Download Chapter 2: Early River Civilizations Source: World History: A Story of

Chapter 2: Early River Civilizations
Source: World History: A Story of Progress. Ed. Terry L. Smart and Allan O. Kownslar. Holt,
Rinehart and Winston; New York, 1987. P36-57.
Egypt
While Sumerian civilization was
emerging in the Tigris-Euphrates
River valley, similar developments
occurred elsewhere-in the Nile
River valley of Egypt. In this
chapter you will learn how
Egyptian civilization, its people
united by the Nile River and
protected by a barren desert,
remained practically undisturbed
by outsiders for hundreds of years.
The geography of the Nile River
valley differed from that of Sumer
and, as you will see, helped give
Egyptian civilization its own,
unique character.
Early Egypt.
The Egyptians developed a great civilization along the Nile River in the northeastern part of Africa.
Although historians now believe that this civilization emerged after the Sumerians, both arose from a
similar Neolithic background.
The Nile River
The Nile River has two main sources: the high lands of Ethiopia, and Lake Victoria, in present-day
Uganda. It flows northward for about 4,200 miles (6,700 kilometers) until it reaches the Mediterranean
Sea. In its course, the river cuts through the Nile Valley which is about 12 miles wide (19 kilometers) and
880 miles (1,400 kilometers) long. The valley is bordered on both sides by high rock walls, beyond which
is desert. Both the rock walls and the desert form a natural barrier that helped protect the people of the
Nile Valley from raids by desert nomads.
As it nears the Mediterranean, the Nile River branches into many smaller rivers and flows through the
Nile Delta. This is a broad, fan-shaped plain of fertile soil deposited by the river as it empties into the sea.
Owing to the richness of the soil ,the Nile Delta has been heavily populated throughout Egypt’s history.
To the east of the delta lies the Isthmus of Suez, bordered on the north by the Mediterranean Sea and
on the south by the Red Sea. This narrow neck of land connects the northeastern part of Africa with Asia.
The Isthmus of Suez is the only break in the natural barriers formed by the rock walls of the Nile Valley.
It linked Egypt with the rest of the ancient Middle East and provided a route to and from Egypt for both
travelers and invaders.
The Greek historian Herodotus called Egypt the “gift of the Nile” because when the river floods each
summer, it deposits a layer of rich soil on the land. From very early times, Egyptian farmers relied heavily
on the yearly floods. After harvesting their
crops in March and April, the farmers waited
for the great river to overflow its banks and
deposit the rich black soil carried by its waters.
After that, they planted their next crop. Farmers
were able to plant as many as three crops a year
in this very fertile soil. Each new generation
was able to reuse the same land because the
Nile renewed the soil year after year.
The Egyptian farmers used a network of dikes
and canals to water their land, much as was
done in ancient Mesopotamia. Dikes were built
all around a field, and canals were used to lead
the water from the Nile. Then the dikes were
opened in such a way that the water irrigated
one field at a time. The cooperation necessary
for such endeavors created a need for
organization and leadership. This provided a
stimulus for the emergence of civilization in
Egypt.
The Nile River is one of the few rivers in the world that
flows north. Thus Lower Egypt was downriver and in the
north, whereas Upper Egypt was up river in the South
The Nile River gave the Egyptians another
advantage as well. The northward flow of the
river carried boats toward the Mediterranean.
On the return trip a ship’s sails could catch the
prevailing winds that blow in a southerly
direction across Egypt most of the time. River
travel took precedence over all other means of
transportation in Egypt. It encouraged a lively
river trade that helped unify the country’s
economy and also fostered political unity: a
ruler who could control river transportation
could control the country.
Natural Resources of Ancient Egypt
Because of its rich natural resources, ancient Egypt was a prosperous land. A wide variety of crops
were grown in the fertile soil of the delta and on the farmlands bordering the Nile River. There were
pastures for cattle, goats, and sheep. Fish were plentiful, and birds were hunted in the tall reeds that grew
along the river banks. The reeds themselves provided material for baskets, mats, sandals, and boats. Most
important of all, the Egyptians invented a method of splitting and pressing the river reeds together to
make a substance similar to present-day writing paper. The plant used to make this paper like material
was called papyrus (puh PIE-rus). Papyrus also had many other uses. Its roots could be used as a source
for fuel. The fleshy tissue in the stem of the papyrus could be used as food.
The fine river mud was used for making bricks and day pots, jars, and other containers. Blocks of
limestone and sandstone, cut from the rock walls bordering the Nile, were used in building the great
pyramids and temples of ancient Egypt. Copper was mined in the eastern desert and the Sinai Peninsula,
and gold came from the nearby desert and from Nubia, a region to the south. In addition there was the
Nile itself, which could be called the Egyptians’ greatest natural resource.
Prehistoric Egypt
During the Paleolithic Period when hunters roamed the northern part of Africa, it was covered with
broad, rolling grasslands and many rivers. Gradually the climate became drier as the earth warmed after
the most recent Ice Age, and the region became a desert. People were forced to move to places with a
greater water supply. Some of them moved to the banks of the Nile and settled in the low desert that
bordered the swamps of the Nile Valley. Ancient houses and cemeteries found in that area indicate that
over a period of 4,000 years the swamps, once inhabited by crocodiles and hippopotamuses, were cleared
and settled.
As the swamps were cleared, Neolithic people began to farm the fertile land. Historians think that the
first crops in Egypt were planted about 7,000 years ago. The prehistoric Egyptians learned to domesticate
wild animals. They made tools from wood and stone, fashioned pottery on a rotating wheel, and worked
with copper. They even learned to grow flax and weave the fibers into linen for clothing. Some
prehistoric Egyptians engaged in limited trade. Popular trade items included materials used in the making
of perfumes and goods made from copper and ivory.
These early farmers formed villages along the Nile and built their homes of reeds and mud from the
river banks. Remains of their cemeteries show that the Nile farmers buried their dead in shallow graves.
The bodies were placed on their sides and the hot, dry sands of the desert often preserved the bodies for
thousands of years. Pots, weapons, and food were usually found placed beside the deceased, suggesting
that the prehistoric Egyptians believed in an afterlife.
The Old Kingdom
Historians divide Egyptian history into three main periods: the Old Kingdom (2850 B.C. to 2200 B.C.),
the Middle Kingdom (2050 B.C. to 1792 B.C.), and the New Kingdom (1570 B.C. to 1090 B.C.). As you
will see, these dates are only approximations because of the kinds of records the Egyptians kept.
Historians do not have enough information to say exactly when each period began or to know precisely
how long it lasted.
The Uniting of Egypt
Before the beginning of the Old Kingdom, Egypt was divided into
two separate kingdoms called Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. (See map)
A king of Upper Egypt named Menes (MEE-neez) conquered Lower
Egypt and united the two into one kingdom. He founded his capital city at
Memphis, located near modern Cairo (KIE-roe). This unification marked
the beginning of the Old Kingdom, a time in which Egypt remained
united politically and Egyptian civilization reached its height. Power
passed smoothly from one member of the Menes family to another. One
explanation for this period of political stability is that Egypt’s hostile
neighbors lacked sufficient numbers to present a serious threat.
Menes and his successors were what is called a dynasty (DIE-nuhstee), or a family of rulers. The Egyptians dated their histories by reigns
of various rulers and used a reign, rather than a year, to refer to when an
event occurred. This is why historians are not always sure exactly when
many events took place. For example, tradition puts the start of the Old
This palette is believed to
depict Pharaoh Menes
conquering the Pharaoh of
Lower Egypt.
Kingdom at about 3100 B.C., but modern scholars feel 2850 is a more
likely date.
Egyptian Religion
Egyptian Gods
In ancient Egypt, religion was very complex. It played a
vital role in Egyptian life, often following political
developments. Each local area had its own gods and goddesses.
As areas united, their gods and goddesses were accepted by the
whole region. The leading god or goddess of Egypt was often
the predominant god worshiped in the place where the ruler
came from. Early rulers claimed to be the descendants of Horus,
the falcon god of the sky. By the Fifth Dynasty, rulers claimed
also to be descended from Re (RAY), the sun god.
Archaeologists -have found boats in the rulers’ tombs that they
think were intended to be used to accompany Re on journeys
through the sky and the underworld. Egyptians also identified
deceased rulers with Osiris (0e-SIE-rus), who ruled the world of
the dead. By virtue of their union with Osiris, rulers claimed
immortality. By obeying the rulers, Egyptians felt that they too
could participate in life after death.
Egyptian gods were often seen as anthropomorphic creatures, meaning they
were part human and part animal.
Egyptian Beliefs About Death
Egyptian beliefs about death changed over the centuries. Egyptians believed that they could
participate in an afterlife through their associations with the pharaoh. By the time of the Middle Kingdom,
elaborate preparations were made to preserve the body of the pharaoh. The Egyptians believed that the
soul of the dead pharaoh would return to the body it had occupied during life. For this reason, it was
important to preserve the body as carefully as possible. The body of the pharaoh was prepared for burial
by a process called mummification (mum-ih-fuh-KAY-shun) The whole process took about seventy days.
The brain was drawn out of the skull through the nose. The heart was left in the body because it was
thought to be the center of a person’s will and intelligence. Other organs were removed and preserved in
jars that were placed in the tomb near the mummy. Dehydrating agents were put inside the stomach area
to keep the body from decaying. Finally, the body was very carefully wrapped in hundreds of strips of
linen. The mummy of the pharaoh was then placed in a pyramid along with food and drink to nourish him
or her in the afterlife. To discourage thieves from trying to enter the tomb, workers let huge stone blocks
crash down to seal the entrance. The only openings left were two secret air holes to allow the pharaoh’s
spirit to enter and leave the tomb.
Despite these careful preparations, most mummified bodies were damaged or destroyed by vandals
or thieves. The bodies of poor people, conversely, were buried in the hot, dry desert sand, and often were
better preserved.
By the time of the New Kingdom, the Egyptians believed that after they were buried their spirits
would be sent to a great hall where their sins were judged. There they pleaded before forty-two gods for
eternal life. The dead had to declare virtue, know the secret names of the gods, and be able to cast magic
spells that would drive off dangerous snakes and crocodiles. Spells were necessary to survive the dangers
of a journey across a lake of fire, and to keep the dead from forgetting their own names. The Egyptians
believed that if a dead person were to forget his or her name, that individual would die again. If the dead
surmounted all these trials, they would arrive at a place called the “Field of Rushes,” where their lives
would remain pleasant forever. These Egyptian beliefs about death arid eternal life, developed
over thousands of years, were finally recorded about 1500 B.C. in the Book of the Dead.
The Egyptian mummifiers at work. Pharaoh Ramses II as he looks today, even though he died 3200 years ago. The
Egyptians even mummified animals like this baboon so there would be a variety of animals present in the afterlife.
The Pharaohs
As in Sumerian society, religious beliefs formed the basis of
authority for the rulers. In Egypt there was no separation of church
and state. Egyptian rulers were religious leaders as well as political
leaders. By claiming to be gods, Egypt’s rulers held even greater
power over their subjects than Sumerian rulers. This belief,
combined with the unifying influence of the Nile, allowed Egyptian
rulers to control all of Egypt.
During the Old Kingdom, the ruler was called a pharaoh
(FAIR-oe). As a god, the pharaoh was thought to have special
powers that made it possible for him or her to rule Egypt with
perfect judgment and complete power. The pharaoh was believed to
control not only people, but also the natural world. Therefore, in
Egyptian art the pharaoh is always shown larger than other humans
or animals. The Egyptians also believed the pharaohs’ powers were
responsible for the flooding of the Nile. If the river rose too much
or too little, it was believed to be the pharaoh’s fault. Fortunately
for the pharaohs, the flooding of the Nile followed a regular pattern
and was therefore a source of more praise than blame for the
pharaohs.
As the descendant of the gods, a pharaoh was the supreme ruler
of all Egypt and the judge of all the people. Egyptians believed that
the law, which was based on custom, encompassed the will of the
gods. Despite their position as gods, even pharaohs were considered
to be subject to the law. They were also expected to prepare
themselves to be rulers and to provide for the public welfare. A
pharaoh’s heir had to study about the needs of Egypt and the
management of irrigation, mining, and construction. A new pharaoh
was expected to ascend the throne ready to rule and to direct the
economy.
The power and prestige of the pharaoh was so great that
government officials never spoke on their own authority. They
always said they were speaking for the pharaoh. The pharaoh also
owned all the land in Egypt and received taxes on goods and
services from the farmers. Pharaohs allowed the people to use the
land, but they always maintained the right to take away any part of
the land they wished. Pharaohs also ordered mining and trading
Egyptian art always portrayed the
Pharaoh as a larger than life,
idealized person. He was after all
a god on earth.
expeditions that brought more wealth to the kingdom.
Egyptian Government
During the Old Kingdom, the relative wealth of Egypt and its natural barriers to invasion promoted a
government based on peace. Egypt had no standing army or professional military corps. Government was
based on cooperation rather than force. The pharaoh administered control over Egypt through civil
officials. The most important official was the vizier (vuh-ZIR), or prime minister. Viziers emerged in
Egyptian society by the beginning of the Old Kingdom and gradually came to run almost every part of
Egyptian government when the pharaoh’s power declined in later dynasties.
Among his many duties, the vizier acted as judge, trying cases and hearing appeals. He also
appointed judges in the local courts, and controlled irrigation and agriculture. He was responsible for
collecting taxes, and entertained important visitors from other lands. It was the vizier’s duty to keep the
roads and buildings in good repair. Other important government officials included the high priest, the
chief architect, the royal treasurer, the royal official who looked after the pharaoh’s household, and the
teachers of the royal children.
The Pyramids
Egyptians built pyramids to provide a fitting burial place for their
pharaoh god-kings because they believed the pharaohs held the key to the
afterlife for all. Pyramids reflected the Egyptians’ strong conviction in life
after death. They also reflected the ability of the pharaohs of the Old
Kingdom to marshal the resources of Egypt to provide the labor and materials
for these huge monuments.
The first pyramid, which was built for the pharaoh Zoser (ZOE-sur), was
begun about 2600 B.C. The pyramid was made in steps of small, square
stones and was surrounded by beautiful white limestone temples and other
buildings used for worshiping the dead pharaoh. The building of a pyramid
was a huge public- works project taking many years to complete. Thousands
of Egyptians worked under the direction of architects and overseers during the
seasons when fewer workers were needed on the farms. Herodotus recorded
that the building of Cheops (KEE-ops), known to us as Khufu, required the
labor of 100,000 people over a twenty-year period. The structure, which
contains over two million limestone blocks fitted together with almost perfect
precision without using mortar or cement, rose to a height of 480 feet (146
meters).
Top: Map shows the location of most known Egyptian pyramid sites. All the pyramids were built on the western
side of the Nile because according to Egyptian belief the land of the dead lay in the western deserts as that was
where the sun “died” every day. Below: The first pyramid, Zoser’s Step Pyramid; The Great Pyramids at the Giza
Complex; The pyramid of Amenemhet I, in all there are 118 identified pyramids in Egypt. Not all are in as good
condition as others.
The Middle Kingdom
In time the pharaohs were no longer able to control all of Egypt. At the height of the Old Kingdom,
a few officials ruled Egypt. Many were related to the pharaoh and owed their well-being to the pharaoh’s
generosity. As the number of officials increased, some left the pharaoh’s household. Many official
positions became hereditary, and people of ambition and talent were cut off from the opportunity to serve
the kingdom. Less able administrators inherited positions of power and influence. At the same time, the
Egyptian economy was being drained by taxation to support the ceremonies held at the pharaohs’ temples.
Between 2200 B.C. and 2050 B.C., a great struggle for power took place in Egypt as the influence of
the pharaoh waned. Priests and local nobles fought among themselves for leadership, and Egypt became a
divided country. As the central government collapsed, local nobles usually became the real rulers.
The decentralization of power had an impact on other phases of Egyptian life as well. The quality of
art produced by artisans of the pharaoh’s household declined, and the building of great monuments was
sharply curtailed.
The Middle Kingdom
Around 2130 B.C., a prince from the city of Thebes (THEEBZ) began to restore the power of the
pharaoh and the local rulers and to reunite the country.
Thus began the period known as the Middle Kingdom, which lasted from 2050 B.C. to 1792 B.C.
The work of reuniting Egypt was completed by a new pharaoh, Amenemhet I (ah-meh-NEMhet).
During his rule, and during the next two dynasties, the role of the pharaoh changed. As before, pharaohs
were considered to be gods, but they no longer had absolute power. Now they had to share their power
and wealth with the nobles and priests. The people no longer believed that a person could achieve a place
in the afterlife only through association with the pharaoh. In addition, the people no longer feared the
pharaohs, but instead considered them to be their protectors. The pharaohs themselves seemed more
concerned with the welfare of the people than they had previously. Tales of pharaohs trying to ensure
justice and good government for the people appeared in Egyptian literature of the time.
The Middle Kingdom brought about other changes.
One was a decline in the building of stone pyramids and an
increase in construction of rock cut chamber tombs, which
were less expensive and less time-consuming to build.
Glassmaking also appeared at this time, but scholars are not
certain just how that invention emerged. It may have
occurred accidentally due to the over firing of faience (fayAHNS) ware, a fine, glazed pottery with partially fused
minerals in it. During the Middle Kingdom Egyptians made
glass objects such as statuettes and jewelry.
The Middle Kingdom was a time of peace and
prosperity. Trade with other nations expanded under the
protection of the pharaoh. Since all classes of people were
thought of as equals in the next world, even the poor received fine funerals. One of the most important
changes of this period was in the role of priests. They were given more religious duties and acted as
intermediaries between the people and the officials of the royal househo1d. Gradually the position of
priest was passed down from father to son, and they formed a large wealthy class whose power rivaled
that of the pharaohs.
The strengthening of the priests’ influence and weakening of the pharaoh’s power changed the
character of Egyptian government. Authority became decentralized. The kingdom became divided when
local nobles refused to submit to the pharaoh’s authority. Thus political unrest disunited Egypt’s unity
once again.
The Hyksos Invade Egypt
Although little is known about the last pharaohs of Middle Kingdom, the existence of natural barriers
may have lulled them into a false sense of security. Frontier defenses to the north became lax, due in part
to the Egyptians’ belief in their own superiority. Egyptians thought that their country was the only one
protected by the gods and, according to this way of thinking, all other peoples were subject to them.
However, not all other peoples accepted such a notion, and some made plans to conquer Egypt.
Among the invaders poised beyond Egypt’s borders and ready to take advantage of any sign of
weakness were the Hyksos (HIK-soes), which is what the ancient Egyptians called the Asians. The
Hyksos invasion was part of a wave of invasions, including those of the Hittites and Kassites in
Mesopotamia, that disrupted civilization in the Middle East. The Hyksos were a conquering people who
had entered Canaan about twenty years prior to entering Egypt. By 1730 B.C. they had traveled over the
Isthmus of Suez and through the Nile Delta.
The Hyksos quickly defeated the Egyptians and established their capital at Avaris, in the northern
delta of Egypt. The success of the Hyksos, like that of the Kassites in Sumer, was linked to their use of
lightweight chariots pulled by fast horses. This gave the Hyksos the ability to maneuver easily and strike
swiftly. They ruled Egypt for over 100 years, and even established their own dynasties. While the
Egyptians hated these foreigners and resisted many of their ways, the Hyksos did bring some prosperity to
the country. They repaired the old roads or built new ones to connect northern Egypt with routes to Asia.
Hyksos forts and well-armed garrisons provided protection for travelers and traders who used those roads.
Gradually, however, the Hyksos allowed some Egyptian princes, such as those at Thebes, to gain
local independence. Once those princes had effectively learned to use the Hyksos’ weapons and basic
military techniques, they waged a patriotic war against the Hyksos and by 1570 B.C. drove them from
Egypt. According to ancient Egyptian legend, this rebellion began when a Hyksos pharaoh ordered a
Theban prince to “silence the bellowing of the hippopotamuses who were disturbing his sleep.” The
Egyptian prince, who had attached great significance to the animals and greatly admired them, refused to
obey the Hyksos king’s order. Unfortunately for later scholars, the Egyptians, in the course of winning the
war, destroyed most of the records of Hyksos rule.
The New Kingdom
After the Hyksos were driven out, Egypt entered another period of unity called the New Kingdom,
which lasted from about 1570 B.C. to 1090 B.C. During this time a series of strong pharaohs ruled Egypt
from the capital city of Thebes. As were those of the Old Kingdom, the pharoahs of the New Kingdom
were absolute rulers. They stripped the priests and the nobles of some of their power and kept tight
control over the government.
After the Hyksos invasion, the Egyptians realized that it was possible for invaders to enter and
occupy their land. They could no longer maintain the isolated position from events in the Middle East that
had marked their previous history. They realized that they had to protect themselves and as the first step
in that direction, they formed an army. The Egyptians felt that safety would come only from controlling
the surrounding areas, and thereby keeping this territory out of the hands of rival powers. The Egyptian
army of the New Kingdom was a professional army and much larger than that of the Middle Kingdom.
Modeled on the Hyksos army, it used horses, chariots, and bronze weapons.
The Egyptian Empire
Just as the Hittites had used the
chariot in the creation of their huge
empire, the Egyptians used it to expand
their territory. The pharaoh had a full-time
army, ready to fight at a moment’s notice.
Many of the soldiers were former
prisoners of war who could gain their
freedom by serving in the Egyptian army.
With this new and stronger army, the
Egyptians conquered the whole area along
the eastern coast of the Mediterranean area
as far north as the Taurus (TAW-rus)
Mountains. They then moved south into
the region that is now the Sudan (sooDAN).
As the Egyptians took more and more
land, the empire grew rapidly. The
pharaohs, however, soon found that it was
sometimes easier to conquer a land than to
rule it. During the reigns of weak
pharaohs, parts of the empire revolted and
tried to break away. Only the strongest
pharaohs were capable of holding the
empire together. By the twelfth century
B.C., most of the conquered land had been
lost.
Two Pharaohs of the New Kingdom
Among the ablest and most powerful pharaohs of the Egyptian Empire were Hatshepsut (hat-SHEP soot)
and her husband, nephew, and stepson, Thutmose III (thoot-MOE-suh). Hatshepsut was a wise and
strong pharaoh who ruled jointly with Thutmose III from about 1500 B.C. to 1480 B.C. Hatshepsut was
more interested in building a secure and prosperous Egyptian society than in expanding the empire.
During Hatshepsut’s rule, Egyptian women enjoyed a better position than had women in most other parts
of the ancient world. They had full legal rights an1 could inherit and sell property without first receiving
the consent of their husbands.
In addition to completing huge building projects, Hatshepsut restored the temples that had been
ruined during the Hyksos occupation. The new paintings and carvings that decorated the walls of these
temples highlighted important events that took place during her rule.
Bust of Hatshepsut
Hatshepsut’s Burial Temple
Bust of Thutmose III
After Hatshepsut’s death, Thutmose III ruled alone from 1468 B.C. to 1436 B.C. Possibly driven by
jealousy, Thutmose destroyed many of the paintings, sculptures, and buildings that Hatshepsut had
created during her rule. Thutmose and his followers even destroyed the tombs of her most faithful
servants.
Thutmose III set out to establish himself quickly as one of Egypt’s most forceful rulers. He
extended the borders of the empire as far as the Euphrates River and gained control over Palestine and
Syria that lasted into the next century. He also improved the Egyptian army and set up military posts
primarily designed to put down revolts throughout the empire. These posts served as a constant reminder
of Egyptian power and ensured that the conquered people would pay tribute to the pharaoh.
Thutmose held the children of conquered princes as hostages and educated them in Egypt. The
children were taught that the pharaohs were powerful enough both to protect conquered peoples and to
punish those who tried to revolt. It was hoped that this indoctrination would persuade the children, once
they grew up and became rulers of their own lands, not to dare oppose the regime of the pharaoh.
Thutmose was a very able ruler. He devoted much time to the ruling of his empire, and personally
judged legal cases. He also rebuilt temples with the labor of prisoners of war and decorated the temples
with chalices and urns of his own design. Wall paintings from about 1500 B.C. show foreign
sailors bringing the products of their lands to exchange for Egyptian goods, indicating that trade with
other countries also increased during the rule of Thutmose.
The Common People Lose Their Rights
The military victories of Thutmose and other pharaohs of the New Kingdom made Egypt rich and
powerful. The tribute collected from conquered peoples helped make the pharaohs and the nobles
wealthy, but the benefits reaped did not filter down to the common people.
Most of the Egyptian people lived in poverty, while the rulers grew rich and corrupt. The freedom of
the common people decreased as the pharaohs’ power increased. They had no political rights and
depended entirely on the whims of the pharaohs for justice. The whole concept of the rule of the pharaohs
had changed from one based on national unity to one based on military strength.
As you know, during the Old Kingdom the pharaohs owned all property in Egypt. Until the New
Kingdom, the pharaohs had allowed the people to use the land as if it were their own. The pharaohs of the
New Kingdom, however, treated large parcels of land as their private property and forced the peasants to
work the land for them. Periodically the peasants were forced to work on huge building projects, which
caused great discontent among the Egyptian people.
The Decline of the New Kingdom
The New Kingdom reached its greatest heights during the long rule of Amenhotep III (ahm-un-HOE-tep).
During his reign (1417 B.C.—1379 B.C.), the priests and nobles enjoyed many years of prosperity as
wealth poured into Egypt from the army’s conquests. Amenhotep, the last of the great builders,
constructed a temple at Luxor that was connected by a mile-long road to the temple at Karnak. Flanking
the road were statues of rams, and two seventy-foot-high statues adorned Amenhotep’s funeral temple.
His tomb was so large that it was never completed. In order to display his wealth Amenhotep personally
gave valuable gifts to important visitors to Egypt.
A New Egyptian Religion
Amenhotep III’s son and
successor, Amenhotep IV was not a
strong ruler. He had little interest in
saving the empire, some of whose
subjects were transferring their
loyalty to the Hittites. He was
interested, however, in reestablishing
the Old Kingdom idea that the
pharaoh was the only key to an
afterlife. In order to do this,
Amenhotep IV under took a
reformation of Egyptian religion.
During the New Kingdom one of
the most important gods was Aton
(AH-ton), the sun god. Around 1375
B.C. Amenhotep IV elevated the
A Pharaoh family portrait. Akhenaton, wife Nefertiti , and their three
daughters are seen under the rays of the sun god , Aton. For the first time
ancient cult of the sun god to a
in Egyptian art, the Pharaoh was seen as human and emotional.
position approaching monotheism.
His premise was that Aton was the
only true god—not just the most important. To demonstrate his conviction, Amenhotep changed his own
name to Akhenaton (ak-keh-NAH-ton), which means “he who serves the Aton.”
In honor of Aton, the pharaoh built a new capital city named Akhetaton, which was located on the
site of the present-day town of Tell el-Amarna (TELL el-uh-MAHR-nuh). There scholars have discovered
pictures of the pharaoh, his wife, Queen Nefertiti (neh-fer-TEE-tee), and their children. In contrast to the
traditional, static representation of pharaohs in earlier art, the royal family here is depicted in various
aspects of everyday life, and -their facial expressions reveal feelings and emotions. This art style is called
the Amarna (uh MAHR-nuh) style or period, named after the town where the pictures were found.
The priests of the older religion, whose main god was Amon (AH-mun), the ram-headed god of
Thebes, had grown very powerful, particularly during the Middle Kingdom era. Now that Thebes was no
longer the religious center and the pharaoh sought to suppress worship of Amon, the priests lost much of
their power. Akhenaton believed he was the son of Aton and, as such, allowed the god to be worshiped
only through himself—not through the priests. Therefore, the priests’ importance in society diminished,
and the wealth they received in the form of gifts from the worshipers of Amon declined.
The priests of the older religion were angered by Akhenaton’s power over the Egyptian people. To
make matters worse, Akhenaton placed his followers in high positions that previously had been held by
priests. Also, the wealth that formerly went both to the priests of Amon and for building temples to the
former gods went instead to the pharaoh’s new temples for Aton.
Thus, while Akhenaton and Queen Nefertiti were focusing their attention on founding a new
religion, the Egyptian Empire continued to decline. The Egyptian common people were unhappy about
the pharaoh’s new religion because it offered them little hope of a life in the next world. Foreign princes
were challenging the pharaoh’s strength and trying to gain control. Rebellions against Egyptian rule had
already succeeded in Canaan, and it seemed as if the empire was on the brink of collapse.
Tutankhamun Succeeds Akhenaton
The priests of Amon and the other gods maintained some control over the people by continually
stirring up discontent over the new religion. In 1361 B.C. the young prince Tutankhaton (too tahngKAHTun), whose name was changed to Tutankhamun (too-tahng-KAHM-un) in honor of the god Amon,
succeeded Akhenaton as pharaoh. Pressured by the priests, he restored the old Egyptian religion and
returned the capital to Thebes.
However, Tutankhamun was unable to stop Egypt’s decline and the empire continued to fall into
disorder. The situation improved somewhat under the direction of the army general who succeeded
Tutankhamun. What followed, however, was the final stages of the Egyptian Empire.
Ramses II
The most famous
pharaoh of this
dynasty was Ramses
II (RAM-seez), who
ruled from 1279 B.C.
to 1212 B.C. He
managed to collect
enough taxes to
construct huge
buildings and also
built a new capital at
Tanis (TAY-nus), in
the Nile Delta. This
city was called
Ramses. One of
Ramses II’s battles
against the Hittites
con cluded with the
first recorded peace
treaty in history. This
battle was followed
by years of peace,
even though nomadic tribes called Sea Peoples continued to challenge Egypt’s rule in Canaan.
Ramses II was the last pharaoh to win a major victory over Egypt’s rivals. After his reign, Egypt was
no longer able to fight off invaders. Disorder spread rapidly, and Egypt was conquered repeatedly.
Invaders, from Libya to the west, controlled the government for a while. These were followed by
Ethiopians who invaded Egypt from the south, and the Assyrians who approached from the northeast in
670 B.C. Although the latter conquered the entire country, they were defeated by the Persians around 525
B.C. At this point Egypt’s history as an independent state in the ancient world ended. The Persians ruled
Egypt until they, in turn, were defeated by Alexander the Great in 332 B.C. It was not until the twentieth
century, after falling under the domination of the Romans, Turks, French, and British, that Egypt again
became independent.
Society and Culture
From simple beginnings as a group of agricultural villages, Egyptian society reached a high level of
political, religious, and artistic achievement.
Egyptian Writing
Many visitors to Egypt are struck with the beauty of ancient inscriptions found on walls and tombs.
This form of writing is called hieroglyphics (hie ur-uh-GLIF-ilcs), a name that comes from the Greek
word meaning “sacred carving,” and dates back to about 3000 B.C. Hieroglyphics were composed of
more than 600 signs, which were carved into stone monuments.
They were used mainly by priests for religious purposes. The
Egyptians did not develop a true alphabet as the Phoenicians later
did, but they gradually made hieroglyphic writing more simple. One
of these simpler writing systems was a type of handwriting called
hieratic (hie-uh-RAT-ik) While hieroglyphics were carved in stone,
hieratic writing was written on papyrus with a brush dipped in ink.
Much of our present knowledge about Egypt is based on the
deciphering of hieroglyphics, in the late eighteenth century a stone
was discovered near the mouth of the Nile River. Named for the city
near where it was found, the Rosetta stone contained three different
types of writing: Greek, which was known, hieroglyphics and a later
form of Egyptian writing, which were not known. The stone is
inscribed with a decree honoring a king’s restoration of a temple. A
French scholar, Jean François Champollion, used the Greek to
interpret the other two writings, and published his findings in 1822.
Scribes
The tremendous amount of Egyptian writing that even today remains intact was the work of scribes,
or official writers. Scribes, who were among the most important members of Egyptian society, attended a
special school for twelve years. Anyone who studied at this school learned to read and write and was
taught the literature and history of Egypt. Scribes also had to know mathematics, bookkeeping,
mechanics, surveying, and law. Some scribes rose to the rank of nobility because Egypt had a great need
for educated men during the time of the Old Kingdom. If a man managed to learn to read and write and
succeeded in impressing a pharaoh, noble, or priest, his promotion was swift. Pharaohs often rewarded
scribes with land, jewels, or a precious metal such as gold. Scribes were needed to serve in the temples,
on nobles’ estates and in the pharaohs households. They wrote their records on a roll of papyrus which
had fifty times the writing surface of a cuneiform clay tablet. The convenience of writing on papyrus,
which could be carried easily, helped spread Egyptian writing to Phoenicia. It later led to the development
of the Phoenician alphabet.
Egyptian Society .
The most important figure in Egyptian society was, of course, the pharaoh. Sharing, in the pharaoh’s
wealth and prestige were the officials who helped administer Egypt, and the priests who advised the
pharaohs and carried out ceremonies in the temples. In later Egyptian society, local princes and
administrators arose who were not closely related to the pharaoh’s household. As Egyptian civilization
progressed, merchants and artisans became important members of Egyptian society. During the Middle
Kingdom they even revolted against the priests and nobles in order to get more rights. During the New
Kingdom, when the role of the army became more important, professional soldiers occupied a place in
society just below the nobles.
The bulk of the Egyptian population, however were peasant farmers who lived in rural areas along
the banks of the Nile. The cost of supporting the royal household and building the pyramids fell mainly
on their shoulders. It is probable that farmers were assessed one-fifth or more of their crop production
each year. There was a vast gulf between the standard of living of the nobles and that of the poor. The life
of the peasant was hard and changed little from century to century.
Slaves were at the bottom rung of Egyptian society. Slavery, which was uncommon in the Old
Kingdom, became widespread when Egypt embarked on wars of conquest during the New Kingdom.
Most slaves lived short, brutal lives, rowing pharaohs’ boats or laboring in the pharaohs’ mines or
quarries.
Women in the upper classes were generally well respected. They oversaw their homes and a large
staff of servants. Women could carry on a business and own and inherit property. It is unlikely however,
that women took official part in the government, with the exception of three women pharaohs.
Egyptian Architecture
Surrounded as they were by cliffs, Egyptians of the Old Kingdom made
important advances in building with stone. To build temples, palaces, and
pyramids, they learned to move huge blocks of stone weighing several tons
from one place to another. They cut the stones into the proper shapes with
copper saws and then fitted them tightly into place.
The Egyptians used a special unit of measure called the royal cubit
(KYOO-but), which measured about 21 inches (53 centimeters), or about the
length of an Egyptian’s arm from fingertips to elbow. They also used the width
of a hand (without the thumb) and the width of a single finger as units of
measure. With this simple measuring system, the Egyptians were able to build
pyramids having bases the size of eleven football fields!
As the Egyptians became more skilled, they built other kinds of monuments. Obelisks (AHB uhlisks), or tall, pointed stone columns shaped like huge needles, were erected for Thutmose III, who began
his rule in 1480 B.C., during the New Kingdom. Originally built at Heliopolis (hee-lee AHP-uh-lus), they
were later removed and now stand in Istanbul, London, New York, and Rome.
Egyptian Art
Like the pyramids, Egyptian art was also a reflection of Egyptian culture. Much of it appeared in
tombs. During the Old Kingdom, skilled artisans and artists worked with fine materials and deliberate
care. Pictures on the walls of tombs displayed a colorful view of life in Egypt. They were painted to
provide the dead with reminders of their life on earth. Inscriptions and drawings on the walls of officials’
tombs depicted their service to the ruler. A king might be shown defeating his enemies. Farmers were
shown working in their fields.
Sculpture was a highly developed art form. The face on the statue was realistic since food and drink
were provided for the dead. Statues of the dead were thought
to contain some part of the spirit of the deceased. Therefore,
the body appeared imposing and static to show timelessness.
Temples, such as the one at Karnak (KAHR nak), were
decorated with sculptured stone sphinxes (SFINGKS-us). A
sphinx is a figure having the head of a human being, ram, or
hawk, and the body of a lion. One of the best known Egyptian
sphinxes is the one found at Giza (GEE-zuh), which has the
head of a man and the body of a lion. Other artwork included
beautifully worked small figures of people and animals in
copper, bronze, stone, or coal.
Egyptian Science
The Egyptians were experts in astronomy and geometry. They developed an accurate calendar so
that they could predict the flooding of the Nile River. They also measured the angle of the sun’s rays at
various times in order to arrange the construction of the temples so that the rays of the sun
would fall on specific important places during special rituals.
The Egyptians based the length of their year, 365 days, on the time that passed between the
appearances of the star Sirius (SIR-ee-us), or the Dog Star. The 365 days were then divided into twelve
months of thirty days each. At the end of each year, the five days remaining were observed as holidays.
As you know, the ancient Egyptians
numbered the years by the rule of the pharaohs.
For example, they spoke of an event as occurring
in the tenth year of the rule of Hatshepsut. Using
this system of dating, historians have been able to
trace Egyptian history back to about 2700 B.C.
Egyptian geometry developed for very
practical reasons. In a land where the borders of
fields might be wiped out by the yearly floods, it
was necessary to have exact measurements in
order to restore these borders. Geometry was also
used to lay out the system of dikes and canals that
watered the fields. The pyramids and other great
monuments of the Old Kingdom were planned
Egyptian fraction symbols were components of the Eye of
and built according to complex geometrical
Horus. Which when drawn whole was also the symbol for 1.
formulas.
In contrast to their extensive knowledge of geometry, the Egyptians had a simple numbering system.
Numbers were written using signs for ones, tens, hundreds, thousands, and so forth, up to one million. For
example, the number 22 would be written 10 + 10 + 1 + 1. At least twenty-seven separate signs were
needed to write 999.
The Egyptians multiplied by doubling numbers until they reached the multiple they were looking
for. They used the same process in reverse when dividing numbers. Fractions were used, but no fraction
could be written unless it contained the number one as the numerator. Thus the fraction 3/4 would be
written 1/2 + 1/4. Although this system had limited use, the Egyptians were able to use it to solve most of
their practical problems.
Egyptian Medicine
Medical writings on papyrus provide much information about Egyptian medicine. The writings cite
important cases that were treated and also tell how a patient was examined, what treatment was
prescribed, and how the doctor thought the case would develop. Sometimes possible causes of a disease
were listed. Drawings indicate that doctors knew a great deal about human anatomy, and it is believed
that they gained this knowledge while preparing bodies for burial.
Egyptian medicine was valued throughout the ancient world. Egyptian doctors were sent to distant
lands to treat rulers and nobles, and most of the large temples had medical libraries and medical schools
for training doctors. Foreign doctors often described the drugs and methods of treating disease they
learned while studying in the Egyptian temple schools.
Trade in Ancient Egypt
The Egyptians traded with many parts of the ancient world. By the time of the New Kingdom, their
ships brought timber from Phoenicia, finely worked objects from Sumer, and carved ivories and weapons
from Syria. They also brought olive oil, honey, copper, wine, tin, lead, and iron from other countries of
the ancient Middle East. Caravans brought back ebony, ivory, animal skins, andgold, as well as slaves,
from the lands south of Egypt. There is some evidence that Egyptian ships sailed as far as the Aegean
Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the coast of India to trade.
Most trade was conducted by barter, or the exchange of one type of thing, such as timber, for
another of equal value, such as ivory. This is particularly true of trade done by peasants and poor farmers.
In some cases, rings of copper and gold were used as currency in larger dealings by merchants and
traders. Historians believe that Egyptian trade was well organized. From early times Egyptians developed
elementary methods of accounting and bookkeeping. Egyptians also originated deeds, wills, and written
contracts. A few commercial records on papyrus have been found. The Egyptian records, however, are
not as complete as the cuneiform tablets historians have analyzed from other ancient Middle Eastern
peoples.
Egyptian Agriculture and Industry
The first people who lived in the Nile Valley caught fish and game and gathered wild fruits and
vegetables. Later, barley and wheat brought into Egypt from lands to the east were grown in the fertile
Nile Delta and the Nile Valley. These were the two most important staple crops of ancient Egypt. A staple
crop is one that is used widely and continually and, for this reason, is usually grown in large amounts.
Staple crops were grown on large estates, and production was increased by using wooden plows and hoes.
Once the use of iron was known, farm implements were made of that metal because it was more durable.
Another important aspect of Egyptian economic life was manufacturing. As early as 3000 B.C.
large numbers of people, generally working alone, were able to specialize in crafts. In later years people
began to work in groups in factories.
Some of the leading industries were quarrying, textiles, glassmaking, pottery, and shipbuilding.
Egyptian industries provided the goods for Egyptian trade.