Download Global History Midterm Review Packet: Keys Religions and/or

Global History Midterm Review Packet:
1) Keys Religions and/or philosophies
a. Buddhism:
-Founder: Siddartha Guatama
-Origins: Started in India and spread through China
-Holy Book: Tripitaka; a collection of the teachings of the Buddha
-Major Beliefs:
*The Four Noble Truths: 1)All of life is suffering 2)The root of all suffering is desire 3)To eliminate
suffering, one must eliminate desire 4) to eliminate desire, one must follow the eight fold path
*The eight fold path: 1)Right views 2) right intentions 3)right speech 4) right conduct 5) right livelihood
6)right effort 7)right mindfulness 8) right meditation
*The ultimate goal is to attain nirvana, or union with the universe and release from the cycle of
reincarnation
-Buddhism accepts some beliefs from Hinduism such as karma, dharma, and reincarnation, however, it
rejects many Hindu gods as well as rituals and priesthood, they also rejected the caste system. They do
accept the idea of religious communities
-Spread: The Mauryan ruler, Asoka converted to Buddhism and sent missionaries to spread Buddhist
beliefs. Over times, traders and missionaries were able to spread Buddhism to many parts of Asia,
including China, Japan, Korea, and Southeast Asia
b. Hinduism:
-Name of deity: Brahman (the almighty spirit); comes in three forms: Brahma (The Creator),
Vishnu (the Preserver), Shiva (the Destroyer)
-Founder: no single founder
-Origins: Nomadic Aryans- inhabitants of the Indus River Valley
-Holy Book: The Vedas (a collection of prayers and sacred verses); The Upanishads (philosophical
dialogues about Hindu beliefs)
-Major Beliefs:
*Karma: all the deeds of a person’s life that affect their existence in their next life (which caste
hey will be born into) If a person behaves poorly, they may be reincarnated into a lower class. If they
behave well, they may be reincarnated into a higher class or may even achieve Moksha.
*Dharma: The moral and religious duties of each person according to their caste (following the
dharma, results in good karma). A person’s gender, class, age, and occupation are all related to their
dharma.
*Reincarnation: The rebirth of a soul into a new body, also into a new caste. This is all part of a
journey to achieve unity with Brahman. Once a soul has been reborn enough and has achieved all of
their duties, they break the cycle of reincarnation and join as one with Brahman, the universal spirit.
*Moksha: The break of cycle of reincarnation and union with Brahman. Moksha is what every
Hindu is trying to achieve in their lives.
*The Hindu caste system has an enormous impact on their lives. It determines their
occupation, marriage privileges, position in society, clothing apparel, and dharma.
Caste System:
-Brahmin: the priestly caste
-Kshatriya: the warrior caste
-Vaisyas: the laborer caste (merchants, farmers, artisans, herders)
-The Untouchables: slaves and others who are basically considered garbage. They take jobs nobody else
will take and are not allowed to come into contact with anybody in a higher caste.
-Spread: The Aryans had spread their Hindu beliefs through their invasion of the Indus River Valley.
Hinduism became the religion of India, and eventually it spread through China.
c. Confucianism:
-Founder: Confucius
-Origins: China
-Holy Book: The Analects, a collection of Confucius’ teachings
-Major Beliefs:
*Society: 1)All people are naturally good and must be guided with rules and rewards 2) Education
should be the road to advancement in society 3) TO ensure social order, the individual must find and
accept his proper place in society.
*Filial Piety: The respect one owes his family and elders
*Five Key Relationships: 1) Master/Servant 2) Father/Son 3) Older brother/Younger brother 4)
Husband/Wife 5)Friend/Friend
*In each relationship, one is superior to the other, however, still encourages mutual respect and
responsibility
*View on government: Meritocracy (only giving government jobs to those who are truly qualified for
the jobs, regardless of position in society-lead to Civil Service Exams); Bureaucracy (division of
government into departments)
Spread: Although it really only stayed within Asia, it was a dominant philosophy during the Han Dynasty
and greatly influenced government. It became prominent again during Tang and Song dynasties.
d. Judaism:
-Deity: God
-Founder: The Hebrews
-Origins: Initially lived in Mesopotamia but built the Kingdom of Israel and established the capital at
Jerusalem
-Holy Book: The Old Testament or the Torah
-Major Beliefs:
*Belief in a single God: God is the single almighty spirit; he is the protector, he is all-knowing, he is allpowerful, he is always present
*The Ten Commandments: ten major rules to abide by to be a good Jew. Thes erules were spoken by
God to Moses.
Spread: The Romans expelled the Jews from Palestine during the Diaspora, or scattering of the people.
Jews settled in a great variety of places, wherever they were, maintaining their traditions within closeknit communities.
e. Christianity:
-Deity: God (God the father, God the son (Jesus), God the Holy Spirit)
-Founder: Jesus
-Origins: Jerusalem in the Kingdom of Israel
-Major Beliefs:
*God: Like in the Jewish religion, they believe in one almighty god.
*Jesus: Jesus is believed to be God’s son sent by God’s son sent from heaven to be the Messiah, or the
messenger. His purpose on earth was to preach God’s word. Jesus was considered divine through his
connection to God. He was able to work miracles such as healing people and resurrecting the dead.
*The Ten Commandments: As in Judaism, Jesus preached the 10 commandments. However, he also
preached new ideas which were written down and called the New Testament. Jesus promised that
whoever followed his teachings was guaranteed entry into the Kingdom of heaven where they would
live in paradise for all eternity.
-Spread: First spread through the work of missionaries, such as Paul. Despite Roman persecution,
Christianity continued to spread throughout the Roman Empire. Later, Emperor Constantine, legalized
Christianity throughout the Roman Empire without persecution, while Emperor Theodosius made it the
official religion of the Empire. After the fall of Western Rome, missionaries and traders continued to
spread Christianity throughout Europe. The Europeans took Christianity to the Americas, Africa, and
Asia.
f. Islam:
-Deity: Allah (God)
-Founder: Muhammad (Allah’s prophet)
-Origins: Arabia (specifically in Mecca, the birthplace of Muhammad)
-Holy Book: The Koran, the final authority on all matters and a guide to life for all Muslims; The Hadith: a
collection of the sayings of the prophet; the Sunna: a collection of examples of the prophet; the Sharia: a
book of law according to the Koran
-Major Beliefs:
*Islam: Submission to the will of God
*Muslim: One who submits
*The Five Pillars of Islam: 1) Submission and declaration of faith to Allah 2) Prayer five times a day
(Rakah: Muslims must pray facing east, toward Mecca) 3) Giving money to charity 4) Fasting during the
month of Ramadan (the month in which Muhammad received his revelation from the angel, Gabriel)
5)Participating in the Haj, a pilgrimage to Mecca, the holy city, to the Ka’aba, the official shrine of Islam)
Major Events: 570: the birth of Muhammad, 610: Muhammad’s revelation from the angel, 612:
Muhammad starts preaching, 622: Muhammad flees from Mecca to Yathrib, later renamed Medina,
630: Muhammad returns to Mecca and conquers it, converting it to Islam and establishing the Ka’aba as
the official shrine of Islam, 632: Muhammad dies but the spread of Islam continues
Spread: After Muhammad’s death, Islam spread over 3 continents. Skillful Arab fighter spread Islam
through military conquest, since the Arabs treated conquered people fairly, many willfully converted to
Islam. Trading networks with Africa, China, and India also contributed to the spread. Islam also spread
into North Africa and Spain (the Umayyads).
2. Key Individuals:
Mohammad
Dates: 570-632
Area of influence: Middle East, North Africa, Spain
Achievements: He received the revelation from the angel, Gabriel in which he was opened to the
teachings of Islam, he was also given the job to preach these teachings; the Koran was written according
to his preaching which is the divine word of the Islamic religion; The Hadith was written which was a
collection of sayings of the prophet; the Sunna was written as a collection of examples of the prophet;
he conquered Mecca and converted it to Islam, declaring the Ka’aba the official shrine of Islam; the laid
the foundation for Dar al Islam
Cyrus
Date: around 599 BC
Area of influence: Persia
Achievements: Established Persian Empire; Freed Jews from their captivity in Babylon and allowed them
to rebuild their capital at Jerusalem; practiced religious tolerance; known as Cyrus the Great
Darius:
Dates: around 521 BC
Area of influence: Persia
Achievements: He took over the Persian Empire and instituted organization; he built the royal roads
which established a network of trading and communication; established satraps (division od land in
sections) and satrapies (governed each satrap)
Confucius
Dates: 500 BC
Area of influence: China
Achievements: Established the philosophy of Confucianism, which spread throughout China and became
the official philosophy of China during the Han Dynasty and again later during the Song and Tang
Dynasties; created idea of Filial Piety and the Five major relationships; instituted order in society;
improved government through meritocracy and bureaucracy; helped create Civil Service Exams
Shi Huang Di
Dates: 220 BC-210 BC
Area of Influence: China
Achievements: Unified the warring states of China and became the first Chinese Emperor; ruled under
legalism (the philosophy that all humans are naturally evil and must be taught through strict rules and
harsh punishments- he burned all books that contradicted Legalist teachings); built the Great Wall of
China (forcing many to work on the wall against their will); unified currency, weights and measurements,
writing system (2 separate systems for eastern and western China); instituted great building programs
(Great Wall; Terracotta soldiers built to protect his tomb)
Pericles
Dates: 460 BCE- 430 BCE
Area of Influence: Greece
Achievements: Ruled during the Hellenic of Golden Age of Greece; rebuilt and beautified Athens; built
the Temples on the Acropolis and the Parthenon; took part in the Delian League (a shipping league
throughout the Mediterranean which was run by Athens) which increased wealth of Athens; established
direct democracy.
Alexander the Great
Dates: 330 BCE
Area of Influence: Greece (also India, Egypt, and Persia)
Achievements: Ruled during the Hellenistic Age of Greece; unified a one world culture under Greek
philosophy; united Egyptian, Persian, Indian, and Greek culture; was a great warrior; after his death, the
Empire was divided among 4 of his generals
Caesar
Dates: 60 BCE-44 BCE
Area of Influence: Rome
Achievements: Great military general; subdued Gal, came back to Rome and declared himself dictator
for life; he began to take power away from the senate which as a result got him killed by the Senate,
having his nephew, Octavian, take over ruling Rome
Augustus (Octavian)
Dates: 27 BCE-14 CE
Area of Influence: Rome
Achievements: Rome’s first emperor; brought Rome to a 200 year period of peace and prosperity known
as the Pax Romana
Constantine
Dates: 330 CE
Area of Influence: Eastern Rome
Achievements: Emperor of Eastern (thriving) Roman Empire; established the Roman capital at
Byzantium and renamed it Constantinople; made Christianity legal and free of persecution
Justinian
Dates: 525 CE
Area of Influence: Byzantine Empire
Achievements: Ruled the Byzantine Empire; preserved Greco-Roman culture and learning; created the
Justinian Code which was a set of written laws, legal writings, in even included a student handbookJustinian was known for his code; made Rome wealthy from trade; put down the Nike rebellion
Genghis Khan
Dates: 1260s
Area of Influence: Asia
Achievements: Took over all of Asia and created on enormous empire; came from a warrior horse
culture which spread throughout Asia; was known as the transmitter of knowledge through his practice
of extensive trade and communication
Kublai Khan
Dates: 1280s-1300s
Area of Influence: Asia
Achievements: took over Chinese Empire; continued to practice massive trade; encouraged cultural
diffusion; one example was the fact that he had Muslim and European advrisors
3. Influence of geography on civilizations
Mesopotamia: positive/negative
-Located between two rivers (Tigris and Euphrates) which deposited silt (when overflowed) which
provided for fertile farmland, it also provided a great supply of freshwater, however, the flooding was
unpredictable and sometimes only harmful
-Since this was their only system for growing crops, often the river didn’t flood at the proper times
which lead to starvation and famines
-From looking at the forces of the rivers and other natural phenomena such as thunder, people came up
understanding that there must be some divine force controlling aspects of nature, which lead to
development of polytheistic religion (An: God of the sky, Enlil: God of the wind, Ninhursaga: goddess of
soil. Mountains, and vegetation); the river gods were feared since flooding was unpredictable
-Understanding that people cannot simply rely on the fate of the river lead to development of irrigation
-Surplus of food from agriculture lead to leisure time, which lead to development of specialization,
which lead to the building of citied as centers of commerce, which lead to political and social class
systems (civilization)
-The surplus lead to development of a civilization, in which social and sexual inequality emerged; a social
class system was developed that put certain groups of people above others and the Hammurabi law
code stated that women were inferior to men; only men attended scribal school
-Since the civilization was located on flat land, they were open to invasion
-The fact that they were open to invasion lead to building of brick walls and creation of armies
Egypt:
-Since most of Egypt was mainly a desert, people settled along the Nile River
-The Nile River flooding provided fresh water and fertile soil for farming
-Unlike in Mesopotamia, the Nile’s flooding was predictable, gradual, and consistent
-Villages of the Nile did not require intervention so Egypt remained more rural with small population
centers along each side of the Nile
-Egypt was protected by natural barriers, which provided a sense of security, without preventing trade
(barriers included deserts, river rapids, and the Mediterranean Sea)
-Egyptian gods were based on nature and geography; the most powerful god Aton (Amon Re) was the
god of the sun, while gods such as Osiris, Isis, and Horus, were river gods. Since the Nile flooding was
predictable and always helpful, river gods were considered helpful deities, while the floods were
considered a blessing from the gods
India:
-Geographic features give the sub-continent its spade-like shape and influenced the development of the
region
-In the far north: The Himalayas and the Karakoram Mountains
-Directly south of the region: the rich valley of the Holy River, Ganges
-To the west: the Indus River Valley
-TO the South of the river valley: a region of hills, called the Deccan, and an upland plateau which
extended from the Ganges Valley, all the way to the southern tip of the subcontinent
Off the southern coast: the inland
-The river bodies provided fresh water for agriculture and lead to development of sewer systems and
irrigation for water movement
-The natural barriers provided protection from invasion
-The Ganges river became a huge part of the Hindu religion, it was considered the Holy River and people
bather in it to be cleansed- this however lead to disease, infection, and death since the river was
incredibly polluted and infested with disease
Phoenicia:
-nearby bodies of water allowed extensive trade (purple dye, glass, wine, lumber, etc.)
-this lead to development of improved ships
-they were able to chart new trade routes in the Atlantic Ocean, as well as the Mediterranean, which
allowed them to reach the west coast of Africa
-This in turn allowed them to develop colonies in the western Mediterranean (southern spain, sicily,
Sardinia, Carthage, etc)
China:
-The civilization grew up in the river valleys of the Huang He, or Yellow River, and the Yangzi.
-The yellow river became known as the river of sorrows because of its violent and destructive floods
-This lead to extensive projects being developed to try to control the Yellow River floods
-Mountains, deserts, jungles, and ocean are all natural barriers that isolated Chinese culture more than
most other early civilizations
-Due to their isolation, they had little knowledge of other cultures and considered themselves as the
center of the world and calling themselves the Middle Kingdom
-Until recent times, most people only settled along the east coast or in river valleys
-Despite isolation, China still traded with other cultures as their goods reached the Middle East and
beyond
Greece:
-Located in southeastern Europe
-Made up of many mountains, isolated valleys, and small islands
-This prevented Greeks from building a large empire, instead, Greece created isolated city-states
-The Aegean and Mediterranean Seas were an important link for Greece to the rest of the world as
Greeks became skilled sea traders
-It allowed them to exchange not only goods but technology and ideas as well. For example, the Greek
adapted the Phoenician alphabet
-Two major city states that developed were Sparta and Athens and the fact that they were so different
truly demonstrated the isolationism between them
*Sparta: a warrior society; from an early age, all boys were trained for a lifetime in the military; at 7
years old, boys were moved to Barracks, where they were toughened by a coarse diet, hard exercise,
and rigid discipline; girls were trained to exercise rigorously and strengthen their bodies in order to give
birth to healthy army boys. Any baby born with any sort of illness or disability and even the slightest
defect was left to die; they discouraged creativity though literature or art as well as individuality
*Athens: had a direct democracy (only men, however, could vote); although slavery was practiced in
Athens, they still a voice in government to a greater amount of people than any of other culture of its
times; they weren’t as focused on the military as Sparta but still had a strong one; they contributed
great development in the arts, literature, science, and architecture; they were considered a cultural
center and a great place for thinkers, writers, and artists; encouraged creativity and individuality
Rome:
-Sheltered location 15 miles from the Mediterranean coast- on the Tiber River
-To make use of advantages of the sea but avoid harm, Romulus placed the city on the bank of the Tiber
River which flows throughout the year with an even current
-Natural defenses: high steep hills (7 hills of Rome)
-Mediterranean Sea: provided for trade, conquest, and offered some protection
- The Po River: provided for rich farming in the northern plains
-The Tiber River in western Rome: more navigable; allowed trade and transportation
-Po River Plains: fresh water from Po river-good farm land
-Western Plains: good for crops (more than the east)
-Mediterranean climate: similar to Greece- growing similar crops
Maurya and Gupta Empires:
-The Mauryas and the Guptas were the only early Indian civilization able to unite the subcontinent
under one rule
-Both arose in the north and spread southward
-Mountains helped protect these civilizations from foreign invaders
-The Indus and Ganges rivers flowed throughout the regions, providing water and fertile soil
-The Gupta Dynasty rose after the rule of the Maurya dynasty and was a period of peace and prosperity
for India
4. Early Civilization
Discovery: For the earliest civilizations scientists and historians used archeological and biological
techniques to develop theories about each civilization. What gave the biggest clue about each
civilization were the artifacts, or the manmade remains of each civilization such as tools or weapons.
Paleolithic Age (2,500,000 BC-10,000 BC): Known as “The Stone Age”; the period of nomadic lifestyle;
this included hunting and gathering as the main method of production and survival.
Mesolithic Age (10,000 BC- 7000 BC): Known as “The Middle Stone Age”; it was a period of gradual
transitioning from nomadic hunting and gathering to herding and farming.
Neolithic Age (Revolution) (7000-5000 BC): Known for the official shift from nomadic hunting and
gathering to a settled lifestyle of herding and agriculture. Eventually, the surpluses of food due to
agriculture lead to development of a true civilization with true civilization-like characteristics.
5 Characteristics of Civilization: 1) Specialization/Division of Labor 2) Complex Institutions (politics,
religion, etc.) 3) Advanced Cities 4) Writing System 5) Technology
5. Key details and events pertaining to each civilization
a. Mesopotamia:
*Religion:
-temples were economic centers
-practiced divination
-Kings were agents of Gods
-Practiced anthropomorphism (combining animal and human features into physicality of Gods)
-Temples were called Ziggurats
-Religion based off of geography and nature
*Government
-Theocracy
-Priests and Priestesses held a lot of power in government
-Initially, only Gods ruled the cities, eventually, ruling power passed on to Kings
-Had a bureaucracy
*Specialization:
-Developed due to surplus of food
-Included: artisans, craftsmen, farmers, scribes, fishermen, merchants, builder, potters/artists, teachers
of future and divination, irrigation workers
*Social Class System:
-Consisted of Nobles on top, then the commoners, and then the slaves
*Economy:
-Primarily based on agriculture, industry and commerce became important as well
-people produced works such as wooden textiles, pottery, and metalwork which they traded for
valuable resources
*Technological advancements:
-Writing system (cuneiform); Example of literature: Epic of Gilgamesh
-Reed stylus for writing
-Advanced irrigation
-mud bricks
-Math achievements based on the number, 60
-Use of geometry to measure fields and erect buildings
-Charted constellations
-Developed calendar based on 12 lunar months
-Axes, spears, and copper/bronze daggers
-Plows for farming
-Wheel for transportation of goods
*Cities
-separated into city-states
-Eridu, Ur, Uruk, Umma, Lagash (examples)
-Basic unit of Sumerian civilization
-No natural boundaries=surrounded by walls
-Babylon=major city established as capital by Hammurabi
*Rulers:
-Sargon of Akkad: united upper and lower Mesopotamia into the world’s first empire
-Hammurabi: became the second empire; conquered Akkad and Sumer; established new capital at
Babylon; employed a disciplined army; assimilated Mesopotamian culture with Sumerian ways even
after the fall of Sumer; built temples, defensive walls, and irrigation canals and encouraged trade
-The Code of Hammurabi: The first written law code in history, written by Hammurabi; introduced the
idea of separation between social classes; introduced idea of sexual inequality; established standards of
justice
b. Egypt
*Religion:
-Based on geography and nature: Sun god (Aton or Amon Re)=Chief God; land/river gods included Osiris,
Isis, and Horus
-Practiced anthropomorphism
-Strong belief in an afterlife (as seen in the Myth of Osiris and the Book of the Dead)
-Built extravagant pyramids to serve as tombs for the wealthy dead; stocked with weapons, food, and
other valuable materials to aid in the afterlife
-Believed in a preparation for the underworld
-Practiced mummification
*Government
-Monarchy
-Regions separated into nomes, each one governed by a nomarch
-Kings had viziers who were in charge of departments of the bureaucracy
-Intermediate periods characterized by weak political structures and rivalry for leadership
-Kings were called Pharaohs
-Priests of Amon had a lot of power and authority
*Specialization:
Basically the same as Mesopotamia, except they also had agents of the pharaohs and builders of the
pyramids
*Social Class System:
-God-Kings at the top, surrounded by nobles and priests
-Next were the merchants and artisans, who engaged in trade and production of goods (traded with
Crete, Syria, Nubia, and Punt)
-Lower class were land-farmers, made up the biggest portion of the population
*Economy:
-Based on agriculture as well as trade and commerce
-Merchants traded locally and internationally ( Wood from Crete and Syria, Ivory from Nubia, spices
from Punt)
-Artisans created products (stone dishes, painted clay boxes, gold, silver, and copper tools, etc.)
-Farmers paid taxes in crops
-Nomarchs in charge of tax collection
*Technological Advancements:
-Writing system (hieroglyphics; originally only used as sacred writings; example=Book of the Dead)
-Pyramids
-Simple irrigation (water wheel, stick and weight)
-plow
-Used papyrus for paper
-Learned how to use bronze for farming tools and weapons
-Learned to use horse-drawn chariots
*Cities:
-Natural boundaries=open cities (largely rural civilization)
-Akhenaten: city built during Akhenaton’s rule as capital
-Thebes capital of Egypt before Akhenaten
-Karnack: city of temples
*Rulers:
-King Menes (double diadem): united upper and lower Egypt
-5 Notable Pharaohs:
~Queen Hatshepsut: first female pharaoh; sent out military expeditions and trading expeditions to punt;
fostered agriculture; crossed-dressed as a man to gain respect; regent for Thutmoses the 3rd, refused to
give reign up to her son
~Thutmoses the 3rd: ruled after Hatshepsut; ordered to have her remains destroyed; expanded Egypt’s
borders
~Amenhotep the 4th: called himself Akhenaton; tried to convert Egypt to monotheism and only worship
Aton, the son god; closed temples of all other gods; wanted to lessen power of priests of Amun; built
new capital to replace Thebes
~Tut: Restored to polytheism; returned capital to Thebes; restored power of priests
~Ramses 2nd: greatest city builder; regained control of Palestine
*Old Kingdom:
-Menes unites Egypt; age of pyramids; divine kingship; nomes and Nomarchs, viziers; writing system
*Middle Kingdom:
-Golden Age; Nomes reorganized and perfected; boundaries and obligations precisely settled; new role
of Pharaoh; Pharaohs more accessible
*New Kingdom:
-Influenced by Hyksos; Bronze Age; New tools and weapons; Horse drawn chariot; most powerful
Empire in Middle East; Age of the 5 notable pharaohs
~The Hyksos invasion came during the second intermediate period
Hittites:
-started use of iron, which lead their kingdom to become powerful and innovative
-Came from Asia Minor
-Fought the battle of Kadesh, whose treaty became the world’s first peace treaty
-Kingdom fell when use of iron was discovered by other civilizations
c. Phoenicians:
-engaged in active trade
-produced many goods for the foreign market (*purple dye*, glass, wood, etc.)
-created better ships for trade and travel
-Colonized to improve economy and resources
-Carthage: most prominent colony
-Created alphabet for record-keeping; became a model alphabet for many other civilizations
d. Hebrews:
-Started in Mesopotamia
-Developed a monotheistic religion based on the ten commandments which were given to Moses by
God
-Built the Kingdom of Israel
-Built the capital as Jerusalem
-Were held captive in Babylon during the reign of the Chaldeans
-Were freed during the Persian conquer and reign of Cyrus the Great; allowed to return to Jerusalem
and rebuilt capital
-Were exiled during the Roman period in what’s known as the Diaspora of the scattering of the people
e. Assyrians:
-Took over fertile crescent
-Developed effective and organized military, equipped with iron weapons
-Used guerilla and siege warfare
-Had a close relationship between religion and warfare (fought for their god)
-Conquered by Chaldeans
f. Persians:
-Cyrus the Great conquered the Chaldeans
-He freed the Jews and practiced religious and cultural tolerance which made him a favorable ruler
-After him, Darius created the largest Empire thus far in history, taking over centers of power in Egypt,
Western Asia, Thrace, Asia Minor, and the Indus River Valley
-Governed effectively through military
-Built royal roads
-Developed postal system
-Divided land into provinces called satraps which were governed by satrapies
-Created tax-collecting system
-Created network of spies
g. India:
*Early India:
-Civilization began in the cities of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa
-Began in farming villages and used mud bricks for building
-Economy based primarily on agriculture
-Engaged in active trade
-Had an organized structure of cities (like a grid) and a centralized government
-People were originally monotheistic
-They were well developed in specialization, art, and architecture (sculptures were their highest artistic
achievements)
-They had an advanced drainage and sewer system
*The Aryan Invasion:
-Nomadic Indo-Europeans who came through the Khyber Pass conquered Harappan civilization and
destroyed Mohenjo Daro
-Used new technology such as advanced irrigation and plows
-Developed the civilization’s first writing system
-Started the Vedic Age and introduced the Hindu religion as well as a social class system based on castes
*The Mauryan Empire
-Founded by Chandragupta Maurya; first gained power in the Ganges Valley, but soon conquered much
of Northern India
-His descendants moved southward, dominating the Deccan Plateau
-The Maurya Dynasty became the first ruling united Indian Empire
-Set up an efficient bureaucracy
-Asoka was considered its greatest ruler; he was against violence and rejected any further conquest; he
adopted the Buddhist religion and sent missionaries to spread it, hoping to set a moral example; he
united diverse people and brought peace and prosperity
*The Golden Age of India was under the Gupta Empire (discussed later)
h. China
*the Shang Dynasty:
-The Shang first gained control of part of northern China
-Although there was a king, clans or groups of families controlled most of the land
-The Shang set up the first dynasty, or ruling family in China
-Shang China had a social class system similar to other cultures with noble warriors on top who owned
the land, next, the merchants and craftspeople, and them then the peasants who lived in farming
villages
-The people of the Shang prayed to many gods and nature spirits, they looked to dead ancestors to
intercede with the gods and help them with their lives, offering food and sacrifices to their ancestors
(ancestor veneration); they believed the universe was held in a delicate balance between two forces, the
yin and the yang, and that peace and prosperity came with the perfect balance of these forces
-Contribution of Shang China:
~Written language which included pictographs (drawing of objects) and ideographs (drawing of ideas);
only taught to the upper classes
*The Zhou Dynasty
-The Zhou people overthrew the Shang and set up their own dynasty
-Developed the concept of the Mandate of Heaven, which states that the right to rule comes from
heaven and comes with specific duties that must be fulfilled
-They used this concept to create the idea of a dynastic cycle
-The Dynastic Cycle: New Dynasty (finds mandate of heaven, brings peace and prosperity, brings
innovation)-Old Dynasty(Problems arise; high taxes, poor protection, people treated unfairly; road fall
apart, etc.)-Old dynasty loses mandate of heaven-More problems (natural disasters, revolts and
protests, invasion, etc.)-Old dynasty falls and new Dynasty begins again
-Developed a system called feudalism: local lords controlled their own region but owed military service
to their ruler
-Contributions: made the first Chinese Books, made iron tools and weapons, used advanced irrigation,
built new roads and canals, developed a currency, astronomers developed an accurate calendar and
mapper planet movements, made silk which became a valuable export
*The Qin Dynasty
-Ruled by Qin Shi Huang Di, who proclaimed himself first emperor
-Shi Huang Di: abolished old feudal states and united China into one big Empire; standardized
measurements; created national coins; promoted uniformity in writing; repaired roads and canal; built
Great Wall of China; ruled under Legalism, which made him unpopular and lead to his downfall
*The Golden Age of China was marked by the Han Dynasty (will be discussed later)
*The Sui, Tang, and Song dynasties
-The Sui: strong foundation for Tang and Song; grand canal built to join the two major rivers of China;
Great Wall of China was refortified
-The Tang: China regained lost land; expanded over Korea; expanded infrastructure; lowered taxes and
redistributed land; improved agriculture; civil service exams revived
-The Tang lose the mandate of heaven: large empire=difficult to maintain; heavy taxes were imposed;
Arabs gain control in the Battle of Talas; border attacks and internal rebellion lead to downfall
*The Song Dynasty additionally marks China’s Golden Age (will be discussed later)
i. Greece:
*Rise of City-States
-The isolationism as a result of the geographical barriers, lead to the rise of isolated city-states
-Each city-state was called a Polis; each Polis was made up of two parts 1) a hilltop acropolis filled with
temples 2) the main city on the flatter ground filled with markets, homes, theatres, and other public
areas.
-Each city-state developed a different type of government. Originally, kings ruled each city-state,
overtime, nobles gained power, creating an aristocracy (gov. ruled by an elite class). From there,
individual governments developed in individual city-states
-Sparta and Athens (details of each discussed above under geographical influences)
*The Golden Age of Greece was marked by the Hellenic Age (will be discussed later)
*Peloponnesian War: Between Athens and Sparta; Athens had a better navy but Sparta has a better
army; ends in a truce
*The Second War: Athens attacks Syracuse in Sicily but is defeated by Spartans
*Hellenistic Age:
-Philip of Macedonia conquered Greece, which was weakened by years of civil war
-His son, Alexander the Great took over and built an Empire which included the Nile Valley, Persia, and
parts of India
-Alexander the great united a one-world culture based on Greek philosophy
-Even after Alexander’s death, Hellenistic culture continued to have a lasting impact on the regions he
ruled
j. Rome:
*The Republic:
-Founded when the Romans drove out the Etruscans who had ruled them
-The Romans then established a republic, in which officials were chosen by the people
-The most powerful government body was the Senate, whose members were part of the upper class or
the Patricians, the officials elected consuls who supervised business and gov.
-The Plebians were the lower class and originally had little power
-The male had authority over his wife and the household, however, over the years, women gained
greater freedom and played a bigger roles in business
*The Empire:
-Once Rome conquered all of Italy, they went on to conquer Carthage, Macedonia, Greece, and parts of
Asia Minor
-The expansion increased the gap between the rich and the poor and lead to increased corruption
-In the period of Chaos, Julius Caesar came to power and made important conquests and reforms
(details of Caesar previously discussed in key individuals)
-After Caesar was murdered, his grandnephew, Octavian (Augustus) took over, ruling with absolute
power and bringing the republic to an end; he became Rome’s first emperor, leading into 200 period of
peace and prosperity called the Pax Romana
-With the reign of Diocletian, the Roman Empire split into two empires; the east (became the Byzantine
Empire) thrived, while the West failed
*The Golden Age of Rome, marked by the Pax Romana will be discusses later
k. The Byzantine Empire:
-Began with reign of Constantine who moved capital to Byzantium (on the Bosporus Straight) and
renamed it Constantinople
-The Byzantine Empire area from Rome to southeastern Europe, Asia Minor, Egypt, and North Africa
-Constantinople was protected on three sides by water and controlled key trade routes that linked
Europe and Asia; it became a cultural center influencing many other regions such as Russia
-Its biggest achievement was preserving Greco-Roman culture and learning
-Known for: Justinian’ s rule and law code law code; engineering and architecture: Justinian launched a
program to beautify Constantinople, structures such as the Hagia Sophia, and the Church of the Holy
Sepulchre; Art: images of icons such as Jesus shown in churches, mosaics; the development of the
orthodox Christian church and the Christian schism: a division between the Orthodox Christian Church in
the east and the Roman Catholic church in the west
l. Islam:
*Most key events and details of the spread of Islam were previously discussed in key religion
*After Muhammad’s death:
-Islam spread rapidly with Abu Bakr as the first caliph; with his campaign, he conquered parts of the
Byzantine Empire, Persian Empire, Egypt, and Spain
-The Battle of the Tours: The Umayyad tribes invaded France but were pushed back into Spain by
Charles Martel
-Nevertheless, Arabs quickly took control of the Middle East, North Africa, Spain and Sicily, India, and
Southeast Asia, spreading Islam throughout each region
-One major reason for the spread of Islam, other than extreme conquest, was the treatment of
conquered people, whom they treated fairly leading many to willfully convert. However, a tax was
imposed on all non-Muslims such as Christians and Jews (People of the Book). Nevertheless, Christians
and Jews were held in high regard serving as doctors, officials, and translators in Muslim communities.
*Division within Islam:
-Islam followers split into two groups in rival beliefs over who should be caliph
~Sunni: Any good Muslim could be successor
~Shiite: Only a descendent of the prophet could be caliph
*Political Divisions:
-After the death of the 4th caliph, the Muslim world spit into the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties
-Umayyad: spread Islam to the west and in the Indus Valley; they conquered Spain and established a
capital at Cordoba
-Abbasid: captured Damascus and moved the court to Baghdad which exceeded the size and wealth of
Constantinople
*The Golden Age of Islam, marked by the Abbasid Dynasty, will be discussed later
m. Russia:
-early capital established at Kiev, which was accessible to Byzantine traders
-greatly influenced by the Byzantine Empire
-Early Russians: Boyars (nobles) and Slavs ( locals)
-The Byzantines gave Russia a written language, when two Byzantine missionaries translated the Bible
into Slavic languages. One of the two, called Cyrillic, was permanently adapted by Russia
-Adapted orthodox Christianity
-Established an autocratic gov. with rulers known as czars (Russian word for Caesar)
-Adopted religious art, music, and art from the Byzantine Empire
-Eventually invaded and conquered by the Mongols
n. Mongols
-Geography:
~Asian Steppe lands: vast dry grasslands
~Nomadic Pastoralists: nomadic groups that often travelled in groups; travelled on horseback; often
attack and plundered settled societies
~Mongol Leaders: Genghis Khan and his descendants created an empire covering all of Asia; the Mongol
Empire was divided into 4 Khanates; the Mongols were destructive and cruel; they created trade routes
between Europe and Asia; cultural diffusion (gunpowder and the Bubonic Plague spread to Europe);
Kublai Khan ruled the Mongol Empire during its period of prosperity and peace
*Mongol Golden Age marked by the Mongol Peace will be discussed later
6. Golden Ages of Civilizations:
a. India- The Gupta Empire
*Strongly influenced by Hinduism: this dynasty actively promoted Hinduism; aspects of the religion
such as the caste system has a large impact on the culture of the Gupta Era
*Government: had both central governments ruled by emperors at a court and local governments in
each village, ruled by a headman and a council; women were allowed to serve on the council, however,
eventually, Hindu law put more restrictions on women
*Family Life: patriarchal with the eldest male as the head of each family, children learned the family
trade or worked in fields; women were restricted to household duties and raising the children
*Accomplishments:
-Mathematics:
~zero and the decimal system
~Arabic numerals were first developed by Gupta mathematicians and later adopted by Arabs in the
Middle East, Africa, and Europe
-Medicine:
~physicians began to use herbs and other remedies to treat illness; surgeons were able to practice
plastic, reconstructive surgery; vaccinations against smallpox were developed
-Architecture:
~built beautiful temples for Hindu worship, typically shaped like a square within a circle with carvings of
gods, goddesses, and holy animals
~Buddhist architects built stupas, large dome-shaped shrines that contained holy people
-Literature:
~Extraordinary folk tales and fables were recorded in Sanskrit, these stories were carried to Persia,
Egypt, and Greece.
b. China- The Han and Song Dynasties
*The Han Dynasty:
-Founded by Liu Bang, a peasant who took control after Shi Huang Di’s death and the collapse of the Qin
Dynasty; he reduced taxes and eased harsh policies of the Qin
-Government and economy:
~Emperor Wudi established a civil service exam based on Confucius’ teachings; he also strengthened the
economy and improved canals and roads
-Society:
~The society was greatly influenced by Confucianism, which spelled out guidelines for proper behavior
in society; women were excluded from civil service exams but did receive an education
-Accomplishments:
~Technology: they learned to make paper out of wood pulp, invented the wheelbarrow, fishing reel, and
the rudder (used to steer ships)
~Science: developed acupuncture; experimented with herbal remedies and anesthesia; wrote texts on
chemistry, zoology, and botany
~Art: craftsworkers created jade and ivory carvings; others worked in bronze, ceramics, and silk
*Song Dynasty:
-Manchurian invasions from the North forced the dynasty south of the Huang He
-The dynasty was marked by peace, prosperity, and accomplishments
-Science and Technology:
~moveable type, porcelain, gunpowder, mechanical clock, magnetic compass, bombs, rockets, and
paper money developed
~agriculture improved-new planting methods and new varieties of rice
-China becomes a great naval power:
~Arab control of the Silk Roads encouraged sea trade
~Chinese traded with Japan, Korea, India, the Middle East, etc.
-Cultural diffusion adds to China’s golden age and spread culture:
~Buddhism spread to areas outside of China
~Islam and Christianity spread to China
~Tea is introduced to China
-Social class system is introduced:
~Scholar-Gentry=upper class
~Merchants, shopkeepers, artisans, lesser officials = middle class
~Laborers
~Military
~Servants and peasants= lowest class
c. Greece- The Hellenic Age
-The Golden Age of Greece is known as the Hellenic age and marked by the rule of Pericles
-It is an era of advancement and accomplishments in many fields
-Greek contributions went on to influence many other regions and later civilizations
*Accomplishments:
-Philosophy:
~Socrates: developed Socratic method-learning about ideas and beliefs by asking questions; put to
death by gov.
~Plato: student of Socrates; believed government should control people’s lives; divided society into
three classes; workers, philosophers, and soldiers
~Aristotle: Believed in the ruling of one good, strong leader; believed that people should learn through
logic and reasoning
-Literature:
~The first Greek plays developed from religious festivals
~ Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides wrote tragedies that told stories about human conflict
~Other playwrights wrote comedies
~Homer: poet; wrote epic poems (Iliad and the Odyssey) that inspired later writers
~Herodotus: historian; known as the father of history because of his careful historical writing
-Art and Architecture:
~Greek art: reflected the ideas of beauty, balance, and order; paintings and statues were lifelike and
portrayed the human body in its most perfect form
~The Parthenon: the most famous Greek building; architects today still incorporate Greek ideas such as
Greek column styles into their works
-Science:
~Aristarchus: astronomer; discovered that the earth rotates on its axis and moves around the sun
~Archimedes: explored the principles of the lever and pulley
~Hippocrates: physician; studies cause of illness and looked for cures; created the Hippocratic oath that
a physician must say that promises they will abide by their duty to only work for the good of their
patients; still used today
-Mathematics:
~Pythagoras: developed formula to measure the sides of a right triangle
~Euclid: wrote a book that became the basis for modern geometry
d. Rome- The Pax Romana
-The Pax Romana was a 200 year period of peace and prosperity which began with the rule of Octavian
(Augustus)
-The Romans absorbed other cultures and contributed their own accomplishments as well
*Accomplishments and contributions:
-Law:
~Rome’s law system was its greatest achievement; it applied to all people; included equality under law,
the right of the accused to provide a defense, the concept of innocent until proven guilty all began here
~The 12 Tables was Rome’s first written law and it gave more power to the Plebians who won the right
to elect their own officials to serve in government
-Art and Architecture:
~Romans borrowed many Greek concepts in these fields such as Greek style statues in their homes
~Rather than being simple and elegant, Roman buildings were mighty and grand
~They used the Latin language which united the Empire in great poetic, historical, and philosophical
works
-Engineering:
~built excellent roads, bridges, harbors, and aqueducts (bridge-like stone structures that carried water
from hills to the cities)
~Known for use of arches and domes in buildings
e. Islam- The Abbasid Dynasty
-Under the Abbasids, the Muslim world was composed of people from many different cultures (Persians,
Egyptians, Arabs, Europeans, etc.)
-They absorbed culture and blended customs from many different peoples
*Accomplishments:
-Art and architecture:
~Used beautiful writing and patterns to decorate buildings and art
~adapted Byzantine domes and arches
~painted people and animals in non-religious art
~Calligraphy: artistic writings; often decorated buildings and artwork
-Literature:
~Poetry: many people wrote poems based on the Koran; other themes seen in poetry varied from praise
of important leaders to contemplation of joys to the sorrows of love (Sadi: known as Persian
Shakespeare)
~Tales: adapted stories from all different cultures; Omar Khayyam- author of Tales of the Arabian Nights,
a collection of fables and fairytales that continue to be popular and influential today
-Mathematics and Science:
~Developed Algebra
~Astronomers observed earth’s rotation and calculate its circumference developed ways of navigating
the stars (astrolabe)
~Adapted Arabic numerals from India
~Doctors were required to take difficult tests before they could practice; physicians studies various
diseases and wrote books that became standard medical texts in Europe
-Economic Achievements:
~Trade: merchants established a large trading network across the empire, exchanging technology,
ideas, goods, and cultural beliefs
~Manufacturing: heads of guilds regulated pricing, weights, measurements, and monitored product
quality in the industry; established partnerships; sold goods on credit; formed banks, and exchanged
different kinds of currency
~Agriculture: grew crops such as sugarcane, cotton, medicinal herbs, fruits, and vegetables that sold in
many world markets; started using tree grafting on farms
f. Mongol Empire- The Mongol Peace
-China’s second Golden Age was during the Mongol Empire under the rule of Kublai Khan
-Used Chinese institutions and non-Mongol officials to rule
*Accomplishments:
-rebuilt infrastructure:
~Extended Grand canal to Beijing
~built highways
~encouraged trade and cultural diffusion: Marco Polo sat at the Khan’s court ;Muslim advisors from
western Europe were utilized
-The empire fell due to:
~the death of Kublai Khan
~weak rulers
~failed military ventures (failed attacks on Japan-pushed back by typhoons-divine winds-kamikaze)
~corruption-loss of mandate of heaven
~Mongols eventually took over rule of Russia but Ivan the 3rd asserted independence from Mongol rule
in 1480