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Structure of Plants Table of Contents Introduction ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ............. Problem formulation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ....... Objectives ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ........ Contents ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1. Shoot 1.1. Leave………………………………………………………………….. 1.2. Buds………………………………………………………………….. 1.3. Stems………………………………………………………………….. 1.4. Flowers………………………………………………………………... 1.5. Fruits………………………………………………………………….. 2. Root 2.1. The roots……………………………………………………………… 2.2. Tubers………………………………………………………………… 2.3. Rhizomes……………………………………………………………… Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….. Bibliography…………………………………………………………………... Preliminary Plant is one of the living organisms that have characteristics, among others, grow and multiply. And it all started from seed. Seed is a tool of reproduction, dissemination, and survival of a plant. In addition, the plant seed, seed is the beginning of a new life outside its mother plant. If dikotil plant seeds such as beans, you split into two, you'll get a seed structure that consists of plumula, hipokotil, radicle, cotyledon and embryo. Meanwhile, the structure of monocot plant seeds, for example consisting of maize coleoptile, plumula, radicle, koleoriza, skutelum and endosperm. Parts of these seeds have their respective functions for plant growth. In dikotil and monocot plant seeds, plumula an embryo that grows into the shaft of which will further grow into the first leaf, while the radicle is the embryonic axis that grows down and will become the primary root. In monocot plants, such as corn, cotyledons undergo modification into skutelum and coleoptile. Skutelum serves as a means of absorbing the food contained in the endosperm, whereas the coleoptile serves to protect plumula. In addition, in maize there are also koleoriza that serves to protect radicle. A plant has two organ systems : 1) the shoot system, and 2) the root system. The shoot system is above ground and includes the organs such as leaves, buds, stems, flowers (if the plant has any), and fruits (if the plant has any). The root system includes those parts of the plant below ground, such as the roots, tubers , and rhizomes . Root System • Underground (usually) • The anchor plants in soil • It absorbs water and nutrients • The behavior of water and nutrients • Food Storage Shoot System • On the ground (usually) • Lifting the plant above ground • Many functions including: o photosynthesis o reproduction & distribution o food and water conduction Problem Formulation 1. What are the organs in plants? 2. What is the function of the organs of these plants? Purpose 1. To explain the organs found in plants. 2. To elucidate the function of organs in plants. 1. Shoot System 1.1 Leave Structurally complete leaf of an angiosperm consists of a petiole (leaf stalk), a lamina (leaf blade), and stipules (small structures located to either side of the base of the petiole). Not every species produces leaves with all of these structural components. In certain species, paired stipules are not obvious or are absent altogether. A petiole may be absent, or the blade may not be laminar (flattened). The tremendous variety shown in leaf structure (anatomy) from species to species is presented in detail below under morphology. The petiole mechanically links the leaf to the plant and provides the route for transfer of water and sugars to and from the leaf. The lamina is typically the location of the majority of photosynthesis. A leaf is an above-ground plant organ specialized for the process of photosynthesis. Leaves are typically flat (laminar) and thin, which evolved as a means to maximize the surface area directly exposed to light. Likewise, the internal organization of leaves has evolved to maximize exposure of the photosynthetic organelles, the chloroplasts, to light and to increase the absorption of carbon dioxide, in a process called photosynthesis. Most leaves have stomata, which regulate carbon dioxide, oxygen, and water vapour exchange with the atmosphere. The shape and structure of leaves vary considerably depending on climate, primarily due to the availability of light and potential for water loss due to temperature and humidity. Leaves are also the primary site, in most plants, where transpiration and guttation take place. Leaves can also store food and water, and are modified in some plants for these purposes. The concentration of photosynthesis in leaves makes them rich in protein, minerals, and sugars. Because of their nutritional value, leaves are prominent in the diet of many animals, including humans as leaf vegetables. Foliage is a mass noun that refers to leaves. A leaf is a plant organ and is made up of a collection of tissues in a regular organization. The major tissue systems present are: 1. The epidermis that covers the upper and lower surfaces 2. The mesophyll inside the leaf that is rich in chloroplasts (also called chlorenchyma) 3. The arrangement of veins (the vascular tissue) These three tissue systems typically form a regular organization at the cellular scale. 1.2 Buds A bud is an undeveloped or embryonic shoot and normally occurs in the axial of a leaf or at the tip of the stem. Once formed, a bud may remain for some time in a dormant condition, or it may form a shoot immediately. Buds may be specialized to develop flowers or short shoots, or may have the potential for general shoot development. The term bud is also used in zoology, where it refers to an outgrowth from the body which can develop into a new individual. Types of Buds: Buds are often useful in the identification of plants, especially for woody plants in winter when leaves have fallen. Buds may be classified and described according to different criteria: location, status, morphology, and function. Botanists commonly use the following terms: for location: o terminal, when located at the tip of a stem (apical is equivalent but rather reserved for the one at the top of the plant); o auxiliary, when located in the axils of a leaf (lateral is the equivalent but some adventitious buds may be lateral too); o adventitious, when occurring elsewhere, for example on trunk or on roots (some adventitious buds may be former auxiliary ones reduced and hidden under the bark, other adventitious buds are completely new formed ones). for status: o accessory, for secondary buds formed besides a principal bud (axillaries or terminal); o resting, for buds that form at the end of a growth season, which will lie dormant until onset of the next growth season; o dormant or latent, for buds whose growth has been delayed for a rather long time. The term is usable as a synonym of resting, but is rather employed for buds waiting undeveloped for years, for example epitomic buds; o pseudo terminal, for an auxiliary bud taking over the function of a terminal bud (characteristic of species whose growth is symposia: terminal bud dies and is replaced by the closer axillaries bud, for examples beech, persimmon, Platanus have symposia growth). for morphology: o scaly or covered, when scales (which are in fact transformed and reduced leaves) cover and protect the embryonic parts; o naked, when not covered by scales; o hairy, when also protected by hairs (it may apply either to scaly or to naked buds). for function: o vegetative, if only containing vegetative pieces: embryonic shoot with leaves (a leaf bud is the same); o reproductive, if containing embryonic flower(s) (a flower bud is the same); o mixed, if containing both embryonic leaves and flowers. The term bud (as in budding) is used by analogy within zoology as well, where it refers to an outgrowth from the body which develops into a new individual. It is a form of asexual reproduction limited to animals or plants of relatively simple structure. In this process a portion of the wall of the parent cell softens and pushes out. The protuberance thus formed enlarges rapidly while at this time the nucleus of the parent cell divides (see: mitosis, meiosis). One of the resulting nuclei passes into the bud, and then the bud is cut off from its parent cell and the process is repeated. Often the daughter cell will begin to bud before it becomes separated from the parent, so that whole colonies of adhering cells may be formed. Eventually cross walls cut off the bud from the original cell. 1.3 Stems Stem Morphology: * Generally shaped like long round cylinders or can be have other forms. * Consists of sections, each of which is restricted and books in these books there are leaves. * Generally growing up. * Ends always goes on. * Hold a fork. * Generally not green unless the plants are old short. Rod function: * Supports the parts of plants such as leaves, flowers, and fruit. * With percabanganya expand the field of assimilation. * As the road transport of water and nutrients from the bottom above and as a haul road of assimilation results from top to below. * Being a dump substances assimilation of food reserves. Stem anatomy: 1. Epidermis: a single layer, outer, of the parenchymal cells with outer walls covered with cutin, sometimes - sometimes have Hair with lots of cells or single cell at intervals. 2. Cortex: consists of large thin-walled cells (parenchyma) with plenty of space between cells, and may have a ribbon skelerenkim on the outside. 3. Stele: central cylinder, comprising: a) The ring beam transporter b) Pith (medulla) occupies the middle of the stem and consists of a cell - a large thin-walled parenchyma cells. Between xylem and phloem cambium which contained actively dividing cells. In dikotil plants, xylem and phloem tissues are on the primary stems and roots that hidupselama a relatively short period. Later, its function was taken over by secondary vascular tissue produced by the cambium is actively dividing. Growth cambium outwards forming secondary phloem and xylem forming towards the secondary, so plants grow large trunks. Cambium activity that forms secondary xylem and phloem is called secondary growth. All tissue next to the wood called the cambium, while the outer skin called the cambium or papagan. Formation of secondary xylem and phloem in the stem cambium occurs because the activity that is affected by the season. If environmental conditions are less favorable, then the activity becomes low so that the cambium and phloem secondary xylem produced little. But on the contrary, in the rainy season, this will increase the activity of cambium. Cambium activity differences will produce a trace on the stem, called the circle years. 1.4 Flowers Twelve flowers from different families. Flowers (floss) or the flower is the structure of sexual reproduction in flowering plants (Magnoliophyta or Angiospermae divisio, "seed plants closed"). In the interest there is a reproductive organ (stamen and pistil). Interest in the daily also used to refer to the botanical structures called compound interest or inflorescence. Compound interest is a collection of flowers gathered in one essay. In this context, the units that make up a compound interest rate is called florets. The main function flowers produce seeds. Pollination and fertilization take place on the flowers. After fertilization, the flowers will develop into fruit. The fruit is the structure that carries the seeds. Function flowers Biological function as a container of interest is the merging of male gametes (microspores) and female (makrospora) to produce seeds. The process begins with pollination, is followed by fertilization, and continues with the formation of seeds. Some flowers have a bright color serves as a decoy animal pollination helpers. Some other flowers that produce heat or flavor, also to lure animals to help pollinate. Humans has long been captivated by the flowers, especially colorful. Flowers become one of determining the value of a plant as an ornamental plant. Perfect flower parts. 1. Flowers perfect, 2. Head of the pistil (stigma), 3. Pistil stalk (stylus), 4. Sari stalk (filament, part of the stamens), 5. Flower axis (axis), 6. articulation, 7. Flower stalk (pedicel), 8.Kelenjar nectar, 9. Stamens (stamens), 10. Will fruit (ovum), 11. Ovule (ovulum), 12.Pollen (pollen), 13. Anthers (anther), 14. Flower jewelry (periantheum), 16. Crown flower (corolla), 15. Petals (calyx). Flowers are modified stems and leaves. This modification caused by the production of a number of enzymes that are stimulated by a number of specific fitohormon. Formation of flowers with tightly controlled genetically and in many types induced by environmental changes, such as low temperature, long time lighting, and water availability (see article The establishment of flowers). Flowers nearly always symmetrical shape, which can often be used as penciri a taxon. There are two forms of interest based on shape symmetry: aktinomorf ("throwing stars", radial symmetry) and zigomorf (mirror symmetry). Aktinomorf form more prevalent. 1.5 Fruits The fruit is an organ in flowering plants is a continuation of the development would be fruit (ovary). Fruit usually wrap and protect the seeds. Various appearance and shape of fruit is inseparable relation with the main function of the fruit, namely as disperse seed plants. Understanding the fruit within the scope of agriculture (horticulture) or food is broader than the understanding of fruit on top. Because the fruit in this sense is not limited to that form from going to pieces, but can also originate from other organ development. Therefore, to distinguish them, the corresponding fruit within the meaning of true botanical fruit commonly called. Formation of Fruit The fruit is a perfect growth would be fruit (ovary). Each will contain one or more fruit ovule (ovulum), each containing an egg cell. Ovule is fertilized through a process that begins by pollination events, namely the migration of pollen from the anthers to the stigma. After the pollen on the stigma attached, pollen germinates and grows it into a reed pollen contains sperm. Reed stalk continues to grow through the pistil to the ovule, where there is unity between sperm derived from the pollen and an egg cell that dwells in the ovule, forming a zygote which is diploid.Fertilization in flowering plants involves both plasmogami, namely the union of egg and sperm cell protoplasm, and kariogami, namely the unity of both the cell nucleus. After that, the zygote formed start to grow into an embryo (the institution), would be seeds grow into a seed, and the walls would be fruit, called perikarp, grow into beefy (or drupa on stone fruit) or form a protective layer of dry and hard (on the fruit geluk or nux). Meanwhile, the flower petals (sepals), crown (petal), stamens and pistil would fall or could be the last part until the fruit becomes. The establishment of this fruit is continued until the seeds become ripe. In some seedy fruit, fruit growth is generally proportional to the amount of the fertilized ovule. Fruit wall, derived from the development of the wall would be fruit on the flowers, known as perikarp (pericarpium). Perikarp is often develops further, so it can be divided into two layers or more. The one on the outside of the so-called outer wall, eksokarp (exocarpium), or epikarp (epicarpium); that in the so-called inner wall or endocarp (endocarpium); as well as the middle layer (can be several layers) is called the wall of the middle or mesokarp (mesocarpium). In some fruits, especially fruits single fruit that comes from going to drown, sometimes the other flower parts (eg tube jewelry flowers, petals, crown, or stamen) united with prospective co-evolved form of fruit and fruit. If the parts are a major part of the fruit, the fruit was then called a false fruit. That is why it becomes important to study the structure of interest, in relation to understanding how a variety of fruit is formed. Based on the degree of violence perikarpium (fruit wall) fruit divided into two types, namely dried fruits, and fleshy fruit. In fleshy fruit, perikarpium, which originated from the ovary wall becomes differentiated epikarpium, mesokarpium, and endokarpium. Endokarpium usually hard and contain stone cells. In dried fruits often have a network perikarpium sklerenkimatis. Another classification of fruits based on the level of ability to open the fruit (fissure) or not at the time of cooking. Further categorized based on the dried fruit fruit does not split (indehiscens) and a break (dehiscens). Indehiscens fruit contains one seed, so as to disperse the seeds of this fruit does not need to break down. Are included in this group is the fruit type of rice, the type of brackets, and hardware type. Single fleshy fruits generally do not break (open) when ripe. One exception is the nutmeg (Myristica). Fruit Structure If the fruit will develop into fruit, the ovary wall becomes perikarpium. In the ovary wall becomes perikarpium interest. In the flower ovary wall consists of cells-parenchyma cells, vascular tissue, and inner and outer layers of the epidermis. During ripening, perikarpium increase the number of cells. Basic network is relatively fixed homogeneous and differentiated into parenchyma and paerenkim sklerenkim network. Perikarpium may be differentiated into three morphologically distinct parts namely who exocarp, mesocarp and endocarp. Each it is a outermost layer, the middle and the deepest layer. Sometimes exocarp and endocarpm an outer epidermis and the ovary wall. Ovary wall envelops the ovary where the seeds produced. Vascular tissue varies for each type of fruit and there are at perikarpium. Perikarpium structures show wide variation for each type or types of fruit. There are two types perikarpium, namely parenkematik, the fleshy fruit and dried fruit sklerenkimatik on. exocarp mesocarp endokarpium 2. Root System 2.1 The Roots The roots are a major part of the plant berkarmus or already have a vessel. Roots developed from apical meristem at the root tip is protected kaliptra (root cap).Hood comes from the root apical meristem and consists of parenchyma cells. The root serves as a protective hood. Apical meristem splitting always produces new cells. new cells are formed in the hood or inside the root apical meristem. Cleavage to form the apical meristem or elongation zone cell renewal. Behind him there is a zone cell differentiation and maturation zones of the cell. In the zone of cell differentiation, root cells berkembangmenjaadi several permanent cell, for example, some cells terdifferensiasi become xylem, phloem, parenchyma, and sklerenkim. Function Roots : a. To attach the plant to the media (soil) because the roots have the ability to break through layers of soil. b. Absorb salts, minerals, and water, through hairs roots, water enters the body of plants c. In some plants, the root is used as a storage of food reserves, for example on yams, potatoes, carrots, and lain2 d. In certain plants, such as mangroves contribute to respiration. Root Structure The roots have outer structure which includes: hood roots, stems roots, branches, roots (in dikotil), and the hair roots. In the anatomy of the root consists of four parts, the epidermis, cortex, endodermis, and stele. Beyond that there piliferous layer of the epidermis which is at the root hair region. We studied the anatomical structure of roots one by one Epidermis consists of a compact layer of cells, cell dindng thin that it easily penetrated the water. Root hairs is a modification of the root epidermal cells, serves to absorb water and dissolved mineral salts, the root hairs extending root surface. Cortex It is located directly below the epidermis, consists of many cells and arranged in layers, cell walls thin and has plenty of space between cells for gas exchange. Tissues contained in the cortex, among others: parenchyma, kolenkim, and sklerenkim. Endodermis located next to the cortex. Endodermis in the form of a layer of cells that arranged meeting without spaces between cells. Cork cell wall thickening. Row of cells called the endodermis with thickening cork ribbon kaspari. When examined under a microscope would look like hutuf U, called U-cells, so water can not go to the central cylinder.But not all of endodermis cells have thickened, allowing water to enter the central cylinder. These cells are called successor cells / cell impregnation. Endodermis is a clear separation between cortex and stele (Silinder Center). Stele (Cylinder Head) located next to the endodermis. Among the stele there is a beam transport (phloem and xylem). Consists of various networks : 1. Persikel / Perikambium Is the outermost layer of the stele. Branch roots formed from the growth persikel outwards. 2. File Transport Tubes / Vasis Consists of xylem and phloem are arranged alternately in the direction of the toes.In dikotil between xylem and phloem cambium tissue there. 3. Pith It lies most within or between beam transport vessels consists of parenchymal tissue. Characteristic of The Root 1. Plant part which is usually found in the ground, with directions to the center of the earth grows (geotrop) or into the water (hidrotrop), leaving the air and light. 2. Not lump, so it is not segmented and does not support the leaves or scales or other parts. 3. The color is not green, usually whitish or yellowish. 4. Continues to grow at the edges, but generally still less rapid growth when compared with the soil surface. 5. Forms are often tapered ends, until it easier to penetrate the soil. Types of The Roots In general, there are two types of roots are: 1. Root fibers. Roots are generally present in monocot plants. Although at times, plants have also dikotil (with notes, such dikotil plants propagated by grafting, or cuttings). The main function of root fibers is to strengthen the establishment of plants. 2. The roots of riding. Roots are generally found in plants dikotil. Its main function is to store food. 2.2 Tubers Tubers are various types of modified plant structures that are enlarged to store nutrients. They are used by plants to survive the winter or dry months and provide energy and nutrients for regret during the next growing season and they are a means of asexual reproduction. There are both stem and root tubers. A stem tuber forms from thickened rhizomes or stolons. Stem tubers generally start off as enlargements of the hypocotyl section of a seedling but also sometimes include the first node or two of the epicotyl and the upper section of the root. The stem tuber has a vertical orientation with one or a few vegetative buds on the top and fibrous roots produced on the bottom from a basal section, typically the stem tuber has an oblong rounded shape. A tuberous root or storage root, is a modified lateral root, enlarged to function as a storage organ. The enlarged area of the root-tuber, or storage root, can be produced at the end or middle of a root or involve the entire root. It is thus different in origin but similar in function and appearance to a stem tuber. Examples of plants with notable tuberous roots include the sweet potato, cassava, yam and dahlia. 2.3 Rhizomes In botany, horizontal, underground plant stem capable of producing the shoot and root systems of a new plant. This capability allows the parent plant to propagate vegetatively (asexually) and also enables a plant to perennate (survive an annual unfavourable season) underground. In some plants (e.g., water lilies, many ferns and forest herbs), the rhizome is the only stem of the plant. In such cases, only the leaves and flowers are readily visible. Conclusion Bibliography The above image (left) is from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology , 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates ( www.sinauer.com ) and WH Freeman ( www.whfreeman.com ), used with permission. The above illustration (right) is.