remind the readers of existing lesson). Arp (1991)
in his writing about theme:
rc'li'elactio,n offered by a good story may be somethl.'lg fresh or
sornothin.g old. The story may bring us some insight into life tbu we had
l1
not had before, and thus expand our horizons, or it may make us feel or
fed again some truth of which we have long been merely intellectually
aware. ... Story writers perform a service for us - interpret life for us whether they give us new insight or refresh and extent old ones. (p. 105)
2.3.Li!IT!guistic arnd Stylistic Categories
To analyze the literary work, it is needed to state the categories of what will be
seen that can help to analyze the work, because just as Leech and Short (1995) said,
"Every analysis of style is an attempt to find the artistic principles underlying a writer's
choice oflanguzge." (p. 74). So in order to be able to analyze the work we need to know
the language choices that the writer made.
The linguistic and stylistic categories can be separated under four categories:
lexical, grammatical, figures of speech, and cohesion and context.
2.3.1. Lexical Categories
Lexical categories concern with lexical choicesof the writer. The word choices
will have important impact because the words that the author chooses are the means to
translate meaning from the writer's mind to the hearer's mind. Tirrough the words
authors try to express their meaning, creativity, and style.
Lexical categories can be divided into major and minor word classes. The major
word classes are Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, and Adverbs, whlle the minor word classes
are Prepositions, Pronouns, Determiners, Conjunctions, Auxiliaries, and Negatives.
12
In this·thesis, t.1e lexica!categories will be divided into 4 parts, which are nouns,
verbs, 1!djectives, a!ld adverbs.
2.3.:1.1. Nouns
A noun is a part of speech that rnu11es a
place, thing, idea, animal,
quality, or action. Along with verbs, nouns are the basic
of any sentence.
nouns ca.'l be ciassified
intc several categories: common a!ld proper nouns, compound nouns, collective nouns,
ar.<d co:1crete and abstract nouns.
A ccrrunon noun names a class of people, pla<ces, thi11gs, or ideas, while a proper
noun is the officic.l n&'ne of a particular pel'SOll, place,
begins with a capital letter. Proper nouns
and religions, geographic names, names of
or idea, and it always
names of nationalities
&'ld names of time tmits. For
example:
Common noun
This country is beautiful
Proper noun
Indonesia is beautiful
A compound noun consists of two or more words used tcgether to form a single
noun. There are four kinds of compou..'ld nouns:
" Com;_:>our.:d ncuns tc at formed by joining two or more words. For example: football,
bookstore, hew'lache, stoplight, notebook, undergraduate, etc.
Compound no1.1.'1.S that consist
\VO-rds
by hyphens.
exa1nple: city-state,
mother-in-law, author-editor, break-b, baby-sitter, !:o!tu:rre··te:!teJr, etc.
'"
Compound noU!!S that consist of two words that of'.en used together. For example:
mind reading, seat belt, living room, ice skate, etc.
,.
Proper noun that consists of more
Queen of Engla,.'ld, River of Nile, House
A collective
considered a
OOUI1
one word. For example: Missour:River,
Representative, etc.
refers to a group of people, place, things, or ideas that is
For example: band, committee, team, class, m.ajority, etc. These
nouns can use sin:gul;ar or plural form according to the emphasis (on coilection or
individuai n1ember
group)
Concrete nouns refer to material things, people, or places, which are physical,
visible,
&id
tangible. Abstract nouns n&'!le
quality of mental concepts, such as ideas,
emotions, or attitudes. For example:
Concrete nouns
Abstract nouns
Book
beauty
love
Atom
A verb is a
thought
t.expresses an action or a state of being. Brown, Niison,
Shaw, and Weldon (1984) wrote tl:!at
oan make the difference between an
ordin&]piece of vvriting and ore that stirs
readet's imagination. For this reason,
good \1\-'l'iters use
of verbs: acticm
tell how something happened." (p. 16).
linking verbs, and auxiliary verbs.
are three kinds
14
An action verb describes the behavior or action of someone or something. Action
verbs may express physical actions or mental activity. For example: The athlete runs
toward the finish line.
A linking verb connects a noun or a pronoun with a word or words that identify
or describe the noun or pronoun. For example: Although he was sleepy, he still f<illt
hungry.
An :auxiliary verb is a verb that helps another verb. The verb that it helps is
cal.!ed the main verb. For example: He did not pass the test. A main verb and an
auxiliary verb fmm a verb phrase. For example: Our package had arrived!.
2.3.1.3. Adjectives
An adjective is a word that modifies a noun, a pronoun, or any other word or
group of words playing the part of a noun. An adjective modifies a word by qualifying,
describing, or limiting it. For example:
TI1e winning team played an offensive game.
Little knowledge is a !Jig danger.{Francis Bacon)
Adjectives provide the means for creating a mood or a lasting impression of a
person, a place, or a thing. For example:
The room is very large and loflty. The
windows are lm1g, nllrmw, and pointed.
23.1.4. Adverbs
A.'l adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. It
explains how the verbs are done, gives information about adjectives, and it also used to
15
express l<X:ati,on,
mi!!Jinet,
and degree. Adverbs
QCCW'
the middle of the
sentence or at
Bmv.n, NiisOJt!, Shaw, and Weidon (19114) said that adverbs such as rather,
really, certainly, indeed, and truly are "adverbs of extent and are nsed for empbasis" (p.
23).
categories ooncem with words,
connected
categories are
stn1c1:icrre of the words and se tences. It aiso concerns with punctuaiions
2.3.:2.1.Sentence types
A sentence
a group of words that
expresses a
r.as
a subject and a predicate and that
(BroWt!, Nilson, Shaw, and Weldon, 1984, p. 34). There
are four types of :se!l:tertce:s:declarative, interrogative, imperative,
exclamatory.
sentence l:ll!lk:es a statement and ends Vlith a period. An
A
An exclamatory
sentence shows
>u •u16
feeling and ends with an exclllmation point. An imperative
or makes a request. A mild collil!Ilalld or request ends with a
period, but a strong commi!IJd or request ends with an exclamation
Declarative
read a noveL
example:
16
Why
read the novel?
start, he will never stop!
t<JllC!:! that hook!
2.3.2.2.Sell!te!llee IOO!llillpie:rlty
Sentence oomplexity differs acoording to the number and kinds of clauses that
me four kinds of senteru::es: simple, compound, complex, and
!hey contain.
A sim:ple serltellce is a sentence that contains one indepe!ldent clause and no
e:ralm!Jle: I like banana. A compound sentence is a. se Jtence
cor .. sting two or more il:>.d-'f)endent chruses. For e:raunple:
jurnped on the horse and
rode away.
A complex sentence is a sentence that consist one indep :ndrot clause and one o:r
more subordinate c!.auses. For example: While Han:y was sleeping, I used his phone.
compound-complex sentence is a sentence consisting of two or more
one or more subordinate clauses. For example:Whlle Sam tried
design or fmm of the completed
meam to look
important part
a structure
paitl'erns, fur tb.e shape of oontent of the whole story. Structure is
a
DiYru:mi (2000) declared that:
8tl1.l!;;tll.re is impor'..ant in
for a number of reaso!'l3. lt satisfies our
order, for proposition, for !imllllgement. A story's symmetzy or
need
balance of detills may please us, as may its alternation of moments of
w.rctll.re is impomnt for a'lother resson: it
tension and relaxation....
The alert signals fur a story's structu.< Js are repeated elements and repeated
detsils, balances and parallelism, changes
focus, and shifts in direction. For example
e-vening was coming and that the sky
the sentence: 'He knew
Wl!S
red and
doom was new-'. Thls sentence is slrowing its structure by
u ing repeated details al'ld parallelism:
He knew that evening was coming,
that the sky
Wl!S red
beautiful.
He knew
23..2.4.
his doom
Wl!S
nea.r.
types
A clause i.s a group of related wards that oontail:>.s both a subject and a predicate.
There are two lcinds of clauses: L"ldepe!ldent clauses and aubordinate clauses.
An Independent clause can stand by
as a senrence, while a subordinate
clause cannot s+.an.d by itself. The subordinate clause or dependent clause begins with
the words whicJJ. while, and although.
example: Tom was late, which surprised me.
Independent cl.
Dependent
18
.;;;d,.'w.Clause !itnl!<et< .R
Usually a clausein this order:
" Subject-verb-direct object
"' Subject-verb-ii'Jiirect object-<lli-ect object
"' Subje :t-verl:Hfuect object-to/for-indirect object
"' Subject-verb-compiem.ent
word
does not change except there is the use of expletive, altered
The changes inword order for emphasis add variety and
(iUesiion, or indicates
color ro writing. For example:
a. The door sht."tS b. With a click,
a dick.
door shuts.
These two sentences .ave the same content.
differences are just the word order.
sentence (a}puts the stress on the voice of the door when it is shut, which is 'click'.
The
sentence (b) puts the stress on the condition of the door, which is 'shut'.
example shows i:.lmt the change in word order implies something.
2.3.2.5.Phrue
A phrase
a group of related words that I'IL'lctions as a single part of speech but
lacks a subject, a predicate, or both.
COlllli'lO!l
of pl:imlles are preposi.tioml
A prepositionaL p!h'"ll!Se consists of a preposition md its object, indmfulg my
modifiers of t.'lai object.
a
example:
the last
years (preposition + modifiers +
19
oll;ject). PrepositionzJ x:llrases can
used as adjective (adjective plllase) and adverb
(adverb pb.rese).
An appositive plw.!.se e:tq>iains or identifies a nmm or a pronoun placed near
example: His hobby, reading and writing novels, will
mother noun or pronoun.
probably lead to an inllerestir g
"hobby").
two
(''reading a.'ld writing novels" in this part explains
!l.P!XlSithee plllases: esseniial (necessary to the meaning of
fue rence)andnor. er
necessary to ilie mea..VIing of the sentence) appositive
phrases.
A verbal phrase is uhrase
cdverb. There are
foll!JS tb.at functioning as a noun, adjective, or
ver·phrases: participigerund, and infinitive
phrases. A pa.'1:icipiai pl-ul'asl'll! C<Jnsists of a participle and its modifiers and complements.
The participial phrnse
as an adjective to modifY a noun or a prooow.
example: Disappointed by his scores in the fi=l test, he locked himself in his bedroom
for days ("Disappointed by hls scores in fue final test" here modify "he"). A gerund
pb.rnse consists of a gerwd and its modifiers and complements. It may perfurm all
functions of a noun.
eX!mllJJle: The cheering of the crowd gives the ream more
to fight An infinifu"e ohx·ase OOll!l:is:ts of an irlJIDJtive and its modi.."'iers and
compliments.
It can function as a noml, mlldjec ve, or anlldverb. Example: To finish this thesis is my
goal.
smneone
speaks, he/she may not mean what
w-ords lirernlly mean. That is why figures
20
speech are
Johnson (2005, p. 70), "figure
oo:ordiing to
speech is any way of
the ordinary way." The non-ordi!:W"y way in this meaning
saying son1etlid g
is usee to cmr:munieate more tfum wilm: a word, pi1>'11Se, or sentooce can convey.
to create imaginative and detailed writing beCiillse figures
Figures
of speech are used in the imaglMtive mther than the !item! sense.
readers to make connection between tlte writer's thoo.gllts and
of speech help
external world. And
according to r !rtin
(1996, p. 26), figures of speech
appreciate
noveL
tbe readers to
Accordirtg to n;·v . ,.,; {2000, p. 81), in the discussion "''"'= language and style
of fiction,
most
and metaphor),
imr>nn> tnt
figurative languages are the figures of comparison (simile
symbol.
2.3.3.1. Simile
Simile is
to compare thl:- gs that essentially unlike.
expressed by
some word or phrase, such as: like,
comparison is
than, similar to,
resembles, or sec I S.
are as white as snow
ha;;d is like a hammer
2.3.3.2. Metaph®r
Like simile,
l!ls.compares two tr.ings.
But
comparison in me taplior is not expressed by the used of certain words.
simile, the
comparison
21
is created when a figuratire term is substitllted for or identify with the literal term (Arp
and Jol'mscm, 2005, p. 70). So, in metaphor two things are brought together amd asserted
to be one, or in other words, tire two thilllgS are declared as one thing. For example: Her
face is the moon,
2.3.3.3. lii'GIIY
Irony is a technique used to convey a uuth about human experience by exposing
some stTa.ngeness in a character's behavior or a socidy's traditio11.. This is why it is often
used to employ humor in a novel or short story. Inmy is divided imo three kinds: verbal
irony, dramatic irony, and irony of siruation.
Verbal irony is a figure of speech in which the speaker says the opposite of what
one means. It is a literary device of figure that may be used in the service of sarcasm
(language one person uses to ridicule another). Arp (i99l) said that "Though verbal
irony aiways implies the opposite of what is said, it has many gradations, ami only in its
simplest form does it mean only the opposite of what is said" (p. 663). Sometimes, the
irony means both what is said and the opposite of what is said. Example: I got bad news
for you: you aU got As and Bs[
Dramatic irony is the contrast between what a character says or thinks and what
the reader knows to be true. Sometimes a character thinks or says negative things about
someone without realizing that he/she actually criticizing himsel£'herself (but the
readers are fully aware of this). Aql mdl Jo!:mson (2006) declared iliat "It is ironic that
the judgment she m<!kes of them is exactly the same one of the story makes of her" (p.
277). The example of dramatic imny is when a character said ''Ifl have a time like him,
22
I will be rich," when in fad the reader can read that this character has more froo time for
leisure than the one he/she spoke of.
lrony of sitllation is the discrepancy betwoonllJPpearanre aru:l reality, or between
expectation and fulfillment, or bel.woon what is alilld what would seem appropriate. When
someone or something became a reversal of his/her/it expected or appropriate role, it is
ironic. For example: When a ron artist was being fooled by hlsfher victim.
As a figure of speech, irony can suggest complex meaning without really stated
it. And the beauty of irony is when it Ehieves its effect through indirectness. Arp and
Johnson (2005) stated that:
Irony is most delightful and most effective when it is subtlest. It sets up a
special understanding between the writer and reader that may add either
grace or force. IT irony is too obvious, it sometimes seems merely crude.
But if effectively used, it, !ike aU figurative language, is capable of adding
extra dimensions to meaning_ (p_ 117).
2.3.3.4.Sym!Jcls
Symbols are signs which represent something else. They are objects, actions, or
events than convey meaning beyond their litem!sigruficance. Arp and Johnson (2006)
defined it as:
A literary symbol is something that means more than what it suggests on
the surfuce. It may be an object, a person, a situation, an action, or some
other element that has a literal meaning in the story but that suggest or
represents other mearung as well. (p_ 216).
23
order not to overly
is
itself must give a
be taken symbolically, the meaning of the
context of the story, and it must S'Jggest a
symbol must
different kind of meaning
(\1
.. 9"
::r 6)
J
'
are some traditiomi symbols that readers
interpret from the story:
Some trnditio!!al symbols are the dove (symbolizing peace), the heat-t
(syrr1bolizing strengt.h), and so on.. ln
(symbolizing love), the
literature we often
traditional symbols (for example, spring and
'VIIinter often symbolizing birth
literary traditions (for
death), as welt as symbols from more
a rose symbolizing iove). (p. 24).
A paradox is :m appare11t C\)OO'OOictk•n
is nevertheless somehow true.It may
be either a situation or a staten:1ent,
element
contradiction
speeoh, paradox is a statement.
sw:pri.se, because what starts off as
&'"l
apparent
are more interesting than everyday ones.
unheard are sweeter.
Cohesion
context are important to interpret the me!!lliirrg of a story in a right
v."ay, in the wayillat the mrthor origi:nally intended.
24
Cohesion deals ·with
The text
V;-ays in which one part of
text is linked to enother.
a story is not just a ra\'!dom collection of sentences, but the sente Wel> are
botmd together by meening end references. &"zy (1995) sUited that:
between sentences, binding
into a single continuous utterance, even
though they are g;:amrnztically separnte sentences. (p. 217)
focus is to
In stylistic ar.alysis,
means are cross-reference
means that signals connections between
linkage. Crnss-reference is the various meen.s
which language uses to indicate that "the sa.'lle thing" is being referred to or mentioned
in different parts of
text Its devices are definite reference (personal pronoun,
defini'te art.icle, dei,cti,c, implied), substitution (one, ones, do, so), elllipsils (omission or
deletion of elements whc-se meaning is "understood"), formal repetition (repeated used
va1iation (the use
re;:>iacement
an altemative expression
a pronoun or Sl!bstitute) as a
an expression).
Linkage is showed by two t,l;ings: coordinating conjunctions (and, or, but,
..and, neither...nor, etc) and Hnlg adverbials (for, so, yet, however, therefore,
meanwhlle,
example, etc).
As st.ated above, Ian,gw: ge m a vel"liclle of communication so messages cll!l be
eJq>re:lseti. In a novel or short story,
writer has fu.e goal to inform the reader about a
25
particular fictiorm[ world and (in the same time) ro build relatiorn;hlp with the resder so
Inorder ro rlo so, the writer 11re:ls to jY-lt a context that shields the messages from
the writer to readers. Co!!text will help readers to see
connection between a text or a
of the text with the message fuat the writer want ro say to reade1·s (or characters to
always
interpretation of the message would not be
co!ltext, therefOre that
the 'Writer
view of narrator,
character or the mi.'lor cha.-acter (an observer
to others)
events
novel. The choice of the first person can bring tl.1e reader very close to the personality of
the w.rrator, and al.so make events seem mo:re
are described by an 'eye-
smce
witness'. This kind of rwrntor lla.s its own advantages
disad1nmt3J!;es, such as Martin
a.'l.d Hill (I996) stared:
Of course the fi:rst-person !l.!il!:I1l.tl:r :is supposed to be just an ordinary
person: hefshe cannot bow what is going on
the heads of other
chac-ac!ers, or !mow .all the fiicts of a sitU<"'tion.
lkncwledge i;as its adva,·r..ages: it :is ofteu used in
up, where tlte psychologi.ca! developmeot of
element. x_P. 6,'.
-
<
this 'limited'
novels aboll!t growing
!llUYator is the oomral
26
Third-person lliM!I12tor presents when the story is told by 11 ll:i8l!Yator outside the
story, who refers to the characters by their !WI'Ies, or by 'he', 'she', or 'they'. Two main
points of view are nmmally used in tliird-pemon naJ!1l'll.tor novel: the omrnsciell.t point of
view and the limited poill.t of view.
The omnisciell.t point of view meam that the narrator !mow everything about the
events and the characters (their thougilt and motives), even thougil the narrator does not
reveals a!! the fact Omnisciell.t p_arrntm divided into two: the intrusive narrator (who
explicitly tells the reader things, commenting on !:he chwrllders and expla.illring events)
and objective narrator (who shows tliilllgS vvithout commenting or explaining).
The limited point of view mearu; that the narrator limited himself to the feeling
of one character in the novel, so he only presents one point of view of events.
These theories about theme and linguistic and stylistic categories will help to do
the analysis of The Magiciom's Nephew in chapter three. The understanding of the terms
and definitions will. support the awareness in finding the theme and to oonnect the
linguistic ami stylistic categories wi.th the theme.