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Prepared by Ms. Bowie Biology 11 Exam Preparation Notes This booklet belongs to ___________________________________________ Page 1 of 25 Prepared by Ms. Bowie Biology 11 Exam Preparation Notes Page 2 of 25 Preparing for your Biology 11 Final Exam Exam Date: Period 1 Biology Class Period 3 Biology Class , January th, 8:00 – 10:10 am , January th, 8:00 – 10:10 am Getting Ready: Good preparation for your exams is important, both to academic success and to reduce some of the stress that naturally accompanies important tests. Study many days prior to your exam in smaller, manageable chunks; Sleep well and get regular exercise during the exam period (all semester , actually); Use ACTIVE methods of studying; flipping through your notes works well for very, very few students. Try rewriting notes, turning written notes into diagrams, use memory techniques like mnemonics, turns study material into a physical game (move around your space physically touching things that represent something – e.g. lamp equals heart, electric cord equals arteries…). The more ways you transform your notes and the more often you process the information, the more likely you will be to transfer the information from short term to long term memory and to find it when you feel stressed. What to bring: 1. A standard blue or black ink pen (please no other fun colours) 2. Your “Info Card” that YOU created while studying a. The info card is a 4”x6” index card (provided by your teacher). You are permitted to write any information you think might be important on ONE (1) side of the card (only). Your name should be written on the other side. The info on the card must be created originally by you (not simply a copy of someone else’s work). Any copies found will result in both you and the other person losing your card prior to the exam session. Don’t risk it; use it as it is meant to be – an active method of study! Good luck! What you should know to for the exam Cellular Units 1. The names of all cell organelles and their functions (and label diagrams); 2. Be able to identify the difference between plant and animal cells based on cellular structures; 3. Know the structure of the cell membrane and the function of some basic parts (e.g. phospholipid bilayer, cholesterol, glycoprotein, protein receptors, channel pores, etc.); 4. Know how materials are transported through the membrane (especially diffusion and osmosis); 5. Be able to describe what happens to plant and animal (and protist) cells when they are placed on isotonic, hypotonic or hypertonic solutions; 6. Be able to explain and write the formulae for photosynthesis and cellular respiration; 7. Be able to describe the steps of cellular respiration and the location of each step in the cell; Prepared by Ms. Bowie Biology 11 Exam Preparation Notes Page 3 of 25 Classification Units 1. The rules for naming organisms (binomial nomenclature); 2. The levels of classification (Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, species) and how they can be used to show how closely related species are, evolutionarily speaking; 3. Know the 6 Kingdoms of Life (Archae, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia) and be able to give or identify representative examples of each a. Make sure you know the 3 main types of Archeabacteria and the environments in which they thrive; b. Make sure you know the 3 main shapes of eubacteria and how those are used in their names; 4. Know the difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells; 5. Be able to describe the Phyla of the Kingdom, Animalia (e.g. porifera, cnidaria, platyhelminthes, etc.) and to give examples of each; 6. Be able to describe and identify examples of animals from each of the classes of the chordate phylum (e.g. agnatha, osteichthyes, amphibian, aves…); 7. Be able to use a flow chart or dichotomous key to identify (name) a specific organism; Homeostasis & Body Systems Units 1. Know what is meant by homeostasis and how it is maintained by the coordinated efforts of the body systems; 2. Be able to label diagrams of the digestive, respiratory and circulatory systems; 3. Be able to describe blood flow through the heart and around the body; 4. Know the composition of blood and the role of the substances in it (e.g. red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and associated proteins, etc.); 5. Be able to explain what digestive process happens in each area of the digestive system (including the name of specific enzymes and hormones) involved in each step; 6. Be able to describe the major blood types, the protein markers, and who people with those blood types can donate to or receive from; 7. Be able to draw and describe the process by which viruses replicate; 8. Be able to identify the structures and their functions from the frog dissection. Prepared by Ms. Bowie Biology 11 Exam Preparation Notes Biology 11 Exam Preparation Notes The Cell Page 4 of 25 Prepared by Ms. Bowie The Typical Plant Cell Biology 11 Exam Preparation Notes Page 5 of 25 Prepared by Ms. Bowie Biology 11 Exam Preparation Notes Page 6 of 25 The Cell Membrane Cell Membrane The cell membrane is a thin semi-permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell. Its function is to protect the the interior of the cell by allowing certain substances into the cell, while keeping other substances out. It also serves as a base of attachment for the cytoskeleton in some organisms and the cell wall in others. Thus the cell membrane also serves to help support the cell and help maintain its shape. Animal cells, plant cells, prokaryotic cells, and fungal cells have cell membranes. Cell Membrane Structure The cell membrane is primarily composed of a mix of proteins and lipids. Depending on the membrane’s location and role in the body, lipids can make up anywhere from 20 to 80 percent of the membrane, with the remainder being proteins. While lipids help to give membranes their flexibility, proteins monitor and maintain the cell's chemical climate and assist in the transfer of molecules across the membrane. Cell Membrane Lipids Phospholipids are a major component of cell membranes. They form a lipid bilayer in which their hydrophillic (attracted to water) head areas spontaneously arrange to face the watery cytosol and the extracellular fluid, while their hydrophobic (repelled by water) tail areas face away from the cytosol and extracellular fluid. The lipid bilayer is semi-permeable, allowing only certain molecules to diffuse across the membrane. Cholesterol is another lipid component of cell membranes. It helps to stiffen cell membranes and is not found in the membranes of plant cells. Glycolipids are located on cell membrane surfaces and have a carbohydrate sugar chain attached to them. They help the cell to recognize other cells of the body. Cell Membrane Proteins Structural proteins help to give the cell support and shape. Cell membrane receptor proteins help cells communicate with their external environment through the use of hormones, neurotransmitters and other signaling molecules. Transport proteins, such as globular proteins, transport molecules across cell membranes through facilitated diffusion. Glycoproteins have a carbohydrate chain attached to them. They are embedded in the cell membrane and help in cell to cell communications and molecule transport across the membrane. Prepared by Ms. Bowie Biology 11 Exam Preparation Notes Types of Movement Across the cell membrane Page 7 of 25 Prepared by Ms. Bowie Biology 11 Exam Preparation Notes Page 8 of 25 Osmosis & Solution Types Try thinking about it this way: In Hypotonic solution – there is too little solute (dissolved stuff) therefore, there must be TOO MUCH WATER filling up the rest of the space. In cells, it is always the movement of WATER that we follow. Remember that water always flows from an area of high to low concentration. Therefore, the water will flow out of the solution and INTO the cell. This will cause the cell to swell (in a plant) and swell to possibly bursting in an animal cell. In Hypertonic solutions – there is too much solute, so less room for water. Therefore the water will flow OUT of the cell and into the lower concentration water space in the solution (outside the cell). This causes the cell to shrink. Prepared by Ms. Bowie Biology 11 Exam Preparation Notes Page 9 of 25 Microscopic organisms in hypotonic solutions (e.g. paramecium) Photosynthesis & Cellular Respiration The SUN is the ultimate source of all energy on Earth Prepared by Ms. Bowie Biology 11 Exam Preparation Notes Page 10 of 25 ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell The Steps of Cellular Respiration (Locations) Takes place in the cytosol (cytoplasm of the cell) outside the mitochondria Takes place in the mitochondrial matrix (the cytoplasm in the mitochondria) Takes place in the mitochondrial cristae (the folds in the walls of the mitochondria Prepared by Ms. Bowie Biology 11 Exam Preparation Notes Page 11 of 25 Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Respiration Aerobic respiration means that there is oxygen present. In this case, the entire process shown on the last page takes place. This produces a lot of ATP. Anaerobic respiration means that there is NO oxygen present (the absence of oxygen). This results in inefficient ATP production. Instead, two possible results occur: Yeast fermentation (which creates alcohol and carbon dioxide) or Hemolactic fermentation Lactic Acid production. Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration Definition: Aerobic respiration uses oxygen. Anaerobic respiration is respiration without oxygen. Cells that use it: Aerobic respiration occurs in most cells. Anaerobic respiration occurs in bacteria, yeasts, some prokaryotes, erythrocytes (red blood cells), and in muscle cells. Amount of energy released: High (36-38 ATP molecules) Low (2 ATP molecules) Products: Carbon dioxide, water, ATP Lactic Acid Fermentation - lactic acid, ATP Alcoholic Fermentation - ethyl alcohol, ATP, carbon dioxide Reactants: glucose, oxygen glucose Site of reactions: Cytoplasm and mitochondria Cytoplasm Stages: Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, Electron Transport Chain Glycolysis, Fermentation Prepared by Ms. Bowie Biology 11 Exam Preparation Notes The 6 Kingdoms of Life Classification Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 Archaeabacteria Eubacteria Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia Page 12 of 25 Characteristics and Examples Prokaryotic (no membrane-bound nucleus) Unicellular Anaerobic organisms (can’t live in oxygen) Three subdivisions: Methanogens – methane producers Halophiles – salt lovers, can thrive in salt concentrations 10x that of sea water Thermoacidophiles – thrive in 100oC + temperatures and highly acidic conditions. Prokaryotic Unicellular Can be either autotropic or heterotrophic Reproduce asexually through binary fission. Three main shapes: Round = cocci (coccus – singular) Rod shaped = bacilli (bacillus) Spiral = Spirullus Eukaryotic (true membrane-bound nucleus) Unicellular (some in colonies) Live in aquatic environments Three examples: Amoeba – moves on pseudo pods Paramecium – moves with cillia Euglena – moves with flagella Eukaryotic (true membrane-bound nucleus) Both Unicellular (yeast) and multicellular (mushrooms, mould, etc.) Heterotrophs – must eat something else. Fungi break down food outside their body and absorb the nutrients. Three examples: Mushrooms, molds, mildews, yeast, etc. Eukaryotic (true membrane-bound nucleus) Mostly multicellular Autotrophs – contain chlorophyll and carry out photosynthesis where they convert sunlight into sugars. Examples: Mosses, grass, flowering plants, trees, etc. Eukaryotic (true membrane-bound nucleus) Multicellular Heterotrophs – must eat something else. Most reproduce sexually Examples: Sponges, insects, birds, mammals, humans, etc. Pictures of Representative Organisms Prepared by Ms. Bowie Biology 11 Exam Preparation Notes Page 13 of 25 The 9 Phyla of Kingdom Animalia Phylum Name 1 Porifera 2 Cnidaria Characteristics & Examples The Sponges Sessile-stays in one place Most simple multicellular organism No tissues or organs Central body cavity Osculum- large opening(s) at top Pores for allow water in and out About 5000 species in this group Jellyfish & Anemones Nematocytes- stinging cells on tentacles Radial symmetry Gastrovascular cavity- central body cavity Mostly marine (ocean creatures) Jellyfish are considered plankton (free floaters) in the ocean. Anemones and hydra are sessile. About 10 000 species in this group. “Flat Heads” These are flat worms Bilateral Symmetry Diffusion is used in place of important body systems. No real vision only senses light with eyespots Only one food opening. Food enters the mouth, is digested and absorbed, then wastes are released from the same opening. About 19 000 species in this group. Examples: Planaria, Flukes and Tapeworms Roundworms are found everywhere Cylindrical, slender, tapered and both ends Bilateral symmetry Many Nematodes are parasitic 1st group with a continuous digestive tube Hookworms are intestinal and drink blood from the stomach About 20 000+ species in this group Examples – Ascaris, hookworm, pinworms 3 Platyhelminthes 4 Nematoda Pictures of Representatives Prepared by Ms. Bowie 5 Annelida 6 Arthropoda 7 Mollusca 8 Echinodermata 9 Chordata Biology 11 Exam Preparation Notes Segmented worms are capable of more complex movements Have a closed circulatory system with 5 pairs of aortic arches (like “hearts”) Food passes into the mouth, travels along a continuous tube and then exits the anus. Mass of nerves forms simple “brain” called a ganglion. About 12 000+ species in this group Examples – Earthworm, leeches, etc. Insects, spiders (arachnids) and crustaceans (lobsters, crabs, shrimp, etc.) Most dominant animals on Earth Exoskeleton “suit of armor” made of chitin Efficient gas exchange allows rapid supply of oxygen to muscles Jointed appendages (6+ legs) Well developed sensory system Well developed nervous system Well developed circulatory system About 1 000 000+ species in this group The “shell fish” + squid/octopus Shell made of Calcium Carbonate Muscular foot Mantle lays down the shell About 100 000+ species in this group The name echinoderm is Greek for “hedgehog skin” or spiny skin Use a water-vascular system for locomotion (tube-feet), Radial symmetry (pentamerous – 5 sided) They can regenerate parts of their body that are damaged or “broken off”. About 7000 species in this group Dorsal nerve (Spinal) cord Notochord or backbone/vertebrae Tail (at some stage of the life cycle) Gill Slits (at some stage of the life cycle) About 7000 species in this group Page 14 of 25 Prepared by Ms. Bowie Biology 11 Exam Preparation Notes Page 15 of 25 The 7 Classes of Phylum Chordata Phylum Name Characteristics & Examples Class Agnatha (a- = not, without; gnatho = jaw); They do not have jaws, are eel-shaped, prey on fish; Examples: lampreys and hagfish. 1 Agnatha Chondrichthyes Class Chondrichthyes (chondro = cartilage; ichthys = fish) They have a cartilage skeleton, not bone. They are not buoyant like other fish so they must swim or sink. Like other fish they have a lateral line system which detects differences in water pressure, the equivalent of our hearing. Examples: sharks and rays. Osteichthyes Class Osteichthyes (osteo = bone) is the bony fish. This is the most numerous of all vertebrate classes. 2 chambered heart Two subdivisions: o Lobe finned fish o Teleosts (you are most familiar with these) Amphibia Class Amphibia (amphi = on both sides, double; bios = life) They were the first land vertebrates. 3 chambered heart External fertilization takes place in water. They are tied to the water due to this & the fact that their skin must remain moist or risk drying out. Examples: frogs, newts, and salamanders. 2 3 4 5 Reptilia Class Reptilia (reptili = creeping) Reptiles have scales and are dry to the touch. Their eggs have leathery shells and do not require water. 3.5 chamber heart Reptiles are exothermic (exo = out, outside), that is they maintain their body temperature through external means such as sunning on a rock or seeking shade. Examples: dinosaurs (dino = terrible), snakes, turtles, crocodiles, and lizards. Pictures of Representatives Prepared by Ms. Bowie 6 Aves 7 Mammalia Biology 11 Exam Preparation Notes Class Aves (avi = a bird) the birds. They have feathers for insulation and flight. Birds’ bones are hollow and light weight for flight. Birds are endothermic (endo = within, inner), that is, they control their body temperature from within (they’re “warm-blooded”). Birds have shelled eggs and so must have internal fertilization — the egg must be fertilized before the hen’s reproductive tract secretes an eggshell. Examples: parrots, ducks, eagles. Class Mammalia (mamma, mammil = teat, nipple) are the mammals. They have fur/hair; They have mammary glands which produce milk for the young. They are endothermic. Most mammals bear live young 3 Subdivisions: Monotremes (trema = hole) includes the platypus and spiny anteater. These mammals lays eggs like reptiles, but do have fur and milk. However, they have no nipples: their mammary glands just secrete milk onto the fur, from which the babies lick it. E.g. platypus and spiny ant-eater Marsupials (marsupi = a bag, pouch) includes opossums, kangaroos, koalas, etc. The young are born as very immature embryos and must crawl to their mother’s pouch to continue their development. Placentals (placent = a round, flat cake) contains most of the animals with which we are familiar. In this taxon, young complete embryonic development within the mother’s uterus and are nourished across a placenta. Page 16 of 25 Prepared by Ms. Bowie Biology 11 Exam Preparation Notes Bacteria Shapes Prokaryote vs eukaryote Prokaryotes do not have a true membrane-bound nucleus No membrane-bound nucleus. The DNA floats freely around the cell. Page 17 of 25 Prepared by Ms. Bowie Biology 11 Exam Preparation Notes Page 18 of 25 King Phillip Memory Tip Came Over For Good Soup Examples of Taxonomic Comparisons Man Box Elder Tree Bobcat Canadian lynx Kingdom Animalia Plantea Animalia Animalia Phylum/Division Chordata Anthophyta Chordata Chordata Class Mammalia Dicotyledonae Mammalia Mammalia Order Primates Sapindales Carnivora Carnivora Family Hominidae Aceracae Felidae Felidae Genus Homo Acer Lynx Lynx Species sapiens nugundo rufus canadensis Linnaeus developed a two-name naming system is known as “Binomial nomenclature” (Latin for 2 name naming system). We call this name the “scientific name” of the organism. For example, humans have the scientific name Homo sapiens. The name of any species is two words: the name of the genus followed by the “species modifier.” When hand writing the scientific name you must capitalize the genus and use lower case letters for the species; then underline both names separately. If typing, italicize both words. For example, the scientific name of the bobcat from the table above would be: Lynx rufus The more taxa two organisms have in common, the more closely related the two organisms are. Which two are most closely related in the chart above? The bobcat and the Canadian lynx since they share the same ORDER. Prepared by Ms. Bowie The Body Systems Biology 11 Exam Preparation Notes Page 19 of 25 Prepared by Ms. Bowie Biology 11 Exam Preparation Notes Page 20 of 25 Digestive Enzymes Location in the digestive System Mouth (salivary glands) Stomach Small Intestine Nutrient Involved Carbohydrates Protein Salivary Amylase Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) + Pepsinogen becomes pepsin Protein Enterokinase converts trypsinogen (which came from the pancreas) into the enzyme trypsin. Protein Erepsin (from pancreas and small intestine) Fats Lipase Carbohydrates Pancreatic amylase & disaccharidases (with help of the pancreas) When acid enters the small intestine, a hormone, secretin, sends a message to the pancreas to release an base to neutralize the acid which inactivates the pepsin. Secretion/Enzyme Involved What it does Begins the breakdown of carbohydrates breaking polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates like starch) into simpler carbohydrates and disaccharides HCl converts pepsinogen into pepsin and it kills pathogens. Pepsin begins the digestion of proteins. Trypsin converts long-chain peptides (many amino acids) into short-chain peptides. Completes the breakdown of short chain proteins into individual amino acids. Lipase is an enzyme that breaks down fats into glycerol and fatty acids Medium size carbohydrates and the disaccharides into monosaccharides (like glucose) Prepared by Ms. Bowie Biology 11 Exam Preparation Notes The Respiratory System Page 21 of 25 Prepared by Ms. Bowie Biology 11 Exam Preparation Notes Page 22 of 25 Prepared by Ms. Bowie Blood Types: Biology 11 Exam Preparation Notes Page 23 of 25 Prepared by Ms. Bowie Biology 11 Exam Preparation Notes Page 24 of 25 Prepared by Ms. Bowie Biology 11 Exam Preparation Notes Replication of Bacteriophage (virus) Page 25 of 25