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IX. Developmental Psychology (7–9%) Meyers book- Chapters 3 and 4 Developmental psychology deals with the behavior of organisms from conception to death and examines the processes that contribute to behavioral change throughout the life span. The major areas of emphasis in the course are prenatal development, motor development, socialization, cognitive development, adolescence, and adulthood. AP students in psychology should be able to do the following: • Discuss the interaction of nature and nurture (including cultural variations) in the determination of behavior. • Explain the process of conception and gestation, including factors that influence successful fetal development (e.g., nutrition, illness, substance abuse). • Discuss maturation of motor skills. • Describe the influence of temperament and other social factors on attachment and appropriate socialization. • Explain the maturation of cognitive abilities (e.g., Piaget’s stages, information processing). • Compare and contrast models of moral development (e.g., Kohlberg, Gilligan). • Discuss maturational challenges in adolescence, including related family conflicts. • Characterize the development of decisions related to intimacy as people mature. • Predict the physical and cognitive changes that emerge as people age, including steps that can be taken to maximize function. • Describe how sex and gender infl uence socialization and other aspects of development. • Identify key contributors in developmental psychology (e.g., Mary Ainsworth, Albert Bandura, Diana Baumrind, Erik Erikson, Sigmund Freud, Carol Gilligan, Harry Harlow, Lawrence Kohlberg, Konrad Lorenz, Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky). Lesson 1- Genetics Behavioral Genetics The nature-nurture controversy deals with the extent to which heredity and the environment influence our behavior. Behavioral genetics studies the role played by inheritance in mental ability, temperament, emotional stability, etc. I. Transmission of hereditary characteristics is achieved by biological processes (including gametogenesis, fertilization, embryonic development and protein synthesis). A. Chromosomes carry information stored in genes to new cells during reproduction 1. Human body cells have a constant number of chromosomes = 46 in normal cells. 2. Cells of the ovaries and testes produce eggs (ova) and sperms (spermatozoa) which normally have 23 chromosomes each by a process (gametogenesis) that involves the disjunction of pairs of chromosomes which have genes for the same traits. 3. Of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in human body cells, 22 pairs are non-sex chromosomes (autosomes) and one pair constitutes the sex chromosomes. a. A female has 22 pairs of autosomes and two X sex chromosomes. Thus normal eggs have 22 chromosomes plus an X b. A male has 22 pairs of autosomes and one X and one Y sex chromosome. Thus normal sperms have 22 autosomes + either an X or a Y 4. At fertilization the chromosomes from the egg and sperm recombine to form a zygote (fertilized egg) with 46 chromosomes that will develop into a new individual. 5. The sex of the new individual is determined by the sperm that fertilizes the egg. a. If the sperm carries an X chromosome, the baby will be a female b. If the sperm carries a Y chromosome, the baby will be a male. c. Zygotes develop into females without the presence of a Y chromosome. 6. The new individual gets approximately half his/her hereditary material from the mother and half from the father, one chromosome from each pair. 7. Genes, carried by chromosomes, are the units of inheritance which are sequences of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) that indirectly produce proteins such as enzymes, hormones and structural proteins. a. DNA is a molecule shaped like a double stranded helix that looks like a twisted ladder. i. The two uprights (strands) of the DNA "ladder" are com posed of phosphate and sugar. ii. The rungs are composed of pairs of nitrogenous bases (either adenine (A) and thymine (T) or guanine (G) and cytosine (C). b. The sequence of bases along a strand constitutes the genetic code which gives instructions to perform a specific function such as to manufacture a particular protein. i. Because of the huge number of possible base sequences, DNA can specify almost unlimited genetic messages for characteristics of organisms. ii. Except for sex cells, cells in the body carry the same genes. iii. Only a fraction of the genes in any given cell are active. II. Transmission of an incorrect number of chromosomes can result from nondisjunctional errors. A. Chromosomes from a normal body cell can be photographed and arranged in pairs numbered from largest to smallest (1=largest, 22=smallest, sex chromosomes not numbered). 1. Eggs can be produced with 21 or 23 chromosomes plus an X chromosome 2. Eggs can be produced with 22 autosomes without an X or with two X chromosomes 3. Sperms can be produced with 21 or 23 autosomes plus an X or a Y chromosome 4. Sperms can be produced with 22 autosomes without a sex chromosome or with two X, two Y, or both X and Y B. Sperms and eggs with the wrong number of chromosomes can be produced as a result of the failure of pairs of chromosomes to disjoin during gametogenesis. C. Fertilization that includes a gamete with the wrong number of chromosomes results in a zygote and subsequently an individual with chromosomal abnormalities. 1. Most nondisjunctional fertilizations result in spontaneous abortion (miscarriages), with only a small number of nondisjunctional individuals involving the smallest autosomes or sex chromosomes surviving. 2. Trisomy-21 (the presence of 3 copies of autosome 21) results in expression of Down syndrome. i. Down syndrome individuals are typically mentally retarded ii. Down syndrome individuals typically have a round head, flat nasal bridge, protruding tongue, small round ears, spots in the iris of the eye and an epicanthal fold in the eye lid, poor muscle tone and coordination. 3. Sex chromosome nondisjunctional conditions are more common than autosomal ones. i. The XXX condition is not a true syndrome. Only a small percentage express one or more clinical/behavioral problems such as irregularity in menstruation, retardation, sterility or disturbed personalities. ii. The XYY condition is probably not a true syndrome. XYY males are typically over six feet and have acne beyond adolescence. Prison studies conducted in the 1960s which indicated that XYY males tend to be aggressive/violent, sterile, below normal in intelligence and tend to have behavioral disorders have not been substantiated. Some XYY males are sterile and some mentally retarded. iii. Turner syndrome females have only one X sex chromosome (XO). Girls with Turner’s syndrome are typically short with a webbed neck, lack ovaries and fail to develop secondary sex characteristics at puberty. Although usually of normal intelligence, they evidence specific cognitive deficits in arithmetic, spatial organization and visual form perception. iv. Klinefelter syndrome males arise from an XXY zygote. Although the XXY male may have a small penis at birth, the syndrome is not evident until puberty when male secondary sex characteristics such as development of chest hair, deepening of voice, and further development of the testes and penis etc. fail to occur. Breast tissue does develop and fat distribution characteristic of females becomes evident. Klinefelter’s is characterized by sterility. Some XXY males are mentally retarded and often have mental disturbances such as passivity. III. The genetic make-up of an individual is called its genotype. The expression of the genes is called its phenotype. Basic principles of genetics are applicable to human inheritance and expression of genes. A. Pairs of chromosomes (homologous chromosomes) each have a gene for the same trait at the same locus on each of the chromosomes (alleles). B. For traits determined by one pair of genes, if the alleles are the same, the individual is homozygous for the trait and expresses that phenotypic characteristic. 1. Whether both genes are dominant genes or both genes are recessive genes, the alleles will be expressed. a. Numerous recessive genes are responsible for syndromes in the homozygous condition. i. *Tay-Sachs syndrome produces progressive loss of nervous function in a baby which becomes obvious from about six months of age when the baby fails to sit up, becomes blind, suffers seizures, becomes paralyzed, dies (usually by age 5). ii. Albinism arises from a failure to synthesize or store melanin and also involves abnormal nerve pathways to the brain resulting in quivering eyes and the inability to perceive depth or threedimensionality with both eyes. iii. Phenylketonuria (PKU) results in severe, irreversible brain damage unless the baby is fed a special diet low in phenylalanine within 30 days of birth because the infant cannot digest this amino acid which can build up and poison cells of the nervous system. The gene can be tested for. iv. Most recessive disorders involve enzyme defects of metabolism. b. A small number of dominant genes are responsible for syndromes and will be expressed in the homozygous or heterozygous condition. They are usually involved in tissue development. Huntington’s disease is an example that involves degeneration of the nervous system. Progressive symptoms involve forgetfulness, tremors, jerky motions, loss of the ability to talk, personality changes such as temper tantrums or inappropriate accusations, blindness and death. A marker for the gene has been identified that can be tested for. The onset of the disease occurs after 30. 2. For alleles on the X chromosome, with no corresponding allele on the Y chromosome, the allele on the X chromosome will be expressed in males whether it is dominant or recessive. Recessive genes for color blindness, hemophilia, and Lesch-Nyhan syndrome are located on the X chromosome with no corresponding allele on the Y chromosome. As a result, males show sex-linked traits much more frequently than females. a. Color blindness affects about 6% males in the population by affecting the cones of the retina so that in most cases red and green cannot be discerned clearly. b. Hemophilia affects the ability of the blood to clot. c. Lesch-Nyhan is a metabolic disorder that results in selfmutilation. It affects a very small number of males. d. For females to show the sex-linked recessive trait, they would need two recessive genes, one on each X chromo some. e. Females with one allele for a sex-linked trait are carriers and can pass the gene on to sons who will express the trait, or to daughters who could be carriers or in the ho mozygous condition express the trait. C. For traits determined by one pair of genes, if the alleles are different, the individual is heterozygous for the trait. 1. The dominant gene is the one that is expressed when alleles are different and only one of the genes is expressed. 2. The recessive gene is the one that is masked when alleles are different and only one of the genes is expressed. An individual who is heterozygous for a trait is called a carrier (for the recessive trait). 3. For some traits, both genes may be expressed as for type AB blood. 4. For some traits, an intermediate form of inheritance may be ex pressed as for the sickle-cell trait. 5. Most human traits are polygenic, influenced by more than one pair of genes. All complex behavioral characteristics such as musical, artistic, athletic and intellectual aptitudes are influenced by more than one pair of genes and show continuous variation rather than distinct categories. What happens to genetic potential depends upon environmental conditions. 6. Phenotypic characteristics may change over time such as hair color or may be modified by environmental factors. D. Behaviors and diseases may have variations only some of which are genetically based. A form of familial Alzheimer’s disease has been attributed to a gene on chromosome 21, but not all cases of Alzheimer’s disease are associated with that gene. IV. Behavioral genetics research is accomplished by a variety of techniques. A. Extrapolation from selective breeding experiments in rats, dogs and other animals has yielded information regarding the genetic and environmental contributions to excitability, aggression, intelligence, etc. Animals showing the highest value of a given trait are bred and animals showing the lowest value of the given trait are selectively bred. With environmental conditions held constant, if two different "strains" develop after several generations, a genetic component for the characteristic under study has been established. B. Twin studies have been conducted to assess the influence of heredity on expression of a behavior or constellation of behaviors. 1. Monozygotic (MZ) or identical twins develop from a single fertilized egg that has split to form two embryos early in development. Thus they share the same heredity. 2. Dizygotic (DZ) or fraternal twins develop from two different fertilized eggs. Thus, like other siblings, or each parent and child, they share about 50% of their genes. 3. In twin studies a particular trait is studied for appearance in sets of identical twins and sets of fraternal twins. If there is more similarity in identical twins than in fraternal twins, researchers infer a genetic component for the trait. Such constellations of behaviors as schizophrenia and general intelligence have shown greater similarity in identical twins than in fraternal twins, for example. These studies are not controlled experiments. C. Adoption studies assess genetic influence by comparing resemblance of adopted children to both their adoptive and biological parents. The children must have been adopted as infants without contact with their biological parents. If the children resemble their biological parents, but not their adoptive families, with respect to a given trait, researchers infer a genetic component for that trait. Such constellations of behaviors as alcoholism, schizophrenia and general intelligence have shown both genetic and environmental components. D. The Human Genome Project is an international effort to map the loci of all of the genes on the twenty-three chromosome pairs in humans. Techniques of biotechnology have been employed to close in on locations for genes for Alzheimer’s, Huntington’s, Duchenne muscular dystrophy. The DNA sequence for some genes has already been established. E. Social values, prejudices and fallacies are imposed on our biological understanding of race and other polygenic inheritances. Lesson 2 Major issues, methods, prenatal development, infancy I. II. III. IV. Development involves the processes and stages of growth from conception across the life span. It encompasses changes in physical, cognitive and social behaviors. Major issues A. Nature versus nurture-are we more affected by heredity or environment? B. Continuity versus discontinuity-is developmental change gradual, or do we progress through distinct stages ? Methods A. Cross-sectional research involves studying a variety of ages at a given point in time. B. Longitudinal research follows the same group of subjects for many years. C. In cohort-sequential research, several age groups are studied periodically. D. Historical research revolves around the particular historical circumstances of an era. Prenatal development A. Physical development 1. Cephalocaudal (head to tail) development 2. Proximodistal (from the center outward) development 3. Germinal Stage- Zygote- 10 days 4. Embryonic Stage- after that- Cells begin to differentiate, specialize and form organs, form distinct layers. Most miscarriages will occur during this stage, embryo is very vulnerable. 5. Fetal Stage- Two months until birth. Fetus becomes capable of physical movement, organs formed, brain cells multiple at a rapid rate, respiratory and digestive systems mature. Age of viabilityage at which the baby can survive in the event of premature delivery. Between 22 and 26 weeks. B. C. V. Genetics 1. Genotype refers to the total genetic composition of a person. 2. Phenotype refers to the observable features of the person. Teratogens are disease agents, drugs and other environmental agents that can cause birth defects during the prenatal period. Infancy A. Physical development 1. Growth rate declines throughout infancy but is faster than during any other postnatal period. 2. Maturation and learning combine to determine skill development and replace reflexes.- Maturation is the gradual unfolding of one’s genetic blueprint. Skills develop because neural connections have been made. This is why some kids walk sooner or later. a. Reflexes- babies are born with certain types of reflexes like: Moro, grasping and rooting. b. Developmental norms- see slide B. Social development 1. Harry Harlow's surrogate mother research with monkeys demonstrated the importance of contact comfort. 2. Konrad Lorenz- Critical period and imprinting. Baby animals will imprint on whoever is their mother. Animals have critical periods in which things need to happen (like dogs and socialization). 3. Attachment style – Mary Ainsworth- Attachment refers to the close, emotional bonds of affections that develop between infants and their caregivers. Mary Ainsworth tested this with her Strange Situation (situations where the child is separated from their caregiver) Test. Attachment is not instantaneous, a. Secure attachment means the infant seeks proximity, contact, and interaction with the caregiver after separation. The child will explore novel situations if the caregiver is near. b. Insecure attachment means the infant cannot be calmed or ignores the caregiver after separation c. Anxious Ambivalent- appear anxious even when mother is near and protest excessively when she leaves, but are not comforted when she returns. Avoidant – Children seek little contact with their caregivers, and often are distressed when they leave. 4. Stranger anxiety peaks at about 6 months; separation anxiety peaks at about 18 months. 5. Temperament- refers to the characteristic mood, activity level and emotional reactivity. Thomas and Chess found that temperamental individuality is well established by the time the child is two or three months old. Temperament seems to be stable throughout life, questions about this study since it is based on the self report data from parents. a. Easy- Tend to be happy, regular in sleep and eating, adaptable and not easily upset. 40% b. Slow-to- Warm- tend to be less cherry, less regular in sleep and slower to adapting to change.- 15% c. Difficult children- tend to be glum, erratic in sleep and eating, resistant to change and relatively irritable – 10% d. Not one category- they don’t fit into one category. Cognitive development 1. Infants show a preference for face-like patterns. 2. Visual cliff experiments suggest that infants perceive depth by the time they are able to crawl. d. C. Lesson 3 Childhood and adolescence I. II. Childhood A. Physical development (what things can we identify that happen) 1. More extensive neural networks continue to develop in the brain. 2. Growth rate continues to decline. B. Social development1. Interaction with the environment provides a sense of gender identity. 2. A greater sense of independence develops as peer relationships begin td become more important. C. Cognitive development continues at a rapid rate. There are advances in the areas of 1. Learning 2. Language 3. Thinking skills Adolescence A. Physical/ sexual development-puberty is when sexual functions reach maturity, meaning a person can reproduce 1. Primary Sex Characteristics- changes at puberty that relate to reproduction (ovulation, sperms, eggs, etc.) 2. Secondary Sex Characteristics- Changes at puberty that are not directly related to reproduction- such as facial and body hair and breast tissue development. B. Social development –Adolescence is a relatively modern term when you look at history because children worked or girls got married at puberty. 1. Peer groups take on an increasingly important role. 2. Opposite-sex relationships gradually become less recreational and more intimate. C. Cognitive development 1. Capability for logical, hypothetical, and introspective thinking develops. 2. Growing awareness of one's own mental processes developsmetacognition. – Thinking about thinking D. Adolescent development relates to many important societal problems, such as suicide, teen pregnancy, and eating disorders. E. G Stanley Hall- Storm and Stress- Proposed that the adolescent years are characterized by convulsive instability and disturbing inner turmoil. Clash with parents about everything. Not so much true- research shows that a small percent of kids have serious issues and a high percent of kids actually agree with parents. F. James Marcia- Answering the question, “Who am I and where am I going” must be addressed. Crisis and commitment can combine to produce these identity statuses. Many psychologists believe adequate identity formations is the cornerstone of sound psychological health. 1. Foreclosure- you have accepted your parent’s identity without questioning or searching for your own identity. 2. Moratorium- normal search for who you are- work a job for two weeks, quit. Go out with someone, break up… 3. Identity diffusion- absence of struggle for identity with no obvious concern about it. 4. Identity Achievement- You have gone through the struggle and come out with a sense of who you are. G. Types of parents 1. Authoritatative- have high expectations, explains rules, negotiates rights and responsibilities with children. Children of these parents achieve the most positive outcomes. Have high self-esteem, popular with peers, self-reliant, competent. Encourages children to be independent and assertive, but respectful of others. 2. Authoritarian- Parents impose rules and expect obedience. These children tend to be moody, inhibited, withdrawn, fearful and distrustful of others. 3. Permissive- Parents make few demands and rarely punish. The parent usually is loving, but has an anything goes attitude. Child tends to be impulsive and lack self-control. Lack of experience in conforming to the other people’s demands. 4. Uninvolved- indifferent or rejecting. Don’t have the energy or time. Lesson 4 Piaget and Kohlberg I. Piaget's theory of cognitive development refers to transitions in children’s patterns of thinking including reasoning. Piaget asserted the interpretation between the environment and maturation gradually alter the way children thing. A. Sensorimotor stage, birth to 18 months – Very little thinking, reflexive responses, simple learning. It is all about interaction with objects. 1. Characteristics a. Cognitive structures or schema are the mental structures that guide thinking (things like being able to label something as a cat or a dog) b. Assimilation is the use of available cognitive structures to gain new information (we fit new information into existing schemas) c. Accommodation is the process of modifying cognitive structures in the face of newly realized complexities in the environment (we restructure our schemas to fit new information) 2. Developmental achievements a. Circular reactions are repetitive motions babies engage in as they gradually learn to explore their environment nonreflexively. b. Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when hidden from view (happens at about 8 months) B. Preoperational stage, 18 months to 6 years- this stage stems from the growing ability to represent objects mentally. There is an emerging sense II. of distinct self and they can solve simple problems using mental representations. 1. Characteristics a. Egocentrism is a limited ability to comprehend a situation from a perspective one has not experienced. (the child assumes that others see the world from their view) b. Animism is the tendency to attribute life to inanimate things. c. Artificialism is the tendency to believe everything is the product of human action d. Centration- focuses attention too narrowly e. Irreversibility- can’t do something and then undo an event in their mind (they can’t bake a cake and then tell you that it was made up of other objects like eggs, flower, etc.). 2. Developmental achievements a. Symbolic representation and language b. Readiness for operational thought C. Concrete-operational stage, 6 years to early adolescence. They have a break through in irreversibility. (A child in this stage when playing a game like 20 questions will say “is it a bird?” or “is it a cat?” instead of asking questions like “does it fly” or “does it have fur”) 1. Characteristics a. Use of simple logic b. Use of simple mental manipulations- they are less gullible 2. Developmental achievements a. Conservation is the principle that matter does not increase or decrease because of a change in form. b. Reversibility is the understanding that mathematical operations can be undone. c. Class inclusion is the ability to understand the hierarchical nature of classification groups. D. Formal-operations stage, adolescence and adulthood; they can deal with abstract and intangible issues. 1. Characteristics a. Hypothetical and deductive reasoning b. Propositional logic 2. Developmental achievement indicates a readiness for adult intellectual tasks. 3. Not all adolescents or adults achieve formal operational reasoning ability. E. Critique of Piaget 1. Development may be more gradual than Piaget's stages imply. 2. The nature of Piaget's tasks may have underestimated cognitive skills of children. Kohlberg's theory of moral development A. Preconventional level B. C. D. 1. Stage 1, characterized by 2. Stage 2, characterized by Conventional level 1. Stage 3, characterized by 2. Stage 4, characterized by Postconventional level 1. Stage 5, characterized by an understanding that values and rules 2. Stage 6, characterized by universal Critique of Kohlberg 1. Development may be more gradual and less sequential than Kohlberg's stages imply. 2. Gilligan and others have criticized the theory for undervaluing traditional female traits, which focus on interpersonal issues. Lesson 5 Erikson's psychosocial theory of development I. II. III. Background A. Erikson was trained in the Freudian tradition, and the first four stages borrow from Freud's psychosexual stages. B. The developmental task of each stage involves resolving the tension between two opposite outcomes. The stages (slides) A. Trust versus mistrust - infants B. Autonomy versus shame and doubt - toddlers C. Initiative versus guilt - young children D. Industry versus inferiority - older children E. Identity versus role confusion - adolescents F. Intimacy versus isolation - young adults G. Generativity versus stagnation - adults H. Ego integrity versus despair - elderly Critique of Erikson A. There is no agreed-upon set of measures for the various stages. B. The stages imply a rigidity of development that may not exist. C. The theory may not reflect differences in personality development between men and women. Lesson 6 Adult and later years I. Adulthood A. Physical changes 1. Abilities peak and begin a gradual (1% a year) decline. Physical peak around 20- Hair will thin, weight gain, sensory acuity decreases… 2. Women undergo menopause with its hormonal and reproductive changes. Menopause marks the end of reproduction for a female. (typically) B. Social changes center around such issues as: 1. Mate selection 2. Parenting 3. Career selection C. Cognitive changes vary significantly with some people showing declines and others not. 1. Reaction time appears to decline. 2. Some adults show a decline in memory. D. Midlife crisis- reappraisal of one’s life. Start to think in terms of time left, not how many years you have lived. Change in family life. More prevelant in men, women this is usually a better time in life, kids are gone. II. Later years A. Physical changes 1. There is a general decline in muscle tone and sensory abilities. 2. Senile dementia and Alzheimer's disease are two disorders that may develop.- SD is an abnormal condition, not automatic that all old people are like this. B. Social issues include: 1. Retirement 2. Social isolation which may be caused by loss of spouse and others lack of mobility and declining health C. Cognitive declines are likely to continue. 1. Crystallized intelligence- application of accumulated knowledge tends to remain stable. 2. Fluid intelligence- basic information processing skills (how fast you think) will decline as you age. Intelligence doesn’t decline thinking speed declines. D. Elisabeth Kubler Ross- 5 stages of death- Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, Acceptance.