Download Working Memory A guide for SENCOs and teachers

Working Memory
A guide for SENCOs and teachers
March 2015
Contents
What is ‘working memory’ and how does it differ from other forms of memory?
How does working memory operate?
What might I see in the classroom?
What is the impact of poor working memory on learning?
How can I identify difficulties and assess working memory?
How can I help?
Further reading
What is working memory
and how does it differ from
other forms of memory?
Working memory deficit is a difficulty which is often overlooked and not fully
understood by teachers. The impact in the classroom can be huge - across the
whole curriculum - and the understanding of what working memory is, what
constitutes a high working memory load and how this can be reduced and supported
is essential in developing successful classrooms for all pupils.
Definition
‘Working memory is the term used to refer to the ability we have to hold and
manipulate information in the mind over short periods of time. It provides a
mental workspace or jotting pad that is used to store important information in
the course of our everyday lives’
(Sue Gathercole 2008).
It is thought that working memory is central to an understanding of how people think
and is closely associated with learning. It encompasses the skills that underpin
reasoning, remembering and more recently has been linked to a person’s
‘consciousness’. Pupil’s abilities in the in key areas of reading, writing and
mathematics can be closely linked to their scores on working memory tests.
Weak working memory is also known to be a component of the specific learning
difficulty of dyslexia as it affects the pupil’s ability to retain and recall phonological
information.
In order to understand working memory and how it operates in our daily lives it is
important to understand the different forms of memory that store a variety of
information – some of which are permanent stores and others more fleeting.
Procedural Memory is formed of learned skills involving coordination of physical movements such as writing your
name or driving a car. Once established these memories
last a lifetime.
Semantic Memory is where we store items of information
that we frequently use or are exposed to; the capital of
France, 5+5, the name of the first woman prime minister. If
this information is frequently used – retrieved from the
memory store – it will last a lifetime. However it will become
more difficult to access if it is not used.
Autobiographical Memory is the store of facts and
significant events from your life such as a wedding day, first
day at school. It comprises lots of sensory memories of
feelings, sound, smell, taste and sight. These stimuli make
the memories very strong and they can be easily brought
back by experiencing the same sounds (eg. songs), smells
and other sensory stimuli.
Episodic Memory records the details of particular
experiences and only lasts for up to several days – the time
that you need to store that particular information. For
example remembering that your supermarket delivery is
due at 10am tomorrow. Once the need for that particular
memory has passed then it will fade.
It is estimated that 1 in 10 pupils have a significant difficulty with Working Memory
that impairs their learning; this equates to 3 pupils in an average classroom
Some examples of tasks that depend on working memory / place a high demand on
working

Following directions such as ‘When you have put your maths books on my
desk find your reading books and sit on the carpet’

Hearing an unfamiliar word – such as in a foreign language - and attempting
to repeat it several seconds later

Adding up and remembering the total amount spent as you select items from
shelves at the supermarket and add them to your basket

Remembering to measure and combine the correct amounts of ingredients
(rub in 50g of margarine and 100g of flour, then add 75g of sugar) when the
recipe is no longer in view
It is often said that the average adult cannot hold more than six or seven units of
information in working memory. A unit of memory depends on whether or not the
material to be remembered is organised in a meaningful way or not.
Combining two sources of memory –
working memory and memory for
meaning – boosts memory
performance dramatically
Once information has been lost from working memory it cannot be recovered; the
only option is to start again. Trying to ‘think back’ will not retrieve the information as
the memory traces are no longer there. This could explain why a child may stare
blankly at a teacher when asked what he or she should be doing next. It is important
that such memory failures are recognised in the classroom and that the teacher and
pupils work together to
How does working memory work?
There are four main parts to the currently recognised working memory model. These
are Verbal Short–term Memory ( Phonological Loop) , Visuo-spatial Short-term
Memory (Visuo-spatial sketchpad), what is commonly known as the Central
Executive, and finally the Episodic Buffer.
Instead of all the received sensory information going into one single store, these are
the different systems for dealing with the different types of information.
The Visuo-Spatial Sketch Pad (VSS) or inner eye stores and processes information
in a visual or spatial form. The VSS is used for navigation.
The Phonological Loop (PL) is the part of working memory that deals with spoken
and written material. It can be used to remember a phone number. It consists of two
parts

Phonological Store (inner ear) – Linked to speech perception Holds
information in speech-based form (i.e. spoken words) for 1-2 seconds.

Articulatory control process (inner voice) – Linked to speech production.
Used to rehearse and store verbal information from the phonological store.
What might I observe in the
classroom?
The labels given to the components of the working memory reflect their function and
the type of information they process and manipulate. The phonological loop is
assumed to be responsible for the manipulation of speech based information,
whereas the visuo-spatial sketchpad is assumed to be responsible for
manipulating visual images. The model proposes that every component of working
memory has a limited capacity and also that the components are relatively
independent of each other.
Central Executive: Drives the whole system (e.g. the boss of working memory) and
allocates data to the subsystems (VSS & PL) which controls attention and higher–
level mental processes involving co-ordinating storage and mental processing. It also
deals with cognitive tasks such as mental arithmetic and problem solving.
The Episodic Buffer is the most recent addition to the working memory model and
is thought to be a ‘multi-modal store’. This means that is does not just store
information in one form such as visual or auditory. This means it is unlike the VSS or
PL the episodic buffer is thought to bind together information and therefore give us a
sense of consciousness – integrating information into a coherent episode.
Noteworthy facts from the described model of working memory are:

Each of the four components has its own limited capacity

There are links running in both directions between each of the individual
stores and the central executive

There is no corresponding path between visuo-spatial and verbal short-term
memories
It is worth noting that the term ‘Short term memory’ (STM) is commonly used to
describe situations in which the individual simply has to store some material without
manipulating it or doing something else at the same time. E.g. remembering a
telephone number. Working memory tasks tend to tax the central executive, and are
more complex than short term memory tasks, involving storage and manipulation.
POINTS TO REMEMBER

Working memory is used to hold information in mind and manipulate it for brief
periods of time. Pupils often have to hold information in order to be engaged
in effortful activity.

Working memory is limited in capacity which varies between individuals and is
affected by the characteristics of the task.

Working memory is a series of linked components.

Short term memory involves storage, whereas working memory is involved
with storing and processing.
Information is lost from working memory
when we are distracted (including noise
and movement) or its limited capacity is
overloaded.
In this section, the characteristics of a child with working
memory difficulties will be described. The types of activities
that place a high demand on working memory will be
explained and some examples given.
What might I see if working memory is a problem?
Why might I be
seeing it?
The boys, as a group, are making less academic progress than
the girls.
More boys than girls
have working
memory problems.
Booster and catch up groups have more boys than girls.
It’s usually boys names that the teacher calls to ‘hurry up’
In a pre-tutoring group, they appear to have understood the topic
and are confident to talk. However, when the topic is covered in
class, they are silent unless called upon, in which case they look
very nervous.
Larger groups place
more demands on
working memory.
They can’t answer questions in a large group that they have
previously answered in a smaller group.
They have one or two close friends and dislike large group
games.
They are often in trouble with peers for ‘getting the game wrong
They ‘have to’ shout out the answer before they forget it. If made
to wait before they are asked, they may open their mouths to
answer and then forget what to say.
They may start a task off well but when the teacher stops the
class to do a ‘pit-stop plenary’, they cannot remember where to
start again afterwards.
They are easily distracted by people around them chatting or
doing other activities.
Their mental maths is significantly below their ability if given a
pencil and paper and more time.
They can read the words but not be able to tell you what they’ve
read. But when it is read to them, their comprehension improves.
Having to store
information and
process new
information at the
same time is
difficult.
A lesson or activity may start off well but not be finished to the
same standard.
Working memory is
easily overloaded
Long discussions may end with disruptive behaviour.
After a good start you may notice them ‘zoning out’
Work is rushed and finished early.
They are the last to carry out instructions
They may be watching others a lot
They ask their friends to clarify tasks
If interrupted in the middle of a task, they struggle to re-start.
They may miss whole steps out when attempting a task
Holding and
manipulating
instructions is
difficult
Common high working memory loads activities often seen in schools:
Remembering sequences

Counting patterns (times tables) especially when reversed e.g. turning a
multiplication sum into a division fact mentally.

Multi-step sequences to answer questions e.g. long multiplication.

Copying unknown words off a board e.g. new vocabulary.

Writing lengthy sentences containing content that has not been fully
understood.
Following lengthy instructions

A homework instruction given verbally at the end of the lesson after the bell
has gone.

Instructions that use the word ‘if’ and ‘or’ e.g. ‘if you have done p45 you can
chose to do worksheet 1 or worksheet 2. Otherwise you have to do p45 or
p46.’

Instructions given out of order e.g. ‘before you do the green worksheet you
must have put your book in the red box but only do this after you have the
date and title’.
Keeping track of the place reached in the course of multi-level tasks

A 3-step question in maths.

Any problem solving activity.

Coursework.

Copying from the board.

Navigating around a school.

Collecting equipment needed for a task.

Writing the date, title and learning objective before attempting the task.
What happens when working
memory is overloaded?
The learning difficulties that pupils with poor working memory face arise because
they are unable to meet the memory demands of a learning situation. This leads to
memory overload and information – such as the sentence they were going to write –
is lost. This loss can be described as ‘catastrophic’ as it cannot be recovered. This
means that the child cannot continue with the activity and complete it successfully
unless he or she is able to access again the critical task information that is needed. If
this information is not available then either the child will need to guess (which can
lead to errors) or give up.
Many structured activities place excessive demands on working memory for many
individuals, as they require the pupil to hold substantial amounts of information, often
while completing another mental activity.
They are often described as failing to check work for mistakes and careless errors,
producing work that is ‘sloppy’ and poorly organised. In order to check whether work
is correct needs a comparison with the original instruction, which is probably out of
the question for a pupil with poor working memory
This failure of working memory slows the rate at which pupils can accumulate key
knowledge and skills, especially vocabulary.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
•
Pupils’ progress in reading maths and science is closely related to their
working memory capacities, across the full range of school years.
•
Poor working memory performance does not appear to be due to more
general factors such as language difficulties or non-verbal ability.
•
The poor rates of learning in pupils with low working memory capacities are
due, in large part, to memory overload.
•
The pupil may appear to be inattentive and highly distractible, probably due to
memory overload and forgetting.
In summary, any task that requires a pupil to hold information in their heads and then
use it to complete a task will place a demand on working memory. This is especially
true when asking a pupil to remember or follow instructions or sequences. This will
be mostly seen in reading, writing, maths and transferring from one activity to
another.
When demands are too high, the pupil may appear to be distractible and lack
concentration. Their behaviour may deteriorate or they may become heavily reliant
on their peers for support. There may be discrepancies in their work depending on
the setting, the time of day and the type of support given.
What is the impact of a
poor working memory in
the classroom?
Working memory capacity is one of the most important cognitive indicators linked to
academic attainment in key areas of the curriculum such as reading and maths.
It is the ability to hold and use information for a short period of time e.g. manipulating
numbers in mental maths tasks.
It depends upon
capacity
This is linked to age and increases until mid-teens and
begins to fall in mid-thirties
understanding
Having the ability to understand the language used in order
to respond to questions and formulate answers
focus
The ability to focus on the task and not be distracted
processing
In order to complete a task, information has to be
processed
Although working memory in childhood increases with age it can differ substantially
from pupil to pupil. According to most researchers a pupil’s relative capacity is
established by the age of four and is unlikely to change without intervention.
Learning activities in the classroom help the pupil to gradually accumulate the
knowledge and skills they need to become competent in areas such as reading and
maths over the years.
Poor working memory provides a relatively general constraint on progress. Pupils
with low working memory capacities become overloaded by structured learning
activities causing them to forget crucial information.
Poor working memory performance does not appear to be linked to more general
factors such as low IQ or language difficulties.
If a pupil is already behind its peers in their primary years they are likely to fall further
behind in their secondary years. Poor working memory affects all areas of learning
from getting from A to B around school to the ability to copy notes from the board or
do simple calculations.
Activities that place minimal demands on working
memory should not be affected by high anxiety
levels but if anxiety and working memory loads
are high, performance will suffer
How can I identify difficulties and
assess working memory?
There are a number of ways to assess whether or not a student has an issue with
working memory:




Checklists
Digit memory assessment
Non word repetition assessment
Specific assessments that exist purely to test for working memory difficulties.
However, before assessment is started, it is important to make sure that the child is
considered holistically. Many factors can impact negatively upon memory e.g.
tiredness and stress and it is important that these are addressed before any
assessment process is started.
Checklists
Initially, an informal checklist, such as the Cogmed one below, may be used to
identify whether the student has a specific set of behaviours that would appear to be
consistent with working memory difficulties. These checklists can be tailored to be
subject or age specific. At this stage, demands on working memory should be
reduced and the effectiveness monitored.
More formal checklists exist, such as The Working Memory Rating Scale available
through Pearson. This is an assessment completed by a member of staff who knows
the pupil and makes judgements against a series of statements relating to working
memory based on observations. The total score is then linked to a scale indicating
the likelihood of difficulties and the extent to which a difficulty could be severe in
nature. It is useful as an initial investigation and it adds to evidence gained from
other sources.
Working Memory Checklist (Cogmed)
An individual may be constrained by working memory capacity if he/she:
1.
Is easily distracted when working on or doing something that is not
highly interesting.
2.
Has trouble waiting his/her turn, for example in a conversation or
when waiting in line to get help.
3.
Struggles with reading comprehension and has to read through texts
repeatedly to understand.
4.
Struggles with problem solving that requires holding information in
mind, for example mental math calculations.
5.
Is inconsistent in remembering math facts.
6.
Struggles with completing tasks, especially multiple step tasks.
7.
Has difficulty remembering long instruction given in several steps, for
example following recipes, directions or school/work assignments.
8.
Struggles to understand the context in a story or a conversation.
School
based
assessments
9. Has
difficulties
when planning and organising something that needs
to be done in separate steps.
10. Memory
Has difficulty
staying
focused
during cognitive-demanding tasks, but
Digit
(from the
Dyslexia
Portfolio)
attends well when cognitive demands are minimal.
This is a simple assessment for primary aged Pupils. It requires the child to repeat
strings
of number
of and
increasingnew
length.
This measures
memory. The
11. Has
difficulty
integrating
information
withshort
priorterm
knowledge.
child is then required to repeat a given string of digits in reverse. This measures
12. When
called
on, forgets
what he/she
planningtoto
say.
working
memory.
Results
are standardised
so thatwas
it is possible
see
if the child is
performing at average levels. The Backward Digit Span (from the Dyslexia
13. Has difficulty
taking notes
and the
listening
at the
same memory
time. for
Screening
Test – Secondary)
performs
same test
of working
secondary aged pupils.
Phonological Working Memory Test (from the PhAB2)
Again, for primary aged pupils, this test requires the child to repeat (not read) a list of
non-words of increasing length and complexity. It is also standardised.
Lengthy specialist assessments
If the results of simpler tests and checklists, and the accommodations that they
inform, do not produce results, it may be necessary for more in depth analysis to be
undertaken.
AWMA (Automated Working Memory Assessment)
This is a completely computerised assessment that can be done at three levels – a
screener, a short form and a long form. It is suitable for pupils and young people
aged 4 to 22 years.
TOMAL (Test of Memory and Learning)
This is a broader assessment of memory and its impact on learning
What can I do to help?
It is very important to recognise working memory failures so that the structure of
learning activities can be modified. Identifying such failures can be seen through
such errors as

Incomplete recall of a sentence or sequence of words

Failure to follow instructions

Place keeping errors

Task abandonment
Remember that children are often acutely aware of their memory difficulties – even
from a young age.
Working memory demands can be reduced through using the following strategies:











Consider your teaching style and lesson planning
Review previous lesson information
Provide a visual model/example so that the pupil knows what is required
If a pupil forgets some or all of what they have to do be prepared to modify how
the learning activity is presented
Ask your pupil to regularly repeat crucial information – this strategy of rehearsal is
crucial to support verbal short-term memory
An adult or other pupil can act as a memory guide or listening buddy
Chunk words and information into steps that they can do one at a time
Use language that is simple in both vocabulary and phrasing
Shorten sentences
Be prepared to repeat key facts
Use memory prompts such as pictures, numbers or symbols to represent the
sequence of activities








Where possible include movement and rhythm as a moving image is more likely
to be remembered
Encourage the pupil to draw or map out their thoughts using diagrams or flow
charts
Help them to make connections/links to what they already know
Use aids such as digital recording devices and tablets to help your pupil retain
the essential information
Teach the pupil to use useful tools such as a ruler/number line, table square,
calculator, hundred square accurately
Play ‘pairs’ matching games or SNAP e.g. - a few scientific words to match to
their simplified definition played on a regular basis will help them to recall that fact
Make up a simple story that uses items/objects that need to be remembered that
can be visualised
Encourage all children to ask focussed questions when they realise they have
forgotten what to do
Teach them to juggle!
Juggling uses both sides of the brain
and can improve memory and
concentration.
Is there anything we can do to help
older students?
Older pupils tend to struggle with lecture-based presentations which require them to
attend, listen, understand new material and take notes. They often find it hard to
maintain concentration over longer lessons and to organise large amounts of
material from different sources in a coherent manner.

It is important to recognise working memory failures and ensure that all staff
working with a student who has a poor working memory are aware of that fact

Aim to reduce working memory loads by reducing the amount of information
to be remembered

Use the same routines each day to reinforce learning

Use visual aids or encourage pupil to draw pictures to help them to recall an
activity linking it to an emotion if possible

Repeat important information or provide a peer buddy for additional support

Encourage the use of memory aids such as personalised dictionaries, table
mats, topic posters, memory cards, key rings, number lines, Dictaphones and
ICT

Help the student to identify what helps them best to recall, retain and process
information.
- repeating information to themselves silently or out loud
- breaking down numbers or letters into chunks
- linking to known information

Develop the student’s own strategies such as asking for help, rehearsal, place
keeping and note taking

Encourage them to review notes before going to sleep

The diary/homework organiser is an essential piece of equipment at
secondary level and students must take responsibility for it themselves. Note
the date given but also record when due in to help reduce overload at the end
of the lesson

Students need to write exactly what is discussed / taught as it may be a while
before the homework task is looked at again and brief notes may not be
enough

Adults or a peer buddy need to check that the task has been understood and
recorded correctly

Encourage use of a highlighter to pick out key words or facts. The first
sentence in a paragraph is usually a ‘power sentence’ as it often contains a
key fact

Consider how technology such as iPads can be used to photograph mind
maps, homework tasks and group notes
Older students are more effective at
using their own strategies to overcome
working memory related problems.
Glossary
Autobiographical memory - The long term memory system supporting memory for
significant events across a lifetime
AWMA - The Automated Working Memory Assessment, a computerised test battery
that assesses an individual’s capacity in each sub-component of working memory
Central Executive - The sub-component of working memory that controls attention
and co-ordinates activity both within the working memory system and between
working memory and other cognitive systems such as long-term memory
Chunking - The grouping together of individual items into an integrated whole to
enhance recall, typically using long-term memory
Episodic Memory - The long-term memory system supporting memory for events in
the relatively recent past, typically spanning minutes through to days
Long-term Memory - Memory for experiences that occurred at a point in time prior
to the immediate past, and also for knowledge that has been acquired over long
periods of time. Long-term memory systems include episodic memory,
autobiographical memory, semantic memory and procedural memory
Memory cards - Individualised memory prompts used in the classroom
Memory Guide - A child nominated to assist a fellow pupil with memory-related
difficulties
Memory Span - A measure of the maximum amount of material that an individual
can successfully remember on a test of working memory
Procedural memory - Long term memory for skills such as cycling that have been
acquired through repeated practice and that can be executed ‘automatically’, without
mental effort
Rehearsal - The voluntary act of mentally repeating information, typically with the
aim of prolonging its storage in working memory. Rehearsal is a particularly
important strategy associated with verbal short-term memory
Semantic memory - The long-term memory system supporting knowledge such as
facts and word meanings
STM - Short-term Memory. The ability to hold information in mind for short periods of
time
Verbal Short-term Memory - The sub-component of working memory that stores
verbal information
Visuo-spatial - Relating to abilities or information that can be expressed in terms of
physical characteristics relating to vision, space or movement
Visuo-spatial short-term memory - The sub-component of working memory that
stores information relating to vision, space or movement
Working Memory - The ability to hold and manipulate information in mind for brief
periods of time in the course of on-going mental activities, consisting of a system of
four sub-components, verbal short-term memory, Visuo-spatial short-term memory,
central executive and episodic buffer
Working memory capacity - The limit on the amount of information that can be held
in working memory. Each sub-component of working memory has its own limit
Where else can I look for
information?
Working Memory and Learning – A practical guide for teachers
By Susan E Gathercole and Tracy Packam Alloway
Sage
Ready Set Remember
By Beatrice Mense, Sue Debney and Tanya Druce
The Learning Brain: Memory and Brain Development in Children
by Torkel Klingberg and Neil Betteridge
Mind Maps For Kids: An Introduction
by Tony Buzan
Differentiation Through Learning Styles and Memory
by Marilee B. Sprenger
Understanding Working Memory
by Tracy Packiam Alloway