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Chapter 2: Early River Civilizations Source: World History: A Story of Progress. Ed. Terry L. Smart and Allan O. Kownslar. Holt, Rinehart and Winston; New York, 1987. P36-57. Egypt While Sumerian civilization was emerging in the Tigris-Euphrates River valley, similar developments occurred elsewhere-in the Nile River valley of Egypt. In this chapter you will learn how Egyptian civilization, its people united by the Nile River and protected by a barren desert, remained practically undisturbed by outsiders for hundreds of years. The geography of the Nile River valley differed from that of Sumer and, as you will see, helped give Egyptian civilization its own, unique character. Early Egypt. The Egyptians developed a great civilization along the Nile River in the northeastern part of Africa. Although historians now believe that this civilization emerged after the Sumerians, both arose from a similar Neolithic background. The Nile River The Nile River has two main sources: the high lands of Ethiopia, and Lake Victoria, in present-day Uganda. It flows northward for about 4,200 miles (6,700 kilometers) until it reaches the Mediterranean Sea. In its course, the river cuts through the Nile Valley which is about 12 miles wide (19 kilometers) and 880 miles (1,400 kilometers) long. The valley is bordered on both sides by high rock walls, beyond which is desert. Both the rock walls and the desert form a natural barrier that helped protect the people of the Nile Valley from raids by desert nomads. As it nears the Mediterranean, the Nile River branches into many smaller rivers and flows through the Nile Delta. This is a broad, fan-shaped plain of fertile soil deposited by the river as it empties into the sea. Owing to the richness of the soil ,the Nile Delta has been heavily populated throughout Egypt’s history. To the east of the delta lies the Isthmus of Suez, bordered on the north by the Mediterranean Sea and on the south by the Red Sea. This narrow neck of land connects the northeastern part of Africa with Asia. The Isthmus of Suez is the only break in the natural barriers formed by the rock walls of the Nile Valley. It linked Egypt with the rest of the ancient Middle East and provided a route to and from Egypt for both travelers and invaders. The Greek historian Herodotus called Egypt the “gift of the Nile” because when the river floods each summer, it deposits a layer of rich soil on the land. From very early times, Egyptian farmers relied heavily on the yearly floods. After harvesting their crops in March and April, the farmers waited for the great river to overflow its banks and deposit the rich black soil carried by its waters. After that, they planted their next crop. Farmers were able to plant as many as three crops a year in this very fertile soil. Each new generation was able to reuse the same land because the Nile renewed the soil year after year. The Egyptian farmers used a network of dikes and canals to water their land, much as was done in ancient Mesopotamia. Dikes were built all around a field, and canals were used to lead the water from the Nile. Then the dikes were opened in such a way that the water irrigated one field at a time. The cooperation necessary for such endeavors created a need for organization and leadership. This provided a stimulus for the emergence of civilization in Egypt. The Nile River is one of the few rivers in the world that flows north. Thus Lower Egypt was downriver and in the north, whereas Upper Egypt was up river in the South The Nile River gave the Egyptians another advantage as well. The northward flow of the river carried boats toward the Mediterranean. On the return trip a ship’s sails could catch the prevailing winds that blow in a southerly direction across Egypt most of the time. River travel took precedence over all other means of transportation in Egypt. It encouraged a lively river trade that helped unify the country’s economy and also fostered political unity: a ruler who could control river transportation could control the country. Natural Resources of Ancient Egypt Because of its rich natural resources, ancient Egypt was a prosperous land. A wide variety of crops were grown in the fertile soil of the delta and on the farmlands bordering the Nile River. There were pastures for cattle, goats, and sheep. Fish were plentiful, and birds were hunted in the tall reeds that grew along the river banks. The reeds themselves provided material for baskets, mats, sandals, and boats. Most important of all, the Egyptians invented a method of splitting and pressing the river reeds together to make a substance similar to present-day writing paper. The plant used to make this paper like material was called papyrus (puh PIE-rus). Papyrus also had many other uses. Its roots could be used as a source for fuel. The fleshy tissue in the stem of the papyrus could be used as food. The fine river mud was used for making bricks and day pots, jars, and other containers. Blocks of limestone and sandstone, cut from the rock walls bordering the Nile, were used in building the great pyramids and temples of ancient Egypt. Copper was mined in the eastern desert and the Sinai Peninsula, and gold came from the nearby desert and from Nubia, a region to the south. In addition there was the Nile itself, which could be called the Egyptians’ greatest natural resource. Prehistoric Egypt During the Paleolithic Period when hunters roamed the northern part of Africa, it was covered with broad, rolling grasslands and many rivers. Gradually the climate became drier as the earth warmed after the most recent Ice Age, and the region became a desert. People were forced to move to places with a greater water supply. Some of them moved to the banks of the Nile and settled in the low desert that bordered the swamps of the Nile Valley. Ancient houses and cemeteries found in that area indicate that over a period of 4,000 years the swamps, once inhabited by crocodiles and hippopotamuses, were cleared and settled. As the swamps were cleared, Neolithic people began to farm the fertile land. Historians think that the first crops in Egypt were planted about 7,000 years ago. The prehistoric Egyptians learned to domesticate wild animals. They made tools from wood and stone, fashioned pottery on a rotating wheel, and worked with copper. They even learned to grow flax and weave the fibers into linen for clothing. Some prehistoric Egyptians engaged in limited trade. Popular trade items included materials used in the making of perfumes and goods made from copper and ivory. These early farmers formed villages along the Nile and built their homes of reeds and mud from the river banks. Remains of their cemeteries show that the Nile farmers buried their dead in shallow graves. The bodies were placed on their sides and the hot, dry sands of the desert often preserved the bodies for thousands of years. Pots, weapons, and food were usually found placed beside the deceased, suggesting that the prehistoric Egyptians believed in an afterlife. The Old Kingdom Historians divide Egyptian history into three main periods: the Old Kingdom (2850 B.C. to 2200 B.C.), the Middle Kingdom (2050 B.C. to 1792 B.C.), and the New Kingdom (1570 B.C. to 1090 B.C.). As you will see, these dates are only approximations because of the kinds of records the Egyptians kept. Historians do not have enough information to say exactly when each period began or to know precisely how long it lasted. The Uniting of Egypt Before the beginning of the Old Kingdom, Egypt was divided into two separate kingdoms called Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. (See map) A king of Upper Egypt named Menes (MEE-neez) conquered Lower Egypt and united the two into one kingdom. He founded his capital city at Memphis, located near modern Cairo (KIE-roe). This unification marked the beginning of the Old Kingdom, a time in which Egypt remained united politically and Egyptian civilization reached its height. Power passed smoothly from one member of the Menes family to another. One explanation for this period of political stability is that Egypt’s hostile neighbors lacked sufficient numbers to present a serious threat. Menes and his successors were what is called a dynasty (DIE-nuhstee), or a family of rulers. The Egyptians dated their histories by reigns of various rulers and used a reign, rather than a year, to refer to when an event occurred. This is why historians are not always sure exactly when many events took place. For example, tradition puts the start of the Old This palette is believed to depict Pharaoh Menes conquering the Pharaoh of Lower Egypt. Kingdom at about 3100 B.C., but modern scholars feel 2850 is a more likely date. Egyptian Religion Egyptian Gods In ancient Egypt, religion was very complex. It played a vital role in Egyptian life, often following political developments. Each local area had its own gods and goddesses. As areas united, their gods and goddesses were accepted by the whole region. The leading god or goddess of Egypt was often the predominant god worshiped in the place where the ruler came from. Early rulers claimed to be the descendants of Horus, the falcon god of the sky. By the Fifth Dynasty, rulers claimed also to be descended from Re (RAY), the sun god. Archaeologists -have found boats in the rulers’ tombs that they think were intended to be used to accompany Re on journeys through the sky and the underworld. Egyptians also identified deceased rulers with Osiris (0e-SIE-rus), who ruled the world of the dead. By virtue of their union with Osiris, rulers claimed immortality. By obeying the rulers, Egyptians felt that they too could participate in life after death. Egyptian gods were often seen as anthropomorphic creatures, meaning they were part human and part animal. Egyptian Beliefs About Death Egyptian beliefs about death changed over the centuries. Egyptians believed that they could participate in an afterlife through their associations with the pharaoh. By the time of the Middle Kingdom, elaborate preparations were made to preserve the body of the pharaoh. The Egyptians believed that the soul of the dead pharaoh would return to the body it had occupied during life. For this reason, it was important to preserve the body as carefully as possible. The body of the pharaoh was prepared for burial by a process called mummification (mum-ih-fuh-KAY-shun) The whole process took about seventy days. The brain was drawn out of the skull through the nose. The heart was left in the body because it was thought to be the center of a person’s will and intelligence. Other organs were removed and preserved in jars that were placed in the tomb near the mummy. Dehydrating agents were put inside the stomach area to keep the body from decaying. Finally, the body was very carefully wrapped in hundreds of strips of linen. The mummy of the pharaoh was then placed in a pyramid along with food and drink to nourish him or her in the afterlife. To discourage thieves from trying to enter the tomb, workers let huge stone blocks crash down to seal the entrance. The only openings left were two secret air holes to allow the pharaoh’s spirit to enter and leave the tomb. Despite these careful preparations, most mummified bodies were damaged or destroyed by vandals or thieves. The bodies of poor people, conversely, were buried in the hot, dry desert sand, and often were better preserved. By the time of the New Kingdom, the Egyptians believed that after they were buried their spirits would be sent to a great hall where their sins were judged. There they pleaded before forty-two gods for eternal life. The dead had to declare virtue, know the secret names of the gods, and be able to cast magic spells that would drive off dangerous snakes and crocodiles. Spells were necessary to survive the dangers of a journey across a lake of fire, and to keep the dead from forgetting their own names. The Egyptians believed that if a dead person were to forget his or her name, that individual would die again. If the dead surmounted all these trials, they would arrive at a place called the “Field of Rushes,” where their lives would remain pleasant forever. These Egyptian beliefs about death arid eternal life, developed over thousands of years, were finally recorded about 1500 B.C. in the Book of the Dead. The Egyptian mummifiers at work. Pharaoh Ramses II as he looks today, even though he died 3200 years ago. The Egyptians even mummified animals like this baboon so there would be a variety of animals present in the afterlife. The Pharaohs As in Sumerian society, religious beliefs formed the basis of authority for the rulers. In Egypt there was no separation of church and state. Egyptian rulers were religious leaders as well as political leaders. By claiming to be gods, Egypt’s rulers held even greater power over their subjects than Sumerian rulers. This belief, combined with the unifying influence of the Nile, allowed Egyptian rulers to control all of Egypt. During the Old Kingdom, the ruler was called a pharaoh (FAIR-oe). As a god, the pharaoh was thought to have special powers that made it possible for him or her to rule Egypt with perfect judgment and complete power. The pharaoh was believed to control not only people, but also the natural world. Therefore, in Egyptian art the pharaoh is always shown larger than other humans or animals. The Egyptians also believed the pharaohs’ powers were responsible for the flooding of the Nile. If the river rose too much or too little, it was believed to be the pharaoh’s fault. Fortunately for the pharaohs, the flooding of the Nile followed a regular pattern and was therefore a source of more praise than blame for the pharaohs. As the descendant of the gods, a pharaoh was the supreme ruler of all Egypt and the judge of all the people. Egyptians believed that the law, which was based on custom, encompassed the will of the gods. Despite their position as gods, even pharaohs were considered to be subject to the law. They were also expected to prepare themselves to be rulers and to provide for the public welfare. A pharaoh’s heir had to study about the needs of Egypt and the management of irrigation, mining, and construction. A new pharaoh was expected to ascend the throne ready to rule and to direct the economy. The power and prestige of the pharaoh was so great that government officials never spoke on their own authority. They always said they were speaking for the pharaoh. The pharaoh also owned all the land in Egypt and received taxes on goods and services from the farmers. Pharaohs allowed the people to use the land, but they always maintained the right to take away any part of the land they wished. Pharaohs also ordered mining and trading Egyptian art always portrayed the Pharaoh as a larger than life, idealized person. He was after all a god on earth. expeditions that brought more wealth to the kingdom. Egyptian Government During the Old Kingdom, the relative wealth of Egypt and its natural barriers to invasion promoted a government based on peace. Egypt had no standing army or professional military corps. Government was based on cooperation rather than force. The pharaoh administered control over Egypt through civil officials. The most important official was the vizier (vuh-ZIR), or prime minister. Viziers emerged in Egyptian society by the beginning of the Old Kingdom and gradually came to run almost every part of Egyptian government when the pharaoh’s power declined in later dynasties. Among his many duties, the vizier acted as judge, trying cases and hearing appeals. He also appointed judges in the local courts, and controlled irrigation and agriculture. He was responsible for collecting taxes, and entertained important visitors from other lands. It was the vizier’s duty to keep the roads and buildings in good repair. Other important government officials included the high priest, the chief architect, the royal treasurer, the royal official who looked after the pharaoh’s household, and the teachers of the royal children. The Pyramids Egyptians built pyramids to provide a fitting burial place for their pharaoh god-kings because they believed the pharaohs held the key to the afterlife for all. Pyramids reflected the Egyptians’ strong conviction in life after death. They also reflected the ability of the pharaohs of the Old Kingdom to marshal the resources of Egypt to provide the labor and materials for these huge monuments. The first pyramid, which was built for the pharaoh Zoser (ZOE-sur), was begun about 2600 B.C. The pyramid was made in steps of small, square stones and was surrounded by beautiful white limestone temples and other buildings used for worshiping the dead pharaoh. The building of a pyramid was a huge public- works project taking many years to complete. Thousands of Egyptians worked under the direction of architects and overseers during the seasons when fewer workers were needed on the farms. Herodotus recorded that the building of Cheops (KEE-ops), known to us as Khufu, required the labor of 100,000 people over a twenty-year period. The structure, which contains over two million limestone blocks fitted together with almost perfect precision without using mortar or cement, rose to a height of 480 feet (146 meters). Top: Map shows the location of most known Egyptian pyramid sites. All the pyramids were built on the western side of the Nile because according to Egyptian belief the land of the dead lay in the western deserts as that was where the sun “died” every day. Below: The first pyramid, Zoser’s Step Pyramid; The Great Pyramids at the Giza Complex; The pyramid of Amenemhet I, in all there are 118 identified pyramids in Egypt. Not all are in as good condition as others. The Middle Kingdom In time the pharaohs were no longer able to control all of Egypt. At the height of the Old Kingdom, a few officials ruled Egypt. Many were related to the pharaoh and owed their well-being to the pharaoh’s generosity. As the number of officials increased, some left the pharaoh’s household. Many official positions became hereditary, and people of ambition and talent were cut off from the opportunity to serve the kingdom. Less able administrators inherited positions of power and influence. At the same time, the Egyptian economy was being drained by taxation to support the ceremonies held at the pharaohs’ temples. Between 2200 B.C. and 2050 B.C., a great struggle for power took place in Egypt as the influence of the pharaoh waned. Priests and local nobles fought among themselves for leadership, and Egypt became a divided country. As the central government collapsed, local nobles usually became the real rulers. The decentralization of power had an impact on other phases of Egyptian life as well. The quality of art produced by artisans of the pharaoh’s household declined, and the building of great monuments was sharply curtailed. The Middle Kingdom Around 2130 B.C., a prince from the city of Thebes (THEEBZ) began to restore the power of the pharaoh and the local rulers and to reunite the country. Thus began the period known as the Middle Kingdom, which lasted from 2050 B.C. to 1792 B.C. The work of reuniting Egypt was completed by a new pharaoh, Amenemhet I (ah-meh-NEMhet). During his rule, and during the next two dynasties, the role of the pharaoh changed. As before, pharaohs were considered to be gods, but they no longer had absolute power. Now they had to share their power and wealth with the nobles and priests. The people no longer believed that a person could achieve a place in the afterlife only through association with the pharaoh. In addition, the people no longer feared the pharaohs, but instead considered them to be their protectors. The pharaohs themselves seemed more concerned with the welfare of the people than they had previously. Tales of pharaohs trying to ensure justice and good government for the people appeared in Egyptian literature of the time. The Middle Kingdom brought about other changes. One was a decline in the building of stone pyramids and an increase in construction of rock cut chamber tombs, which were less expensive and less time-consuming to build. Glassmaking also appeared at this time, but scholars are not certain just how that invention emerged. It may have occurred accidentally due to the over firing of faience (fayAHNS) ware, a fine, glazed pottery with partially fused minerals in it. During the Middle Kingdom Egyptians made glass objects such as statuettes and jewelry. The Middle Kingdom was a time of peace and prosperity. Trade with other nations expanded under the protection of the pharaoh. Since all classes of people were thought of as equals in the next world, even the poor received fine funerals. One of the most important changes of this period was in the role of priests. They were given more religious duties and acted as intermediaries between the people and the officials of the royal househo1d. Gradually the position of priest was passed down from father to son, and they formed a large wealthy class whose power rivaled that of the pharaohs. The strengthening of the priests’ influence and weakening of the pharaoh’s power changed the character of Egyptian government. Authority became decentralized. The kingdom became divided when local nobles refused to submit to the pharaoh’s authority. Thus political unrest disunited Egypt’s unity once again. The Hyksos Invade Egypt Although little is known about the last pharaohs of Middle Kingdom, the existence of natural barriers may have lulled them into a false sense of security. Frontier defenses to the north became lax, due in part to the Egyptians’ belief in their own superiority. Egyptians thought that their country was the only one protected by the gods and, according to this way of thinking, all other peoples were subject to them. However, not all other peoples accepted such a notion, and some made plans to conquer Egypt. Among the invaders poised beyond Egypt’s borders and ready to take advantage of any sign of weakness were the Hyksos (HIK-soes), which is what the ancient Egyptians called the Asians. The Hyksos invasion was part of a wave of invasions, including those of the Hittites and Kassites in Mesopotamia, that disrupted civilization in the Middle East. The Hyksos were a conquering people who had entered Canaan about twenty years prior to entering Egypt. By 1730 B.C. they had traveled over the Isthmus of Suez and through the Nile Delta. The Hyksos quickly defeated the Egyptians and established their capital at Avaris, in the northern delta of Egypt. The success of the Hyksos, like that of the Kassites in Sumer, was linked to their use of lightweight chariots pulled by fast horses. This gave the Hyksos the ability to maneuver easily and strike swiftly. They ruled Egypt for over 100 years, and even established their own dynasties. While the Egyptians hated these foreigners and resisted many of their ways, the Hyksos did bring some prosperity to the country. They repaired the old roads or built new ones to connect northern Egypt with routes to Asia. Hyksos forts and well-armed garrisons provided protection for travelers and traders who used those roads. Gradually, however, the Hyksos allowed some Egyptian princes, such as those at Thebes, to gain local independence. Once those princes had effectively learned to use the Hyksos’ weapons and basic military techniques, they waged a patriotic war against the Hyksos and by 1570 B.C. drove them from Egypt. According to ancient Egyptian legend, this rebellion began when a Hyksos pharaoh ordered a Theban prince to “silence the bellowing of the hippopotamuses who were disturbing his sleep.” The Egyptian prince, who had attached great significance to the animals and greatly admired them, refused to obey the Hyksos king’s order. Unfortunately for later scholars, the Egyptians, in the course of winning the war, destroyed most of the records of Hyksos rule. The New Kingdom After the Hyksos were driven out, Egypt entered another period of unity called the New Kingdom, which lasted from about 1570 B.C. to 1090 B.C. During this time a series of strong pharaohs ruled Egypt from the capital city of Thebes. As were those of the Old Kingdom, the pharoahs of the New Kingdom were absolute rulers. They stripped the priests and the nobles of some of their power and kept tight control over the government. After the Hyksos invasion, the Egyptians realized that it was possible for invaders to enter and occupy their land. They could no longer maintain the isolated position from events in the Middle East that had marked their previous history. They realized that they had to protect themselves and as the first step in that direction, they formed an army. The Egyptians felt that safety would come only from controlling the surrounding areas, and thereby keeping this territory out of the hands of rival powers. The Egyptian army of the New Kingdom was a professional army and much larger than that of the Middle Kingdom. Modeled on the Hyksos army, it used horses, chariots, and bronze weapons. The Egyptian Empire Just as the Hittites had used the chariot in the creation of their huge empire, the Egyptians used it to expand their territory. The pharaoh had a full-time army, ready to fight at a moment’s notice. Many of the soldiers were former prisoners of war who could gain their freedom by serving in the Egyptian army. With this new and stronger army, the Egyptians conquered the whole area along the eastern coast of the Mediterranean area as far north as the Taurus (TAW-rus) Mountains. They then moved south into the region that is now the Sudan (sooDAN). As the Egyptians took more and more land, the empire grew rapidly. The pharaohs, however, soon found that it was sometimes easier to conquer a land than to rule it. During the reigns of weak pharaohs, parts of the empire revolted and tried to break away. Only the strongest pharaohs were capable of holding the empire together. By the twelfth century B.C., most of the conquered land had been lost. Two Pharaohs of the New Kingdom Among the ablest and most powerful pharaohs of the Egyptian Empire were Hatshepsut (hat-SHEP soot) and her husband, nephew, and stepson, Thutmose III (thoot-MOE-suh). Hatshepsut was a wise and strong pharaoh who ruled jointly with Thutmose III from about 1500 B.C. to 1480 B.C. Hatshepsut was more interested in building a secure and prosperous Egyptian society than in expanding the empire. During Hatshepsut’s rule, Egyptian women enjoyed a better position than had women in most other parts of the ancient world. They had full legal rights an1 could inherit and sell property without first receiving the consent of their husbands. In addition to completing huge building projects, Hatshepsut restored the temples that had been ruined during the Hyksos occupation. The new paintings and carvings that decorated the walls of these temples highlighted important events that took place during her rule. Bust of Hatshepsut Hatshepsut’s Burial Temple Bust of Thutmose III After Hatshepsut’s death, Thutmose III ruled alone from 1468 B.C. to 1436 B.C. Possibly driven by jealousy, Thutmose destroyed many of the paintings, sculptures, and buildings that Hatshepsut had created during her rule. Thutmose and his followers even destroyed the tombs of her most faithful servants. Thutmose III set out to establish himself quickly as one of Egypt’s most forceful rulers. He extended the borders of the empire as far as the Euphrates River and gained control over Palestine and Syria that lasted into the next century. He also improved the Egyptian army and set up military posts primarily designed to put down revolts throughout the empire. These posts served as a constant reminder of Egyptian power and ensured that the conquered people would pay tribute to the pharaoh. Thutmose held the children of conquered princes as hostages and educated them in Egypt. The children were taught that the pharaohs were powerful enough both to protect conquered peoples and to punish those who tried to revolt. It was hoped that this indoctrination would persuade the children, once they grew up and became rulers of their own lands, not to dare oppose the regime of the pharaoh. Thutmose was a very able ruler. He devoted much time to the ruling of his empire, and personally judged legal cases. He also rebuilt temples with the labor of prisoners of war and decorated the temples with chalices and urns of his own design. Wall paintings from about 1500 B.C. show foreign sailors bringing the products of their lands to exchange for Egyptian goods, indicating that trade with other countries also increased during the rule of Thutmose. The Common People Lose Their Rights The military victories of Thutmose and other pharaohs of the New Kingdom made Egypt rich and powerful. The tribute collected from conquered peoples helped make the pharaohs and the nobles wealthy, but the benefits reaped did not filter down to the common people. Most of the Egyptian people lived in poverty, while the rulers grew rich and corrupt. The freedom of the common people decreased as the pharaohs’ power increased. They had no political rights and depended entirely on the whims of the pharaohs for justice. The whole concept of the rule of the pharaohs had changed from one based on national unity to one based on military strength. As you know, during the Old Kingdom the pharaohs owned all property in Egypt. Until the New Kingdom, the pharaohs had allowed the people to use the land as if it were their own. The pharaohs of the New Kingdom, however, treated large parcels of land as their private property and forced the peasants to work the land for them. Periodically the peasants were forced to work on huge building projects, which caused great discontent among the Egyptian people. The Decline of the New Kingdom The New Kingdom reached its greatest heights during the long rule of Amenhotep III (ahm-un-HOE-tep). During his reign (1417 B.C.—1379 B.C.), the priests and nobles enjoyed many years of prosperity as wealth poured into Egypt from the army’s conquests. Amenhotep, the last of the great builders, constructed a temple at Luxor that was connected by a mile-long road to the temple at Karnak. Flanking the road were statues of rams, and two seventy-foot-high statues adorned Amenhotep’s funeral temple. His tomb was so large that it was never completed. In order to display his wealth Amenhotep personally gave valuable gifts to important visitors to Egypt. A New Egyptian Religion Amenhotep III’s son and successor, Amenhotep IV was not a strong ruler. He had little interest in saving the empire, some of whose subjects were transferring their loyalty to the Hittites. He was interested, however, in reestablishing the Old Kingdom idea that the pharaoh was the only key to an afterlife. In order to do this, Amenhotep IV under took a reformation of Egyptian religion. During the New Kingdom one of the most important gods was Aton (AH-ton), the sun god. Around 1375 B.C. Amenhotep IV elevated the A Pharaoh family portrait. Akhenaton, wife Nefertiti , and their three daughters are seen under the rays of the sun god , Aton. For the first time ancient cult of the sun god to a in Egyptian art, the Pharaoh was seen as human and emotional. position approaching monotheism. His premise was that Aton was the only true god—not just the most important. To demonstrate his conviction, Amenhotep changed his own name to Akhenaton (ak-keh-NAH-ton), which means “he who serves the Aton.” In honor of Aton, the pharaoh built a new capital city named Akhetaton, which was located on the site of the present-day town of Tell el-Amarna (TELL el-uh-MAHR-nuh). There scholars have discovered pictures of the pharaoh, his wife, Queen Nefertiti (neh-fer-TEE-tee), and their children. In contrast to the traditional, static representation of pharaohs in earlier art, the royal family here is depicted in various aspects of everyday life, and -their facial expressions reveal feelings and emotions. This art style is called the Amarna (uh MAHR-nuh) style or period, named after the town where the pictures were found. The priests of the older religion, whose main god was Amon (AH-mun), the ram-headed god of Thebes, had grown very powerful, particularly during the Middle Kingdom era. Now that Thebes was no longer the religious center and the pharaoh sought to suppress worship of Amon, the priests lost much of their power. Akhenaton believed he was the son of Aton and, as such, allowed the god to be worshiped only through himself—not through the priests. Therefore, the priests’ importance in society diminished, and the wealth they received in the form of gifts from the worshipers of Amon declined. The priests of the older religion were angered by Akhenaton’s power over the Egyptian people. To make matters worse, Akhenaton placed his followers in high positions that previously had been held by priests. Also, the wealth that formerly went both to the priests of Amon and for building temples to the former gods went instead to the pharaoh’s new temples for Aton. Thus, while Akhenaton and Queen Nefertiti were focusing their attention on founding a new religion, the Egyptian Empire continued to decline. The Egyptian common people were unhappy about the pharaoh’s new religion because it offered them little hope of a life in the next world. Foreign princes were challenging the pharaoh’s strength and trying to gain control. Rebellions against Egyptian rule had already succeeded in Canaan, and it seemed as if the empire was on the brink of collapse. Tutankhamun Succeeds Akhenaton The priests of Amon and the other gods maintained some control over the people by continually stirring up discontent over the new religion. In 1361 B.C. the young prince Tutankhaton (too tahngKAHTun), whose name was changed to Tutankhamun (too-tahng-KAHM-un) in honor of the god Amon, succeeded Akhenaton as pharaoh. Pressured by the priests, he restored the old Egyptian religion and returned the capital to Thebes. However, Tutankhamun was unable to stop Egypt’s decline and the empire continued to fall into disorder. The situation improved somewhat under the direction of the army general who succeeded Tutankhamun. What followed, however, was the final stages of the Egyptian Empire. Ramses II The most famous pharaoh of this dynasty was Ramses II (RAM-seez), who ruled from 1279 B.C. to 1212 B.C. He managed to collect enough taxes to construct huge buildings and also built a new capital at Tanis (TAY-nus), in the Nile Delta. This city was called Ramses. One of Ramses II’s battles against the Hittites con cluded with the first recorded peace treaty in history. This battle was followed by years of peace, even though nomadic tribes called Sea Peoples continued to challenge Egypt’s rule in Canaan. Ramses II was the last pharaoh to win a major victory over Egypt’s rivals. After his reign, Egypt was no longer able to fight off invaders. Disorder spread rapidly, and Egypt was conquered repeatedly. Invaders, from Libya to the west, controlled the government for a while. These were followed by Ethiopians who invaded Egypt from the south, and the Assyrians who approached from the northeast in 670 B.C. Although the latter conquered the entire country, they were defeated by the Persians around 525 B.C. At this point Egypt’s history as an independent state in the ancient world ended. The Persians ruled Egypt until they, in turn, were defeated by Alexander the Great in 332 B.C. It was not until the twentieth century, after falling under the domination of the Romans, Turks, French, and British, that Egypt again became independent. Society and Culture From simple beginnings as a group of agricultural villages, Egyptian society reached a high level of political, religious, and artistic achievement. Egyptian Writing Many visitors to Egypt are struck with the beauty of ancient inscriptions found on walls and tombs. This form of writing is called hieroglyphics (hie ur-uh-GLIF-ilcs), a name that comes from the Greek word meaning “sacred carving,” and dates back to about 3000 B.C. Hieroglyphics were composed of more than 600 signs, which were carved into stone monuments. They were used mainly by priests for religious purposes. The Egyptians did not develop a true alphabet as the Phoenicians later did, but they gradually made hieroglyphic writing more simple. One of these simpler writing systems was a type of handwriting called hieratic (hie-uh-RAT-ik) While hieroglyphics were carved in stone, hieratic writing was written on papyrus with a brush dipped in ink. Much of our present knowledge about Egypt is based on the deciphering of hieroglyphics, in the late eighteenth century a stone was discovered near the mouth of the Nile River. Named for the city near where it was found, the Rosetta stone contained three different types of writing: Greek, which was known, hieroglyphics and a later form of Egyptian writing, which were not known. The stone is inscribed with a decree honoring a king’s restoration of a temple. A French scholar, Jean François Champollion, used the Greek to interpret the other two writings, and published his findings in 1822. Scribes The tremendous amount of Egyptian writing that even today remains intact was the work of scribes, or official writers. Scribes, who were among the most important members of Egyptian society, attended a special school for twelve years. Anyone who studied at this school learned to read and write and was taught the literature and history of Egypt. Scribes also had to know mathematics, bookkeeping, mechanics, surveying, and law. Some scribes rose to the rank of nobility because Egypt had a great need for educated men during the time of the Old Kingdom. If a man managed to learn to read and write and succeeded in impressing a pharaoh, noble, or priest, his promotion was swift. Pharaohs often rewarded scribes with land, jewels, or a precious metal such as gold. Scribes were needed to serve in the temples, on nobles’ estates and in the pharaohs households. They wrote their records on a roll of papyrus which had fifty times the writing surface of a cuneiform clay tablet. The convenience of writing on papyrus, which could be carried easily, helped spread Egyptian writing to Phoenicia. It later led to the development of the Phoenician alphabet. Egyptian Society . The most important figure in Egyptian society was, of course, the pharaoh. Sharing, in the pharaoh’s wealth and prestige were the officials who helped administer Egypt, and the priests who advised the pharaohs and carried out ceremonies in the temples. In later Egyptian society, local princes and administrators arose who were not closely related to the pharaoh’s household. As Egyptian civilization progressed, merchants and artisans became important members of Egyptian society. During the Middle Kingdom they even revolted against the priests and nobles in order to get more rights. During the New Kingdom, when the role of the army became more important, professional soldiers occupied a place in society just below the nobles. The bulk of the Egyptian population, however were peasant farmers who lived in rural areas along the banks of the Nile. The cost of supporting the royal household and building the pyramids fell mainly on their shoulders. It is probable that farmers were assessed one-fifth or more of their crop production each year. There was a vast gulf between the standard of living of the nobles and that of the poor. The life of the peasant was hard and changed little from century to century. Slaves were at the bottom rung of Egyptian society. Slavery, which was uncommon in the Old Kingdom, became widespread when Egypt embarked on wars of conquest during the New Kingdom. Most slaves lived short, brutal lives, rowing pharaohs’ boats or laboring in the pharaohs’ mines or quarries. Women in the upper classes were generally well respected. They oversaw their homes and a large staff of servants. Women could carry on a business and own and inherit property. It is unlikely however, that women took official part in the government, with the exception of three women pharaohs. Egyptian Architecture Surrounded as they were by cliffs, Egyptians of the Old Kingdom made important advances in building with stone. To build temples, palaces, and pyramids, they learned to move huge blocks of stone weighing several tons from one place to another. They cut the stones into the proper shapes with copper saws and then fitted them tightly into place. The Egyptians used a special unit of measure called the royal cubit (KYOO-but), which measured about 21 inches (53 centimeters), or about the length of an Egyptian’s arm from fingertips to elbow. They also used the width of a hand (without the thumb) and the width of a single finger as units of measure. With this simple measuring system, the Egyptians were able to build pyramids having bases the size of eleven football fields! As the Egyptians became more skilled, they built other kinds of monuments. Obelisks (AHB uhlisks), or tall, pointed stone columns shaped like huge needles, were erected for Thutmose III, who began his rule in 1480 B.C., during the New Kingdom. Originally built at Heliopolis (hee-lee AHP-uh-lus), they were later removed and now stand in Istanbul, London, New York, and Rome. Egyptian Art Like the pyramids, Egyptian art was also a reflection of Egyptian culture. Much of it appeared in tombs. During the Old Kingdom, skilled artisans and artists worked with fine materials and deliberate care. Pictures on the walls of tombs displayed a colorful view of life in Egypt. They were painted to provide the dead with reminders of their life on earth. Inscriptions and drawings on the walls of officials’ tombs depicted their service to the ruler. A king might be shown defeating his enemies. Farmers were shown working in their fields. Sculpture was a highly developed art form. The face on the statue was realistic since food and drink were provided for the dead. Statues of the dead were thought to contain some part of the spirit of the deceased. Therefore, the body appeared imposing and static to show timelessness. Temples, such as the one at Karnak (KAHR nak), were decorated with sculptured stone sphinxes (SFINGKS-us). A sphinx is a figure having the head of a human being, ram, or hawk, and the body of a lion. One of the best known Egyptian sphinxes is the one found at Giza (GEE-zuh), which has the head of a man and the body of a lion. Other artwork included beautifully worked small figures of people and animals in copper, bronze, stone, or coal. Egyptian Science The Egyptians were experts in astronomy and geometry. They developed an accurate calendar so that they could predict the flooding of the Nile River. They also measured the angle of the sun’s rays at various times in order to arrange the construction of the temples so that the rays of the sun would fall on specific important places during special rituals. The Egyptians based the length of their year, 365 days, on the time that passed between the appearances of the star Sirius (SIR-ee-us), or the Dog Star. The 365 days were then divided into twelve months of thirty days each. At the end of each year, the five days remaining were observed as holidays. As you know, the ancient Egyptians numbered the years by the rule of the pharaohs. For example, they spoke of an event as occurring in the tenth year of the rule of Hatshepsut. Using this system of dating, historians have been able to trace Egyptian history back to about 2700 B.C. Egyptian geometry developed for very practical reasons. In a land where the borders of fields might be wiped out by the yearly floods, it was necessary to have exact measurements in order to restore these borders. Geometry was also used to lay out the system of dikes and canals that watered the fields. The pyramids and other great monuments of the Old Kingdom were planned Egyptian fraction symbols were components of the Eye of and built according to complex geometrical Horus. Which when drawn whole was also the symbol for 1. formulas. In contrast to their extensive knowledge of geometry, the Egyptians had a simple numbering system. Numbers were written using signs for ones, tens, hundreds, thousands, and so forth, up to one million. For example, the number 22 would be written 10 + 10 + 1 + 1. At least twenty-seven separate signs were needed to write 999. The Egyptians multiplied by doubling numbers until they reached the multiple they were looking for. They used the same process in reverse when dividing numbers. Fractions were used, but no fraction could be written unless it contained the number one as the numerator. Thus the fraction 3/4 would be written 1/2 + 1/4. Although this system had limited use, the Egyptians were able to use it to solve most of their practical problems. Egyptian Medicine Medical writings on papyrus provide much information about Egyptian medicine. The writings cite important cases that were treated and also tell how a patient was examined, what treatment was prescribed, and how the doctor thought the case would develop. Sometimes possible causes of a disease were listed. Drawings indicate that doctors knew a great deal about human anatomy, and it is believed that they gained this knowledge while preparing bodies for burial. Egyptian medicine was valued throughout the ancient world. Egyptian doctors were sent to distant lands to treat rulers and nobles, and most of the large temples had medical libraries and medical schools for training doctors. Foreign doctors often described the drugs and methods of treating disease they learned while studying in the Egyptian temple schools. Trade in Ancient Egypt The Egyptians traded with many parts of the ancient world. By the time of the New Kingdom, their ships brought timber from Phoenicia, finely worked objects from Sumer, and carved ivories and weapons from Syria. They also brought olive oil, honey, copper, wine, tin, lead, and iron from other countries of the ancient Middle East. Caravans brought back ebony, ivory, animal skins, andgold, as well as slaves, from the lands south of Egypt. There is some evidence that Egyptian ships sailed as far as the Aegean Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the coast of India to trade. Most trade was conducted by barter, or the exchange of one type of thing, such as timber, for another of equal value, such as ivory. This is particularly true of trade done by peasants and poor farmers. In some cases, rings of copper and gold were used as currency in larger dealings by merchants and traders. Historians believe that Egyptian trade was well organized. From early times Egyptians developed elementary methods of accounting and bookkeeping. Egyptians also originated deeds, wills, and written contracts. A few commercial records on papyrus have been found. The Egyptian records, however, are not as complete as the cuneiform tablets historians have analyzed from other ancient Middle Eastern peoples. Egyptian Agriculture and Industry The first people who lived in the Nile Valley caught fish and game and gathered wild fruits and vegetables. Later, barley and wheat brought into Egypt from lands to the east were grown in the fertile Nile Delta and the Nile Valley. These were the two most important staple crops of ancient Egypt. A staple crop is one that is used widely and continually and, for this reason, is usually grown in large amounts. Staple crops were grown on large estates, and production was increased by using wooden plows and hoes. Once the use of iron was known, farm implements were made of that metal because it was more durable. Another important aspect of Egyptian economic life was manufacturing. As early as 3000 B.C. large numbers of people, generally working alone, were able to specialize in crafts. In later years people began to work in groups in factories. Some of the leading industries were quarrying, textiles, glassmaking, pottery, and shipbuilding. Egyptian industries provided the goods for Egyptian trade.