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Science summary I Exam, I trimester
Chapter 1
Topic 1: Key Terms
Atom: Is the smallest particle of an element that retains the properties of the element.
Autotroph: meaning “self-feeders”. Organisms that cannot photosynthesize, such as animals and
fungi. Normally, a photosynthetic organism; a producer.
Heterotroph: meaning “other-feeder”; energy prepackaged in the molecules of the bodies of
other organisms. An organism that eats other organisms; a consumer.
Binomial system: System to name species on Earth.
Inductive reasoning: Is the process of creating a generalization as a result of making many
observations that support it
Deductive reasoning: Is the process of generating hypothesis about how a specific experiment
or observation will turn out.
Eukaryotic: referring to cells of organisms of the domain. Eukarya (plants, animals, fungi and
portists) Eukaryotic cells have genetic materials enclosed within a membrane-bound nucleus and
contain other membrane-bound nucleus.
Prokaryotic: referring to cells of domains Bacteria or Achaea. Pryocariotic cells have genetic
material that is not enclosed in a membrane-bound nucleus.
Community: all the interacting populations within an ecosystem.
Population: all the members of a particular species within an ecosystem
Homeostasis: To stay alive and function effectively, organisms must keep the conditions within
their bodies fairly constant; in other words, they must maintain homeostasis. The maintenance of
a relatively constant environment required for the optimal functioning cells.
Specie: organisms of the same type that are capable of breeding with one another are
collectively.
Kingdom: the second broadest taxonomic category, contained within a domain and consisting
of related phyla or divisions.
Domain: the broadest category for classifying organisms.
Topic 2: Biology and other related science
Biology: The science that studies life (living organisms).
- Medicine (Penicillium sp.)
- Food industry (yoghurt, cheese, beer)
- Birth control (latex condoms)
- Cosmetology (creams made of horse’s placenta)
- Recycling (we learn how to save our planet)
Related Sciences:
- Botany: science that studies plants.
- Cytology: science that studies cells.
- Ecology: science that studies living things and their relationship with the environment.
- Evolution: science that studies changes (in a long period of time) species suffer.
- Genetics: science that studies genes and inherited characteristics.
- Histology: science that studies tissues.
- Embryology: science that studies embryos.
- Anatomy: science that studies organs and systems.
- Zoology: science that studies animals.
- Biotechnology: science that studies how organisms help us create products of
commercial and industrial use.
Topic 3: Levels of organization.
Topic 4: Power point presentations
1.Classification of Living Things
 Some species have very related groups that are in some aspects
different from them.
 Families can divide into several groups called subfamilies.
 Subfamilies can divide into several groups called tribes.
 Tribes can divide into several groups called subtribes.
 Subtribes can divide into several groups called alliances.
Scientific Name:
Leopardus pardalis → both words underlined
L. paradalis → don’t forget the point after the L
Leopardus sp. → don’t forget the point after sp
Leopardus paradalis → fist letter of the genus must be capitalized.
2. The scientific method
Aristotle: (384 BC – 322 BC)
- He was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great.
- He created the scientific method.
Galileo Galilei: Feb.1564 – Jan. 1642
- He was an Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher who played a
major role in the Scientific Revolution.
- He perfectioned the scientific method.
Francesco Redi: Feb. 1626 – Mar 1697
- He was an Italian physician, naturalist, and poet.
- He used the scientific method to prove what he called the “Spontaneus Generation
Theory”, from Aristotle´s “Abiogenesis Theory”.
Aristotle´s Abiogenesis: Was a theory that said that said that life on Earth could have arisen
from inanimate matter
The Scientific Method
1. Observation
2. Question
3. Hypothesis
4. Prediction
5. Experiment or observation
6. Conclusion
7. Communication
Example:
1. O: On a picnic day, I watched a fly
that drowned with the rain and after
being still on the salt, it began to
move.
2. Q: Can flies revive?
3. H: Flies can revive from drowning
with salt.
4. P: If the hypothesis is correct, a
drowned fly will revive with salt.
5. E: Put 2 flies underwater until they
doesn´t move. Then take them out
and leave only one on the salt.
6. C: The fly exposed to salt …revives.
2.Characteristics of living things
Living things are…
…complex, organized and composed of cells. (DIATOMS)
… maintain relatively constant internal conditions through homeostasis. (When you run,
your body sweats to stay cool.)
… respond to stimuli. (Striking the patellar tendon with a tendon hammer just below the
patella stretches the quadriceps muscles.)
… acquire and use materials and energy. (It is very important to have a healthy diet to keep a
healthy body.)
… grow. (Every living organism grows since it is born, even unicellular organisms.)
… reproduce. (By sexual or asexual reproduction. There are two main strategies are known as
K-selection (few offspring) and r-selection (many offspring).)
… collectively, have the capacity to evolve. (Some of the mechanisms or processes of
evolution are: adaptation, mutation, natural selection, speciation, etc.)
3. Scientific Theories
A hypothesis is a guess
A scientific theory is…
 Far more general and more reliable than a hypothesis.
 A general explanation of an important natural phenomena, developed through extensive
and reproducible experiments.
Scientific theory = principle = natural law
Inductive reasoning: Is the process of creating a generalization as a result of making many
observations that support it.
Deductive reasoning: Is the process of generating hypothesis about how a specific experiment
or observation will turn out. It has a higher level of failure.
Gregor Mendel
Born on 1822, Ethnicity German, Known for discovering genetics, Experiments with beans,
Dominant and receive characteristics
Chapter 3
Topic 5: Key terms
Carbohydrates: a compound composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with the approximate
chemical formula (CH2O) includes sugars and starches.
Proteins: Polymer of amino acids joined by peptide bonds.
Lipids: one of a number of organic molecules containing large nonpolar regions composed
solely of carbon and hydrogen.
Nucleic acids: an organic molecule composed of nucleotide subunits; the two common types of
nucleic acids are ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic.
Saturated: referring to a fatty acid with as many hydrogen atoms as possible bonded to the
carbon backbone.
Unsaturated: referring to a fatty acid with fewer than the maximum number of hydrogen atoms
bonded to its carbon backbone.
Monomer: A small organic molecule, several of which may be bonded together to form a chain
called a polymer.
Polymer: A molecule composed of tree or more monomers, which may be identical or different.
DNA: (deoxyribonucleic acid) Deoxyribose nucleic form chains million of units long called
deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA is found in the chromosomes of all living things.
RNA: (ribonucleic acid): Chains of ribose nucleotides, called ribonucleic acid are copied from
DNA in the nucleus of each cell. Copies or replicas used at the protein synthesis.
Topic 6: Power Point Presentations.
1. Chapter 3: Biological molecules (short)
Food pyramid
Fat and sweets, dairy products, meats and eggs, vegetables, fruits, carbohydrates
2. Chapter 3: Biological molecules (long)
Importance of Carbon:
•A carbon atom becomes stable when it joins 4 or less atoms and forms double or triple bonds.
•The functional groups determine the characteristics and the chemical reactivity of the organic
molecules.
•Important Functional group in Biological Molecules
Group
Found In
Hydrogen (-H)
Almost all organic molecules
Hydroxyl (-OH)
Carbohydrates, nucleic acids, alcohols, some acids and
steroids.
Carboxylic acid (-COOH)
Amino acids, fatty acids,
Amino (-NH2)
Amino acids, nucleic acids.
Phosphate (-H2PO4)
Nucleic acids, phospholipids
Methyl (-CH3)
Many organic molecules; especially common in lipids.
How do organic molecules synthesize?
– Biological molecules join o split by adding or eliminating water. They hydrate or dehydrate.
– When the hydrate the process is called hydrolysis.
– When they dehydrate the process is called dehydration synthesis
Organic molecules synthesis
• Biological molecules are polymers (chains) made of subunits called monomers.
• The monomers join through a chemical reaction called dehydration synthesis.
– The molecule looses an H and an OH, which causes the lost of a water molecule.
(H2O).
A. What are carbohydrates?
• Structure:
- Monosaccharide:1 sugar molecule.
- Disaccharide: 2 sugar molecules.
- Polysaccharide: more than 3 sugar molecules.
• Carbohydrates are the main source of energy for many organisms.
• Almost every small carbohydrate is water soluble, because of their functional polar groups
OH.
1.Monosaccharide:
 Examples: - Galactose (part of lactose: found in milk).
- Ribose y Deoxyribose (DNA and RNA).
 Options for monosaccharides inside the cell:
- Some of them decompose to release chemical energy.
- Some of them bond with other monosaccharides to form disaccharides or
polysaccharides.
2.Disaccharides
- Sucrose (table sugar) = glucose + fructose
- Lactose (milk sugar) = glucose + galactose
- Maltose (malt sugar)= glucose + glucose
3.Polysaccharides:
 Polysaccharides are energetic molecules.
 Starch (glucose polymer) => Found in roots and seeds to store glucose.
 Glucogen (glucose polymer) => Found in the liver and some muscles.
 Examples: Cellulose, Quitin
B. What are lipids?
 Oils, fats and waxes are lipids that contain only C, H and O.
 Phospholipids have water soluble “heads” and water not soluble “tails”.
 Steroids consist in 4 joined Carbon rings.
 The majority of lipids are hydrophobic.
 Functions:
- Energy storage.
- Control water balance (inside-outside).
- Main components of cell membranes.
- Some have hormonal functions.
1. Oils, fats and waxes
 Their main function is to storage energy in longterm. They produce the double amount of
energy than carbs and proteins.
 They have one ore more fatty acids.
1.1 Oils and fats:
Are formed by dehydration synthesis:
3 fatty acids + glycerol  triglyceride
 Fat is solid because of simple or double carbon bonds.
– Fats that are solid at room temperature are classified as saturated. They have lots of
hydrogen atoms and mainly C-C bonds.
– Fats that are liquid at room temperature are classified as insaturated. They have less
hydrogen atoms and more C=C.
1.2 Waxes:
 Composed by long Carbon and Hydrogen chains that are highly hidrophobic.
 They are saturated.
 Are found in: hair, insect skeletons, leaves, stems and beehives. (Lipids. Bees build their
homes with wax hexagons.)
2. Phospholipids
 Are found in cell membranes.
 They have hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions.
- Polar “heads”: water soluble.
- Non polar “tails”: not water soluble.
Hydrophilic (like water) = lipophobic (afraid of mixing with lipids)
Hydrophobic (afraid of water) = lipophilic (like mixing with lipids)
3. Steroids
 They consist in 4 fusioned carbon rings.
 Examples:
- Cholesterol: Found in animal cell membranes.
- Masculine and Femenine hormones.
C. What are proteins?
 Functions :
– They are formed with amino acid chains.
– Aminoacids join to form chains by dehydration synthesis.
– A protein can have 1,2,3 or 4 structure levels.
– Enzimes catalize (speed up or accelerate) reactions.
– Elastin provides suport.
 Examples: keratin, found in: a) hair b) horns c) spider silk.
 Proteins´s functions
 Proteins are composed of amino acids.
 Aminoacids are proteins´s main units.
 They all have amino and carboxyl groups.
 They all have an “R” group:
- Some are hydrophobic.
- Some are hydrophilic.
1. Amino acids: The amino acid sequence determines the properties and functions of every
protein.
2. Dehydration synthesis
 Process by which amino acids join to form chains.
 The covalent bond that is formed between the C and the N is called peptide bond.
 The long amino acid chains are called polypeptides or proteins.
3. 4 structure levels
 The primary structure is the amino acid sequence that forms the protein.
 The secondary structure is composed of helix and chains that fold.
 The tertiary structure consists in one complex peptidic chain that holds the structure
with different links.
 The quaternary structure is found where several proteic chains link.
4.
Tridimensional structures
 The kind, position and number of amino acids determine the protein´s function.
- If bonds or links break, that causes the denaturing of the protein and lost of its
biological functions.
D. What are nucleic acids?
 Nucleotides are the monomers (main units) of the nucleic acid chains.
 The basic parts of nucleic acids are:
– 1 phosphate group
– a 5 carbon sugar
– 1 nitrogen base
 There are 2 kinds of nucleotides:
1. Ribose nucleotides:
– The ones that contain: Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Uracil. They are found in
RNA.
2. Deoxyrribose nucleotides:
– The ones that contain:Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thymine. They are found in
DNA.
 Inheritance molecules
- DNA It spells the genetic info necesary to build proteins.
- RNA Are DNA copies or replicas used at the protein synthesis.
 Other nucleotides
AMP carries chemical signals inside the cell.
ATP carries energy.
NAD+ and FAD carry electrons.