Download Structure of Plants Table of Contents Introduction

Structure of Plants
Table of Contents
Introduction ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .............
Problem formulation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .......
Objectives ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ........
Contents ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
1. Shoot
1.1. Leave…………………………………………………………………..
1.2. Buds…………………………………………………………………..
1.3. Stems…………………………………………………………………..
1.4. Flowers………………………………………………………………...
1.5. Fruits…………………………………………………………………..
2. Root
2.1. The roots………………………………………………………………
2.2. Tubers…………………………………………………………………
2.3. Rhizomes………………………………………………………………
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………..
Bibliography…………………………………………………………………...
Preliminary
Plant is one of the living organisms that have characteristics, among
others, grow and multiply. And it all started from seed. Seed is a tool of
reproduction, dissemination, and survival of a plant. In addition, the plant seed,
seed is the beginning of a new life outside its mother plant.
If dikotil plant seeds such as beans, you split into two, you'll get a seed
structure that consists of plumula, hipokotil, radicle, cotyledon and embryo.
Meanwhile, the structure of monocot plant seeds, for example consisting of
maize coleoptile, plumula, radicle, koleoriza, skutelum and endosperm.
Parts of these seeds have their respective functions for plant growth. In
dikotil and monocot plant seeds, plumula an embryo that grows into the shaft
of which will further grow into the first leaf, while the radicle is the embryonic
axis that grows down and will become the primary root. In monocot plants,
such as corn, cotyledons undergo modification into skutelum and coleoptile.
Skutelum serves as a means of absorbing the food contained in the endosperm,
whereas the coleoptile serves to protect plumula. In addition, in maize there are
also koleoriza that serves to protect radicle.
A plant has two organ systems : 1) the shoot system, and 2) the root system.
The shoot system is above ground and includes the organs such as leaves, buds,
stems, flowers (if the plant has any), and fruits (if the plant has any). The root system
includes those parts of the plant below ground, such as the roots, tubers , and
rhizomes .
Root System
• Underground (usually)
• The anchor plants in soil
• It absorbs water and nutrients
• The behavior of water and nutrients
• Food Storage
Shoot System
• On the ground (usually)
• Lifting the plant above ground
• Many functions including:
o photosynthesis
o reproduction & distribution
o food and water conduction
Problem Formulation
1. What are the organs in plants?
2. What is the function of the organs of these plants?
Purpose
1. To explain the organs found in plants.
2. To elucidate the function of organs in plants.
1.
Shoot System
1.1 Leave
Structurally complete leaf of an angiosperm consists of a petiole (leaf
stalk), a lamina (leaf blade), and stipules (small structures located to
either side of the base of the petiole). Not every species produces leaves
with all of these structural components. In certain species, paired
stipules are not obvious or are absent altogether. A petiole may be
absent, or the blade may not be laminar (flattened). The tremendous
variety shown in leaf structure (anatomy) from species to species is
presented in detail below under morphology.
The petiole mechanically links the leaf to the plant and provides the
route for transfer of water and sugars to and from the leaf. The lamina is
typically the location of the majority of photosynthesis.
A leaf is an above-ground plant organ specialized for the process of
photosynthesis. Leaves are typically flat (laminar) and thin, which
evolved as a means to maximize the surface area directly exposed to
light. Likewise, the internal organization of leaves has evolved to
maximize exposure of the photosynthetic organelles, the chloroplasts, to
light and to increase the absorption of carbon dioxide, in a process called
photosynthesis. Most leaves have stomata, which regulate carbon
dioxide, oxygen, and water vapour exchange with the atmosphere. The
shape and structure of leaves vary considerably depending on climate,
primarily due to the availability of light and potential for water loss due
to temperature and humidity. Leaves are also the primary site, in most
plants, where transpiration and guttation take place. Leaves can also
store food and water, and are modified in some plants for these
purposes. The concentration of photosynthesis in leaves makes them
rich in protein, minerals, and sugars. Because of their nutritional value,
leaves are prominent in the diet of many animals, including humans as
leaf vegetables. Foliage is a mass noun that refers to leaves.
A leaf is a plant organ and is made up of a collection of tissues in a
regular organization. The major tissue systems present are:
1.
The epidermis that covers the upper and lower surfaces
2.
The mesophyll inside the leaf that is rich in chloroplasts (also
called chlorenchyma)
3.
The arrangement of veins (the vascular tissue)
These three tissue systems typically form a regular organization at the
cellular scale.
1.2 Buds
A bud is an undeveloped or embryonic shoot and normally occurs in the
axial of a leaf or at the tip of the stem. Once formed, a bud may remain
for some time in a dormant condition, or it may form a shoot
immediately. Buds may be specialized to develop flowers or short
shoots, or may have the potential for general shoot development. The
term bud is also used in zoology, where it refers to an outgrowth from
the body which can develop into a new individual.
 Types of Buds:
Buds are often useful in the identification of plants, especially for
woody plants in winter when leaves have fallen. Buds may be classified
and described according to different criteria: location, status,
morphology, and function.
Botanists commonly use the following terms:

for location:
o terminal,
when located at the tip of a stem (apical is equivalent but
rather reserved for the one at the top of the plant);
o auxiliary,
when located in the axils of a leaf (lateral is the equivalent
but some adventitious buds may be lateral too);
o
adventitious, when occurring elsewhere, for example on trunk or on
roots (some adventitious buds may be former auxiliary ones reduced
and hidden under the bark, other adventitious buds are completely new
formed ones).

for status:
o
accessory, for secondary buds formed besides a principal bud
(axillaries or terminal);
o
resting, for buds that form at the end of a growth season, which
will lie dormant until onset of the next growth season;
o
dormant or latent, for buds whose growth has been delayed for
a rather long time. The term is usable as a synonym of resting,
but is rather employed for buds waiting undeveloped for years,
for example epitomic buds;
o
pseudo terminal, for an auxiliary bud taking over the function
of a terminal bud (characteristic of species whose growth is
symposia: terminal bud dies and is replaced by the closer
axillaries bud, for examples beech, persimmon, Platanus have
symposia growth).

for morphology:
o
scaly or covered, when scales (which are in fact transformed and
reduced leaves) cover and protect the embryonic parts;
o
naked, when not covered by scales;
o
hairy, when also protected by hairs (it may apply either to scaly or to
naked buds).
 for function:
o
vegetative, if only containing vegetative pieces: embryonic shoot with
leaves (a leaf bud is the same);
o
reproductive, if containing embryonic flower(s) (a flower bud is the
same);
o
mixed, if containing both embryonic leaves and flowers.
The term bud (as in budding) is used by analogy within zoology as well,
where it refers to an outgrowth from the body which develops into a new
individual. It is a form of asexual reproduction limited to animals or
plants of relatively simple structure. In this process a portion of the wall
of the parent cell softens and pushes out. The protuberance thus formed
enlarges rapidly while at this time the nucleus of the parent cell divides
(see: mitosis, meiosis). One of the resulting nuclei passes into the bud,
and then the bud is cut off from its parent cell and the process is
repeated. Often the daughter cell will begin to bud before it becomes
separated from the parent, so that whole colonies of adhering cells may
be formed. Eventually cross walls cut off the bud from the original cell.
1.3 Stems
Stem Morphology:
* Generally shaped like long round cylinders or can be have other forms.
* Consists of sections, each of which is restricted and books in these
books there are leaves.
* Generally growing up.
* Ends always goes on.
* Hold a fork.
* Generally not green unless the plants are old short.
Rod function:
* Supports the parts of plants such as leaves, flowers, and fruit.
* With percabanganya expand the field of assimilation.
* As the road transport of water and nutrients from the bottom
above and as a haul road of assimilation results from top to
below.
* Being a dump substances assimilation of food reserves.
Stem anatomy:
1. Epidermis: a single layer, outer, of the parenchymal cells with
outer walls covered with cutin, sometimes - sometimes have
Hair with lots of cells or single cell at intervals.
2. Cortex: consists of large thin-walled cells (parenchyma) with
plenty of space between cells, and may have a ribbon
skelerenkim on the outside.
3. Stele: central cylinder, comprising:
a) The ring beam transporter
b) Pith (medulla) occupies the middle of the stem and
consists of a cell - a large thin-walled parenchyma cells.
Between xylem and phloem cambium which contained actively
dividing cells. In dikotil plants, xylem and phloem tissues are on the
primary stems and roots that hidupselama a relatively short period.
Later, its function was taken over by secondary vascular tissue
produced
by
the
cambium
is
actively
dividing.
Growth cambium outwards forming secondary phloem and xylem
forming towards the secondary, so plants grow large trunks. Cambium
activity that forms secondary xylem and phloem is called secondary
growth. All tissue next to the wood called the cambium, while the outer
skin called the cambium or papagan.
Formation of secondary xylem and phloem in the stem cambium occurs
because the activity that is affected by the season. If environmental
conditions are less favorable, then the activity becomes low so that the
cambium and phloem secondary xylem produced little. But on the
contrary, in the rainy season, this will increase the activity of cambium.
Cambium activity differences will produce a trace on the stem, called
the circle years.
1.4 Flowers
Twelve flowers from different families.
Flowers (floss) or the flower is the structure of sexual reproduction in
flowering plants (Magnoliophyta or Angiospermae divisio, "seed plants
closed"). In the interest there is a reproductive organ (stamen and pistil).
Interest in the daily also used to refer to the botanical structures called
compound interest or inflorescence. Compound interest is a collection of
flowers gathered in one essay. In this context, the units that make up a
compound interest rate is called florets.
The main function flowers produce seeds. Pollination and fertilization
take place on the flowers. After fertilization, the flowers will develop
into fruit. The fruit is the structure that carries the seeds.
Function flowers
Biological function as a container of interest is the merging of male
gametes (microspores) and female (makrospora) to produce seeds. The
process begins with pollination, is followed by fertilization, and
continues with the formation of seeds.
Some flowers have a bright color serves as a decoy animal pollination
helpers. Some other flowers that produce heat or flavor, also to lure
animals to help pollinate.
Humans has long been captivated by the flowers, especially colorful.
Flowers become one of determining the value of a plant as an
ornamental plant.
Perfect flower parts. 1. Flowers perfect, 2. Head of the pistil (stigma), 3.
Pistil stalk (stylus), 4. Sari stalk (filament, part of the stamens), 5.
Flower axis (axis), 6. articulation, 7. Flower stalk (pedicel), 8.Kelenjar
nectar, 9. Stamens (stamens), 10. Will fruit (ovum), 11. Ovule (ovulum),
12.Pollen (pollen), 13. Anthers
(anther),
14. Flower jewelry
(periantheum), 16. Crown flower (corolla), 15. Petals (calyx).
Flowers are modified stems and leaves. This modification caused by the
production of a number of enzymes that are stimulated by a number of
specific fitohormon. Formation of flowers with tightly controlled
genetically and in many types induced by environmental changes, such
as low temperature, long time lighting, and water availability (see article
The establishment of flowers).
Flowers nearly always symmetrical shape, which can often be used as
penciri a taxon. There are two forms of interest based on shape
symmetry: aktinomorf ("throwing stars", radial symmetry) and zigomorf
(mirror symmetry). Aktinomorf form more prevalent.
1.5 Fruits
The fruit is an organ in flowering plants is a continuation of the
development would be fruit (ovary). Fruit usually wrap and protect the
seeds. Various appearance and shape of fruit is inseparable relation with
the main function of the fruit, namely as disperse seed plants.
Understanding the fruit within the scope of agriculture (horticulture)
or food is broader than the understanding of fruit on top. Because the
fruit in this sense is not limited to that form from going to pieces, but
can also originate from other organ development. Therefore, to
distinguish them, the corresponding fruit within the meaning of true
botanical fruit commonly called.
Formation of Fruit
The fruit is a perfect growth would be fruit (ovary). Each will
contain one or more fruit ovule (ovulum), each containing an egg
cell. Ovule is fertilized through a process that begins by pollination
events, namely the migration of pollen from the anthers to the
stigma. After the pollen on the stigma attached, pollen germinates and
grows it into a reed pollen contains sperm. Reed stalk continues to grow
through the pistil to the ovule, where there is unity between sperm
derived from the pollen and an egg cell that dwells in the ovule, forming
a zygote which is diploid.Fertilization in flowering plants involves both
plasmogami, namely the union of egg and sperm cell protoplasm, and
kariogami, namely the unity of both the cell nucleus.
After that, the zygote formed start to grow into an embryo (the
institution), would be seeds grow into a seed, and the walls would be
fruit, called perikarp, grow into beefy (or drupa on stone fruit) or form a
protective layer of dry and hard (on the fruit geluk or nux). Meanwhile,
the flower petals (sepals), crown (petal), stamens and pistil would fall or
could be the last part until the fruit becomes. The establishment of this
fruit is continued until the seeds become ripe. In some seedy fruit, fruit
growth is generally proportional to the amount of the fertilized ovule.
Fruit wall, derived from the development of the wall would be fruit
on the flowers, known as perikarp (pericarpium). Perikarp is often
develops further, so it can be divided into two layers or more. The one
on the outside of the so-called outer wall, eksokarp (exocarpium), or
epikarp (epicarpium); that in the so-called inner wall or endocarp
(endocarpium); as well as the middle layer (can be several layers) is
called the wall of the middle or mesokarp (mesocarpium).
In some fruits, especially fruits single fruit that comes from going to
drown, sometimes the other flower parts (eg tube jewelry flowers,
petals, crown, or stamen) united with prospective co-evolved form of
fruit and fruit. If the parts are a major part of the fruit, the fruit was then
called a false fruit. That is why it becomes important to study the
structure of interest, in relation to understanding how a variety of fruit is
formed.
Based on the degree of violence perikarpium (fruit wall) fruit
divided into two types, namely dried fruits, and fleshy fruit. In fleshy
fruit, perikarpium, which originated from the ovary wall becomes
differentiated epikarpium, mesokarpium, and endokarpium.
Endokarpium usually hard and contain stone cells. In dried fruits
often have a network perikarpium sklerenkimatis. Another classification
of fruits based on the level of ability to open the fruit (fissure) or not at
the time of cooking. Further categorized based on the dried fruit fruit
does not split (indehiscens) and a break (dehiscens). Indehiscens fruit
contains one seed, so as to disperse the seeds of this fruit does not need
to break down. Are included in this group is the fruit type of rice, the
type of brackets, and hardware type. Single fleshy fruits generally do not
break (open) when ripe. One exception is the nutmeg (Myristica).
Fruit Structure
If the fruit will develop into fruit, the ovary wall becomes
perikarpium. In the ovary wall becomes perikarpium interest. In the
flower ovary wall consists of cells-parenchyma cells, vascular tissue,
and inner and outer layers of the epidermis. During ripening,
perikarpium increase the number of cells. Basic network is relatively
fixed homogeneous and differentiated into parenchyma and paerenkim
sklerenkim network. Perikarpium may be differentiated into three
morphologically distinct parts namely who exocarp, mesocarp and
endocarp. Each it is a outermost layer, the middle and the deepest
layer. Sometimes exocarp and endocarpm an outer epidermis and the
ovary wall. Ovary wall envelops the ovary where the seeds
produced. Vascular tissue varies for each type of fruit and there are at
perikarpium. Perikarpium structures show wide variation for each type
or types of fruit. There are two types perikarpium, namely parenkematik,
the fleshy fruit and dried fruit sklerenkimatik on.
exocarp
mesocarp
endokarpium
2.
Root System
2.1 The Roots
The roots are a major part of the plant berkarmus or already have a
vessel. Roots developed from apical meristem at the root tip is protected
kaliptra (root cap).Hood comes from the root apical meristem and
consists of parenchyma cells. The root serves as a protective hood.
Apical meristem splitting always produces new cells. new cells are
formed in the hood or inside the root apical meristem. Cleavage to form
the apical meristem or elongation zone cell renewal. Behind him there is
a zone cell differentiation and maturation zones of the cell. In the zone
of cell differentiation, root cells berkembangmenjaadi several permanent
cell, for example, some cells terdifferensiasi become xylem, phloem,
parenchyma, and sklerenkim.
Function Roots :
a. To attach the plant to the media (soil) because the roots have the
ability to break through layers of soil.
b. Absorb salts, minerals, and water, through hairs roots, water
enters the body of plants
c. In some plants, the root is used as a storage of food reserves, for
example on yams, potatoes, carrots, and lain2
d. In certain plants, such as mangroves contribute to respiration.
Root Structure
The roots have outer structure which includes: hood roots, stems roots,
branches, roots (in dikotil), and the hair roots. In the anatomy of the root
consists of four parts, the epidermis, cortex, endodermis, and
stele. Beyond that there piliferous layer of the epidermis which is at the
root hair region.
We studied the anatomical structure of roots one by one
 Epidermis consists of a compact layer of cells, cell dindng thin that it
easily penetrated the water. Root hairs is a modification of the root
epidermal cells, serves to absorb water and dissolved mineral salts, the
root hairs extending root surface.
 Cortex It is located directly below the epidermis, consists of many
cells and arranged in layers, cell walls thin and has plenty of space
between cells for gas exchange. Tissues contained in the cortex, among
others: parenchyma, kolenkim, and sklerenkim.
 Endodermis located next to the cortex. Endodermis in the form of a
layer of cells that arranged meeting without spaces between cells. Cork
cell wall thickening. Row of cells called the endodermis with thickening
cork ribbon kaspari. When examined under a microscope would look
like hutuf U, called U-cells, so water can not go to the central
cylinder.But not all of endodermis cells have thickened, allowing water
to enter the central cylinder. These cells are called successor cells / cell
impregnation. Endodermis is a clear separation between cortex and stele
(Silinder Center).
 Stele (Cylinder Head) located next to the endodermis. Among the stele
there is a beam transport (phloem and xylem).
Consists of various networks :
1. Persikel / Perikambium
Is the outermost layer of the stele. Branch roots formed from the
growth persikel outwards.
2. File Transport Tubes / Vasis
Consists of xylem and phloem are arranged alternately in the direction
of the toes.In dikotil between xylem and phloem cambium tissue
there.
3. Pith
It lies most within or between beam transport vessels consists of
parenchymal tissue.
Characteristic of The Root
1. Plant part which is usually found in the ground, with directions
to the center of the earth grows (geotrop) or into the water (hidrotrop),
leaving the air and light.
2. Not lump, so it is not segmented and does not support the
leaves or scales or other parts.
3. The color is not green, usually whitish or yellowish.
4. Continues to grow at the edges, but generally still less rapid growth
when compared with the soil surface.
5. Forms are often tapered ends, until it easier to penetrate the
soil.
Types of The Roots
In general, there are two types of roots are:
1. Root fibers. Roots are generally present in monocot plants. Although
at times, plants have also dikotil (with notes, such dikotil plants
propagated by grafting, or cuttings). The main function of root fibers
is to strengthen the establishment of plants.
2. The roots of riding. Roots are generally found in plants dikotil. Its
main function is to store food.
2.2
Tubers
Tubers are various types of modified plant structures that are enlarged
to store nutrients. They are used by plants to survive the winter or dry
months and provide energy and nutrients for regret during the next
growing season and they are a means of asexual reproduction. There
are both stem and root tubers.
A stem tuber forms from thickened rhizomes or stolons. Stem tubers
generally start off as enlargements of the hypocotyl section of a
seedling but also sometimes include the first node or two of the epicotyl
and the upper section of the root. The stem tuber has a vertical
orientation with one or a few vegetative buds on the top and fibrous
roots produced on the bottom from a basal section, typically the stem
tuber has an oblong rounded shape.
A tuberous root or storage root, is a modified lateral root, enlarged to
function as a storage organ. The enlarged area of the root-tuber, or
storage root, can be produced at the end or middle of a root or involve
the entire root. It is thus different in origin but similar in function and
appearance to a stem tuber. Examples of plants with notable tuberous
roots include the sweet potato, cassava, yam and dahlia.
2.3 Rhizomes
In botany, horizontal, underground plant stem capable of producing the
shoot and root systems of a new plant. This capability allows the parent
plant to propagate vegetatively (asexually) and also enables a plant to
perennate (survive an annual unfavourable season) underground. In
some plants (e.g., water lilies, many ferns and forest herbs), the rhizome
is the only stem of the plant. In such cases, only the leaves and flowers
are readily visible.
Conclusion
Bibliography
The above image (left) is from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology , 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates ( www.sinauer.com ) and WH Freeman (
www.whfreeman.com ), used with permission. The above illustration (right) is.