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Functional Grammar
UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR
Introduction
The study of grammar dates back to time immemorial. Grammar seems to be
everybody business as long as we use a language. We must have some
knowledge of it if we profess to be reasonably able to use a language with
some degree of proficiency. Otherwise, we would not have progressed from
early baby talk with monosyllabic sounds or random stringing of words. The
preceding sentences make sense to you because there is grammatical
patterning involved. The sentences illustrate grammar in use and because you
'know' grammar, you are able to create meaning from the message. If that is
the case, why do we still need to study grammar? A good question which we
shall attempt to answer.
The Study of Grammar
Let's begin from the fundamentals. If you need to define grammar, how would
you do so? Below are some students' answers:
A set of rules and regulations that is used to form the basic structure of a
sentence.
The usage of the English language in the proper way according to the rules.
Basic rules of English to compose words and sentences.
The rules of forming a language so that it would be understood.
As you can see, they are very much oriented to the idea of rule-forming which
would relate to the use of the various parts of speech, nouns, verbs, adjectives,
adverbs and so forth. This is the traditional approach which you have
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Functional Grammar
probably learnt from the time you started school. You would be familiar with
definitions such as:

A noun is the name of a person, thing or places.

A verb is a 'doing' word.

An adjective describes a noun.
Thus we readily classify chair, table, boy, paper as nouns. Then when it
comes to words such as happiness, health, wealth, we need to go one step
further and say that they are abstract nouns. This manner of analysis or
explanation is not totally meaningful though useful. We are still talking about
abstractions. Similarly a verb like 'is' cannot be satisfactorily explained as a
word that shows action. In the sentence, she is a girl what kind of action can
there be?
Thus, a major criticism of traditional grammar is that it focuses on formal
rules for well-formedness which are not drawn from real world use. On the
other hand, functional grammar focuses on language as a system of
communication and language use in appropriate and meaningful
exchange. It concentrates on functions. However, for the ESL student, it is
seen to be profitable that he builds on his traditional grammar as well so as to
ease his transition to the functional approach. Otherwise, his problems are
compounded by having to grasp the basics in sentence construction that form
the material for functional analysis. As such, we advise students to have a
formal grammar handbook for further practice and awareness to accompany
this course. We see it as going hand in hand with the study of functional
grammar. Some terms are used in its own context of study. Therefore the
student needs to know and differentiate the meaning to build on the
knowledge.
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The major influence on the development of the functional grammar movement
is attributed to
M.A.K. Halliday. The text
which is language that has
functional use is realised through the context of culture and situation. Culture
shapes meaning just as the situation of use. Think of the address system we
use in Malaysia. In formal situations, we are very careful to distinguish the
layers of politeness associated with the right term of address, such as the use
of Yang Berhormat, Tan Sri, Dato and so on. However, these terms are only
peculiar to the Malaysian context. In another country, another system of
address is used. Culture and context together account for the differences and
similarities between the use of language.
Halliday further accounts for the differences between texts from three aspects field, tenor, and mode of discourse. In a nutshell, the three terms are defined
as:
Field: what is to be talked or written about, the long and short term goals of
the text;
Tenor: the relationship between the speaker and the hearer ( or, the writer and
reader); and
Mode: the kind of text that is being made.
These three aspects are related to functional dimensions in terms of the
ideational, interpersonal and textual meanings .
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Meaning in functional grammar
The three levels of meanings are further defined as follows:

Experiential meaning
This refers to the ways language represent our experience of the world as
well as the inner world of our thoughts and feelings.
Examples:
You are listening to this lecture.
I love listening to classical music.
The movie ends at 8.00 p.m.
I am reading the module on Functional Grammar.

Interpersonal meaning
This level has to do with the way in which we act upon one another through
language as in expressing likelihood, necessity, and desirability.
Examples:
I might have fallen asleep during my lecture.
Can you get me a cup of coffee?
The scientist should check his data thoroughly before publishing.

Textual meaning
The last level refers to the ways in which a stretch of language is organised in
relation to its context.
Examples:
It was she who fell asleep during the class.
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That is him alright sitting in the lounge.
I went to the coffeehouse with them.
For the sentences to make sense, we must know what the underlined words
refer to.
The examples for the three levels of meaning illustrate that different choices
in lexical patterning are used to refer to different things and events in the
world.
The lexical patterning does not refer just to the choice of individual
words. It refers to all aspects of the way the meanings are expressed. The
meaning is more than the sum of individual words.
Each component, the experiential, interpersonal, and the textual has its own
systems of choice. Thus, the constituents in a clause are analysed differently
according to the functions expressed. Different sets of labels are used to
illustrate the functional roles that the elements in a clause are serving.
Examples of the three metafunctions and their descriptions :
Analysis from the experiential perspective
Who
‘s eaten
the cake
Actor
Process
Goal
The labels , Actor, Process, Goal explain how entities and events in the world
are referred to. ( Who did what to whom and in what circumstances)
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Analysis from the interpersonal perspective
Who
‘s
eaten
the cake?
Subject
Finite
Predicator
Complement
This analysis looks at how the speaker negotiates meaning with the listener.
Analysis from the textual perspective
Who
‘s eaten the cake?
Theme
Rheme
This analysis shows how the speaker orders the various groups and phrases in
the clause according to a prominent focus.
In sum, Halliday’s grammar involves semantics ( meaning) and functions (
how language is used). While language is a set of systems, it offers a variety
of choice to express meaning.
e.g
to tell time

What’s the time?

Tell me the time, please.

I would like to know the time.
The interrogative, the imperative and the declarative are choices which
convey different moods.
Therefore, it can be said that :
“When people use language to express meaning, they do so in specific
situations, and the form of the language that they use is influenced by the
complex elements of those situations” (Bloor and Bloor ,1995:3).
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Basic concepts
To give meaning to the functional analysis, there must be some basic concepts
that form the fundamentals of the study. Following are the basic notions:

Rank
Rank refers to the different levels of organisation in the description of
grammar. We could talk about our analysis at word level or we could talk
about it at sentence level.
At the word level, we could focus on word formation . For example, grammar
is a morpheme , a minimally meaningful unit in the English language. For
grammar, we could form the word grammarian . What we did was to add a
suffix - ian to form another noun group. On the other hand, if we are interested
at the sentence level, we could talk about the parts that make up the sentence.
_______________________________________________________________
Task 1
10(minutes)
Analysis the following words. How many morphemes are there for each
word ? (Use a dictionary where necessary )
country
recondition
upset
obscure
mandatory
beautiful
ladder
handphone
powdery
constitution
additional
resourcefulness
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Answers
(The numbers refer to the number of morphemes.)
country (1)
recondition
(1)
upset
obscure
(1)
beautiful
(2)
handphone
(2)
constitution
(2)
(1)
mandatory
(2)
ladder (1)
powdery
(2)
additional (3)
Task 2
resourcefulness (3)
5(minutes)
Which are sentences that can be analysed ?
He won the competition on the logo design.
Logo design competition he won.
The Internet is an ingenious system of communication.
Communication chimpanzee clever is.
What a speech!
Prize big show.
Answers
He won the competition on the logo design.
The Internet is an ingenious system of communication.
What a speech!
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
Units
Units are the word groups that can be strung together to give meaning.
Example:
Hamid who wrote the book /
is brought up /
in Sudan.
( The units are indicated by slashes )
Hamid who wrote the book ( This part focuses on the person)
is brought up ( This focuses on the verb)
in Sudan ( The focus is on the place)
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Task 3
(20minutes)
Segment the sentences into meaningful units.
1. Arthur wrote the programme for the Sunday afternoon drama.
2. We were all very pleased at his musical performance.
3. Sometimes, it is difficult to get him on the phone.
4. Learning English is fun.
5. Polly had dinner at that Italian restaurant with her friend.
6. I wish that she would be more spendthrift.
7. During the war, my father worked on a farm in Kedah.
8. Nothing is more precious than health.
Suggested Answers
1. Arthur
/ wrote /
the programme /
for the Sunday afternoon
drama.
2. We / were /
3. Sometimes, / it /
all very pleased /
is /
difficult /
at his musical performance.
to get him on the phone.
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4. Learning English
/ is /
5. Polly /
dinner at that Italian restaurant /
6. I
/
had /
wish /
fun.
with her friend.
that she would be more spendthrift.
7. During the war, /
my father /
worked /
on a farm in
Kedah.
8. Nothing
/
is /
more precious than health.
Note: The manner of division could be different according to how
detailed you wish to be. For example for the sentence
During the war, my father worked on a farm in Kedah.
Your division may be:
During the war, /
my father /
worked
/
on a farm
/
in
Kedah.
Thus, units are constituents of the groups and the groups are constituents
of the sentence.
_______________________________________________________________

Clauses
A clausal structure contains a verb form. It may be a complete sentence or it
may be a group of words that serve as a modifier.
Example:
He goes to the movie. ( one clause)
(Clause 1)
(Clause 2)
Ali bought a pen and Hassan bought a book. ( two clauses )
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The word “and” is in a word class of its own serving as a conjunction.
( Clause 1)
( Clause 2)
After visiting his uncle, he went for a swim. ( two clauses)
A clause may be a finite clause or a nonfinite clause
A finite clause contains a finite verb such as
 He goes to the antique shop in Malacca.
 She went to Port Dickson with her friends.
A nonfinite clause may contain a verb form which is not affected by tense
agreement or number as in: ( the underlined words)
 Having transport problems , Kong Beng decided to stay in the hostel at
Sekolah Sri Kota.
 They kept silent, hoping to get away with it.
 Disillusioned with the job, he resigned immediately.
_______________________________________________________________
Task 4
(15 minutes)
Identify the finite clauses and the non finite clauses in the sentences below.
1.
Come home early.
2.
If you need an umbrella, take it from the study room.
3.
Going for a long vacation, he sent the pets to his brother's place.
4.
The boat, built by his nephew, cost RM5000.
5.
We can't sent you the document needed for your reference.
6.
He goes to Kota Kinabalu on transfer and he rents a house there.
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7.
Please arrange the books neatly on the shelf before Mrs Lee comes in.
8.
Is there a doctor's clinic near your house?
9.
I don't understand the logic of your argument which involves technical
details.
10.
I would like to think it over before giving you a reply.
Answers
Finite Clause = FC
Non finite Clause = NFC
FC
1.
Come home early.
FC
2.
FC
If you need an umbrella,
take it from the study room.
NFC
3.
FC
Going for a long vacation,
he sent the pets to his brother's place.
FC
NFC
4.
The boat,
built by his nephew,
FC
5.
cost RM5000.
NFC
We can't sent you the document
needed for your reference.
FC
6.
FC
He goes to Kota Kinabalu on transfer
FC
7.
and
he rents a house there.
FC
Please arrange the books neatly on the shelf before Mrs Lee comes in.
FC
9.
Is there a doctor's clinic near your house?
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FC
9.
FC
I don't understand the logic of your argument
which involves
technical details.
FC
10.
NFC
I would like to think it over
before giving you a reply.
_______________________________________________________________

Word Classes
These refer to the traditional parts of speech.
Example:
The
beautiful
article
She
girl
adjective
loved
smiles
noun
horse riding
and
happily all the time.
verb
adverb
her
sister liked
wind
surfing.
pronoun verb
noun
Lee had gone to
noun
to buy
verb
conjunction
the
prep article
some
infinitive quantifier
post office
noun
pronoun
early in
adv
prep
noun
verb
the
noun
morning
article noun
stamps.
noun
While it is important to know the labels and the slots they occupy, functional
grammar does not emphasise heavily on such discrete analysis. As said, the
functional approach focuses on meaningful units.
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
Groups
In functional grammar, we use the traditional names to label the word groups
that are also formed by the units. Thus, units make up the word groups such as
the verb group, the noun group, the adjectival group and the adverbial group.
In the sentence
Hamid who wrote the book
is brought up
in Sudan.
We may say that the word groups are :
Hamid who wrote the book ( noun group)
is brought up ( verb group )
in Sudan ( adverbial group)

Phrase
This word is used together with a preposition and the label used is
Prepositional Phrase.
What follows a preposition is the object of the
preposition. For example:
Preposition
Object
in front of
the post office ( the noun group)
at the back of
the market
The words that follow the prepositions are not an expansion of the preposition.
They are different from the clauses in which an object functions as an
expansion.
_______________________________________________________________
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Task 5
(15 minutes)
Label the word groups including the prepositional phrase (the underlined
parts) found in the following sentences.
1.
Uncle Tom was a wealthy and generous man
2.
My sister and I wanted to go to the magic show yesterday.
3.
Sometimes, Wen Cheong is late for class.
4.
They finished dinner at about nine o'clock.
5.
Tomorrow is the day for the presentation.
6.
Her grandmother stays in Kedah while her uncle lives in Alor Setar.
7.
It is difficult to get up to wake up early during the week end.
8.
All the king's men could not put Humpty Dumpty together again.
9.
She was sick after the weekend at Port Dickson.
10.
These days, Lily goes to school by car.
Answers
Noun group = NG
Verb group= VG
Adverb group = AdV
NG
1. Uncle Tom
NG
3. Sometimes,
AdjG
NG
Wen Cheong
NG
a wealthy and generous
VG
2. My sister and I wanted to go
AdG
Preposititonal phrase = PP
VG
was
Adjective group= AdjG
PP
AdG
to the magic show
VG
is
man
AdjG
late
yesterday.
PP
for class.
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NG
VG
4. They
NG
finished
AdG
dinner
VG
5. Tomorrow
at about nine o'clock.
NG
is
PP
the day
NG
VG
6. Her grandmother
VG
PP
stays
for the presentation.
PP
in Kedah
conjunction
NG
while
her uncle
AdG
PP
PP
lives
in Alor Setar.
NG
VG
7. It
is
AdjG
VG
difficult
to wake up
early
during the week
-end.
NG
VG
8. All the king's men
NG
could not put
AdG
Humpty Dumpty
together
again.
NG
VG
AdjG
9. She
was
sick
AdG
10. These days,
PP
PP
after the weekend
NG
VG
Lily
goes
PP
AdG
to school
by car.
at Port Dickson.
_______________________________________________________________

Embedding
This concept refers to the way a sentence can be formed in which additional
information is given in the form of a clause together with a main clause. This
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a useful devise in the use of language as we are given options to have sentence
variety, differing degree of emphasis and economy in use as well.
Examples
1.
She invited his secretary who is trained in England to attend a party at
the British Council.
The base sentences are
a.
She invited his secretary to attend a party at the British Council.
b.
The secretary is trained in England.
2.
He dates a girl whose birthday is the same as his.
The base sentences are:
a.
He dates a girl.
b.
The girl's birthday is the same as his.
_______________________________________________________________
Task 6
(10 minutes)
Underline the embedded clause.
1.
He has a book that is written by Stephen Hawkins.
2.
He needs a job in which he can maximise his talents.
3.
However hard he tries, he has yet to succeed.
4.
How he does his work is none of your concern.
5.
Although he is late in his payment, he did not have to pay a fine.
6.
He visits Kuantan because his best friend is there.
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7.
Don't criticise if you know nothing about art.
8.
I can't help noticing the man who is behaving suspiciously.
9.
Whenever you have the time, please drop by.
10.
Do write to me wherever you may be.
Answers
1.
He has a book that is written by Stephen Hawkins.
2.
He needs a job in which he can maximise his talents.
3.
However hard he tries, he has yet to succeed.
4.
How he does his work is none of your concern.
5.
Although he is late in his payment, he did not have to pay a fine.
6.
He visits Kuantan because his best friend is there.
7.
Don't criticise if you know nothing about art.
8.
I can't help noticing the man and he was behaving suspiciously.
9.
Whenever you have the time, please drop by.
10.
Do write to me but I can't promise I'll reply immediately.
Note: The embedding can operate at the level of
coordination or
subordination. Sentences 8 and 10 are examples of coordination while the rest
are that of subordination.

Go through Task 1A (p. 8) in the text. ( 15 minutes)
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Task 7
(15 minutes)
Examine the sentence below and answer the questions that follow.
Most probably the students will be producing some very good work.
1. How many clauses are there?
2. How many constituents are there?
3. Is there a phrase?
4. What are the word classes used?
Answers
1.
There is only one clause.
2.
Four constituents are found.
1
2
Most probably
3
the students
4
will be producing
some very good
work.
3.
No phrases are used in the sentence.
4.
The word classes are
intensifier
adverb
article
Most
probably the students
intensifier adjective
noun
very
work.
good
noun
verb
will be producing
qualifier
some
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Grammatical Functions
The functions of the different slots in a sentence help us to see how language
is organised or structured to enable people to express meaning. Traditional
terms are resorted to for this description.
1.
Subject of a sentence
It can be in the form of a single word, a group of words or in a clause.
Examples:
1. Ali went to the concert.
2. Ali and Hasnah went to the concert.
3. That Ali and Hasnah went to the concert is surprising.
4.
How Ali and Hasnah went to the concert is an interesting story.
5.
Going to the concert is a luxury for Ali and Hasnah.
2.

The verb group
The subject in the sentence determines the finite verb characteristic used.
How do we identify the finite verb?

Use the tag question to verify the finite verb
He is coming to dinner, isn’t he?
How do we recognise it?

It is the first word in the verb group constituent.
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He
types ( verb group)
He
has been typing (verb group)
everyday
for the last two hours.
Note: Only finite verbs are marked for tense and number agreement.
Examples:
She goes ( is/was going, has/had been going, has/had gone, went) to the
cinema.
They go ( have gone, have been going, went,) to the cinema.
As mentioned earlier, we also have non-finite clauses. These are clauses
without the finite verbs.
Examples

Having a cold, he went to see the doctor.

He waited for a few days in order for the form to be processed.

Enclosed in the room, he had no chance to escape.
It is important to differentiate the finite and no-finite form of the verb as it
helps us to avoid mistakes made in tense and number.
2.
Object in a sentence
The object slot is occupied by a noun group. It expands on the use of
the verb group.
Examples
He made a kite.
She washes the basket.
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Objects in a sentence may be classified as a direct object or an
indirect object. The above examples have only one object and they
are direct.
Examples of indirect objects
He give a present to her cousin.
The foundation awarded the student a scholarship.
My mother wrote a letter to the city council about the clogged drains.
I'll lend you some money.
3.
Adjunct
These are attachments to the main sentence. They may be adverbs or
prepositional phrases.
Examples
4.
He made a kite
in the evening.
She washes the basket
thoroughly.
Complement
The noun group, adjectives, adverbs or prepositional phrases that
complete the sense of the sentence is referred to as the complement.
They are used after a linking verb such as is, has, seem, appear etc.
Examples
He is
a clown. ( noun)
He is
here.
( adverb)
They look
tired.
( adjective)
We were
at work. (prepositional phrase)
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5.
Predicator
If the verb group consists only of a finite verb, then it can also be
referred to as the predicator. However if the verb group consist of a
combination of words then that part of the verb group except the finite
is referred to as the predicator.
Examples
 He goes into the kitchen. ( finite and predicator)
 He had been asked to leave. ( the predicator)
 He is singing at the opera.
( the predicator)
_______________________________________________________________
Summary
We have covered a fair bit in this unit to foreground the necessary information
for subsequent analysis in the study of functional grammar. You need to know
the structure of a sentence and the slots occupied by the units that make up a
sentence. Remember that a sentence must be grammatical if it is to be subject
to meaningful analysis. Otherwise, there is no starting point. It is important to
note that formal and functional grammar are different in their approaches and
assumptions. Each system is used for a particular intention of description.
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UNIT 2:
COUNT NOUNS AND MASS NOUNS
Introduction
A Noun or the noun group is another
grammatical feature that needs
explication as it is a group that occupies an essential slot in most of our
utterances.
As we have seen, it could be the subject, the object or the
complement in a sentence as in:
Subject
Object
The girl throws the rubbish into the bin.
Complement
He was a student leader when he was in the university.
As mentioned in the Text, the traditional definitions, while useful, may not
capture the full essence of the meaning in use; however, we still need the
basics before progressing to the functional analysis.
Differences between Count Nouns and Mass Nouns
Count Nouns
We can represent count nouns as discrete entities. They have singular or
plural forms.
e.g. cup - cups , magazine - magazines , fan - fans , computer - computers.
Count Nouns with plural forms
Some count nouns come in plural forms.
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e.g. a pair of scissors - two pairs of scissors , a pair of trousers - two pairs of
trousers
Collective Nouns are count nouns which are usually used in its singular
form. e.g. staff, family, committee. We may use the plural verb form even
when we are thinking of the individual members in the group as shown in the
examples in the Text.( p. 25)
Mass Nouns
They refer to undifferentiated wholes. e.g wealth, intelligence, beauty.
Another name often used is abstract nouns.
___________________________________________________________________________
Task 1
(10 minutes)
As given in the Text (p. 23), there is a list of words that are often used as count
nouns when they are actually mass nouns and therefore do not have plural
forms. Look at the list again reproduced below and use them correctly as
mass nouns ( once only) for the sentences given below.
furnitures
luggages
traffics
informations machineries
equipments
sceneries
punctuations advices
homeworks
1. Please arrange the ________ in the show house as guest would be arriving
soon.
2. The _______ in Taman Dayton is so congested that there is no point
getting out of the house.
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3. You will need to check in your _________ at counter 12 in the airport.
4. The new scientific _______ for the laboratory was ordered just two
months ago.
5. Betty was penalised for her _________ in her composition.
6. If you have completed your ________, you may go for a swim.
7. The _________ was breath-taking as we drove into the campus.
8. The heavy ________ took five hours to be unloaded at the port.
9. Call The British Council for more __________ about the studying in the
United Kingdom.
10. Mrs Liew always give good _______ to her school-leaving students.
Answers
1.
furniture
2.
traffic
equipment 5. punctuation
8.
3.
6.
machinery 9. information
luggage
homework
10.
7.
4.
scenery
advice
_______________________________________________________________
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However, some nouns are both count and mass nouns depending on how they
are used to convey meaning .

As shown in Task 2b in the Text ( p. 23) , you may use chocolate
as a mass noun or chocolates as a count noun.
Task 2
(15 minutes)
Make five pairs of sentences to show the difference in use for the noun as a
mass noun and a count noun. Refer to the chocolate example in Task 2b (p.
23) in the Text.
cheese
egg
noise
business
life
Suggested Answers
Cheese is made from milk.
The most varieties of cheeses are sold in Hankyu Supermarket. _
He got egg all over him because of the protest.
There are some eggs in the fridge.
I heard some noises in the empty house.
He does not like loud noise when he works.
During the economic crisis, many businesses went bankrupt.
Business in Bangsar has never been better.
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Life can be stagnant if you don't improve yourself.
He is said to have as many lives as a cat.
______________________________________________________
Structure of a noun group
In understanding how nouns function, we could examine the constituents in
the group. The group may be just one word or several words. The focus in the
noun group is the head and a premodifier may precede while a postmodifier
may follow the head.
Example
premodifier
The
head
postmodifier
income
of your dreams
As mentioned earlier, the noun group may be the subject, the object or the
complement in sentence.
Are you able to recognise a noun group?

Go through Task 2c (p. 26) in the Text. ( 15 minutes)
_______________________________________________________________
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29 Functional Grammar
Task 3
(20 minutes)
Underline the noun groups in the following paragraph. Select and label
five noun groups according to the components: premodifier, head and
post modifier.( You may not find all three in all the same noun group. )
Two attorneys went into a diner and ordered two drinks. Then they produced
sandwiches from their briefcases and started to eat. The owner became quite
concerned
and marched over and told them, "You can't eat
your own
sandwiches in here!" The attorneys looked at each other, shrugged their
shoulders and then exchange sandwiches. While they thought they were
getting away with it, the owner wrote on the "Specials" blackboard by the
cash register: " Today's Special: Tuna sandwich, RM11.95." When it was time
to pay, he charged them for the tuna sandwich that was not their own; they had
the choice of paying or washing dishes for the rest of the day. They paid.
Answer
Two attorneys went into a diner and ordered two drinks. Then they produced
sandwiches from their briefcases and started to eat. The owner became quite
concerned
and marched over and told them, "You can't eat
your own
sandwiches in here!" The attorneys looked at each other , shrugged their
shoulders and then exchanged sandwiches. While they thought they were
getting away with it, the owner wrote on the "Specials" blackboard by the
cash register: " Today's Special: Tuna sandwich, RM11.95." When it was time
to pay, he charged them for the tuna sandwich that was not their own, they
had the choice of paying or washing dishes for the rest of the day. They paid.
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30 Functional Grammar
Premodifier head
head
Two
sandwiches from their briefcases
attorneys
post modifier
Premodifier head
your own
sandwiches
premodifier
head
postmodifier
the "Specials" blackboard
premodifier head
the
by the cash register
postmodfier
choice of paying
_______________________________________________________________
Referrers
Referrers are used together with a head noun in the noun group.
The four main kinds of referrers are:
 Articles
 Demonstratives
 Possessives
 Inclusives
The first three are dealt with in this unit.
The use of a referrer is dependent on the type of head noun and whether the
reference is generic, definite, or indefinite.
Generic referencing which refers to the whole may be definite or indefinite.
Look at examples 12 to 14 in the Text (p. 28)
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31 Functional Grammar
More examples:
 Parents are expected to turn up today. (generic and definite reference ,
zero article)
 A parent complained about the hostel facilities. ( indefinite reference)
 The parent also complained about the hostel food. ( definite reference)
In describing referencing, we may say that the reference has the following
functions :
They refer to:

a previous noun group or to a larger portion of text

a forward point in the text

a point beyond a text
The use of definite reference involves:
1.
backward-pointing principle reference
2.
forward -pointing reference
3.
outward-pointing reference
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32 Functional Grammar
Examine the text below and see how the arrows indicate the referencing made.
e-Cosway is launching a new global opportunity that merges the powers of ecommerce and network marketing.
The opportunity provides a worldwide online shopping mall featuring
thousands of exciting products sourced both locally and internationally. All
browsing, ordering, payment and delivery are handled through the Internet.
As you can see, the opportunity refers to a new global opportunity. ( definite,
backward-pointing referencing). A new opportunity is the indefinite reference.
The powers of e-commerce is referring to an idea developed later in the text.
(definite, forward-pointing referencing)
The Internet is external to the text.( definite, outward-pointing referencing)
When definite reference is used, it is clear that there is shared knowledge
between the reader and the writer.
Referrer Problems for ESL Learners
Basically, the ESL learner has problems with the following:
 Use of count nouns as uncountable nouns.
Examples
*
Table is used for writing.

Telephone is a machine.
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33 Functional Grammar
 There is a lack of distinction between definite and indefinite reference.
Examples

A poor digestion causes painful discomforts.
*
We use an Internet to source for information.
 There is confusion in the forms of the demonstratives
Examples
*
This bags are sold in the Kinta supermarket.
*
That bags are sewn by my aunt.
 Use of dependent possessives her , our to replace independent forms, hers
and ours.
Examples
*
Don’t take the book. It is her.
*
If you find the poster, please return it to us; it is our.
_______________________________________________________________
Task 4
A.
(15 minutes)
Read the passage below and correct all errors in the use of referrers.
Sungai Buluh Leprosy Centre is well known as a place where a government
had isolated all these suffering from the Hansen's Disease, which is more
commonly known as the leprosy.
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34 Functional Grammar
In 1956, in order to ease the inmates' boredom, the special programme was
introduced to them by Dr Reddy, a doctor who was in charge of the centre
then. Inmates with able hands were taught
gardening, carpentry,
and
ironwork which also allowed them to earn some money.
The inmates started with a few easy -to-grow cut-plants such as the roses,
and orchids and in time, went on to include all the kinds of garden plants.
The beauty of garden at the centre soon began to receive the attention from
the public. In fact, if you are looking for a particularly rare plant you might
find it in the centre. The special programme also helped to stop a myth about
leprosy, which kept many from visiting the centre. The inmates are glad that
they now have a place that they can call truly " ours homes".
Answer
The Sungai Buluh Leprosy Centre is well known as the place where the
government had isolated all those suffering from Hansen's Disease, which is
more commonly known as leprosy.
In 1956, in order to ease the inmates' boredom, a special programme was
introduced to them by Dr Reddy, the doctor who was in charge of the centre
then. The inmates with able hands were taught gardening, carpentry, and
ironwork which also allowed them to earn some money.
The inmates started with a few easy -to-grow cut-plants such as roses, and
orchids and in time, went on to include all kinds of garden plants. The
beauty of the garden at the centre soon began to receive attention from the
public. In fact, if you are looking for a particularly rare plant you might find it
in the centre. The special programme also helped to stop the myth about
34
35 Functional Grammar
leprosy, which kept many from visiting the centre. The inmates are glad that
they now have a place that they can call truly " our home".
B.
From the answer provided for Task 4A identify three examples of
the following:
Generic reference
Definite reference
Indefinite reference
Suggested Answers:
Generic
The Sungai Buluh Leprosy Centre
The government
Hansen's Disease
Definite
Those ( suffering from)
The inmates' boredom
The myth
Indefinite
A special programme
A particularly rare plant
(zero article) roses
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36 Functional Grammar
C.
Distinguish between the various kinds of referencing : generic, the
definite forms which operate on a backward pointing principle,
and the indefinite forms ( other than the generic) in the following
sentences.
1.
An amphibian can live on land and water.
2.
He saw a car which he liked very much. The car costs RM100 000.
3.
The Niagara Falls attracts many visitors throughout the year.
4.
She very upset at her brother's behaviour. His behaviour is truly out of
place.
5.
Health is something we must treasure; money cannot buy it.
6.
I always look forward to a restful weekend away from the maddening
crowd.
7.
It is interesting to study grammar if we want to know how language
works.
8.
The sun sets very late these days.
9.
The computer that I use at home has just been repaired.
10.
She sent postcards to her foster parent in Canada regularly.
11.
He won a prize for his singing last night
Answers
Generic
An amphibian, land, water, the Niagara Falls, visitors, the year, health,
money, a restful weekend the maddening crowd , grammar, language, the sun,
Definite reference ( backward-pointing)
The car, his behaviour, the computer
Other indefinite forms
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37 Functional Grammar
a car, postcards
_______________________________________________________________
Summary
The noun group is an essential element in sentence structure. Without it, it
would be difficult to form most sentences.
The main problem that ESL
learners face is the distinction between count and mass nouns which is also
connected to the concept of referencing as in. generic, definite and indefinite
referencing. More referrers and their description are explained in the unit that
follows.
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38 Functional Grammar
UNIT 3:
MORE REFERRERS
Introduction
In this unit, the inclusive referrers are explained. Quantifiers, Describers and
Classifiers are dealt with as premodifiers in the structure of the noun group.
More details about postmodifiers accompany the description. The process of
nominalization is shown to enable students to vary sentence structure, practise
word economy as well as conciseness in the use of the language especially in
writing.
Inclusives
Inclusives are used to refer to a complete group of things.
Some positive inclusives are : both, each, every, all, and either.
Note the difference in the structures in the use of the following inclusives:
Each bear is different in its behaviour.
Each of the bears is different in its behaviour.
Every child likes to play with toys.
Every one of the children is given a toy.
All pails are made of plastic these days.
All of the pails are made of plastic these days.
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39 Functional Grammar
Quantifiers
These are words like many, much, a lot of, several, some, any, a few and little
which give the meaning of an inexact amount.
Problems in the use of quantifiers for ESL students
1.
*a.
The co-occurrence of referrers and quantifiers
Their much help is appreciated
b.
Their many lecturers is an asset in the institution.
While it is possible to add a quantifier for sentence b, it is not possible to
combine a referrer and a quantifier for a.
2.
The matching of an appropriate quantifier with the mass noun
The following sentences have problems.
*a.
Several beautiful sceneries were shown in the film.
*b.
Many intelligence is needed to qualify for the top post.
*c.
Much stories are told to the playgroup children.
*d.
Few money was earned from the auction.
Correction:
a.
Many beautiful sceneries were shown in the film.
b.
Much intelligence is needed to qualify for the top post.
c.
Many stories are told to the playgroup children.
d.
Little money was earned from the auction.
Thus in the use of quantifiers, the following principles must be borne in mind.
Count nouns may go with certain quantifiers and mass nouns
may be
39
40 Functional Grammar
accompanied by its own list of quantifiers and finally, some quantifiers may be
used for either mass nouns or count nouns. The categories are summarized
below:
Count Nouns
Mass Nouns
Mass noun and count noun
Many, few, a few,
much, a little, little
some, a lot of , less, least
several, fewer, fewest
In the use of some and any as quantifiers, meaning is also determined by
stress. Depending on whether the word is stressed or unstressed, the quantifier
may act like a definite or indefinite referrer. Refer to the examples in the Text
(p. 46)
Exact quantifiers are those that are specific in terms of number such as one,
five hundred, a thousand and so forth.
_______________________________________________________________
Task 1
(15 minutes)
Complete the following sentences with suitable quantifiers, inexact and
exact. Use a variety of them.
I found (1)_______ kittens in the alley behind my house. (2) _______of the
kittens were black while the others were white. I decided to send them to the
SPCA, but before that I tried feeding them with (3)______ milk as they
looked hungry. However, (4)_____ of it was spilled as I did not know how to
feed them properly. The one that drank the (5)_______ milk did not make it to
the SPCA. It was just too weak.
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41 Functional Grammar
When I arrived at the SPCA, the animals there were making (6) _______
noise. I waited for (7) ______minutes before I could see the lady in charge.
When she was able to see me, she did not waste (8)______ time. Soon the
kittens were put into a cage and the (9) _______ attention I gave to them was
about all that I could do for them. (10)_______ weeks later I dropped by again
and found (11)_______kittens
had been adopted while just one was left
behind.
Suggested Answers
1.Five
2.some
3.a little
5.least
6.a lot of
7.a few
9.little
10.Many
11. four
4.much
8.much
_______________________________________________________________
Partitives
Partitives are used to show units of mass nouns, for example, a piece of
bread, a lump of sugar, a drop of perfume. In other words, a partitive allows a
mass noun to be counted. The structure is similar to that of a noun group
where there is a premodifier, a head noun and a postmodifier. However, the
head noun in a partitive is the unit.
Examples
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42 Functional Grammar
Premodifier
Head
Postmodifier
A
wad
of money
Some
drops
of rain
Three
pieces
of chalk
_______________________________________________________________
Task 2
(10 minutes)
Complete the sentences with suitable partitives.
1.
Do you take two or three ____ of sugar for your coffee?
2.
A few _____ of vanilla essence would enhance the taste to the
cake.
3.
Do get me two _____ of soap from the shop when you go there.
4.
The cat drinks a ______ of milk everyday.
5.
He has used many ______ of paper for his composition.
6.
The company ordered ten _____ of wine for the office dinner.
7.
He put three _____ of chicken on each plate for dinner.
8.
Sarah developed her story from a _____ of his imagination.
9.
A _____ of black pepper is added to the steak just before it is
served.
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43 Functional Grammar
10.
For dessert, he had three ______ of ice-cream.
Answers
1.
cubes
2.
drops
3.
bars
4. dish
5.
sheets
6.
bottles
7.
pieces
8. figment
9.
dash
10.
scoops
_______________________________________________________________
Describers
A describer reveals the quality of the noun or an attitude towards the noun
used.
Examples
A slender girl
A boyish look
That useless boy
An ugly scene
These describers can be modified by adverbs.
Examples
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44 Functional Grammar
An extremely slender girl
A very boyish look
That really useless boy
A tasteless ugly scene
Use of participles as describers
To form describers we may add -ing or -ed to verbs. These words are referred
to as participles. For example, an enlightening talk, a hesitating smile, an
enlarged heart, a broaden outlook
As pointed out in the Text, (p. 48-49) problems may arise from the use of the
incorrect form of the participles. What is the difference between the sentences
below?
1.
An increased workload added to his stress.
2.
An increasing workload added to his stress.
In Sentence 1 the idea is that the workload is already increased while in
Sentence 2 the emphasis is on the continued action of increasing.
______________________________________________________
Task 3
(15 minutes)
44
45 Functional Grammar
A.
Form participles from the given verbs.
B.
Construct your own sentences to show the context of use for each
pair of the words formed.
depress
wither
rise
burn
melt
Suggested Answers
The depressing news about retrenchment worries him a great deal.
The depressed Mr Lee, after his retrenchment, became a recluse.
Mee Yoke threw the withered flowers into the recycle bin.
As the weather was hot, the withering plants were crying out for water.
The daily rising temperature indicated the coming of a drought season.
The risen dough can only be used after an hour.
The burnt caramel was difficult to scrub off.
What is that burning smell coming from the kitchen?
He quickly put the melting ice cream into the freezer.
He threw away the melted ice cream as it had turned into water.
________________________________________________________________________
Order of describers
The order of describers is often not arbitrary. The usual order is as follows:
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46 Functional Grammar
attitude
That ugly
An interesting
The
age
ancient-looking
size
shape
colour
large
round
yellow
old
narrow
tall
thin
clock
tunnel
pale-looking girl
While there is no explicit rule to say that we cannot pile up adjectives as in the
first example, it is however very unlikely for us to use so many adjectives all
at one go. We normally would not use more than three in a sentence. We can
always construct another sentence to describe the chosen noun group further.
Example
That ugly ancient-looking yellow clock has been stored away for years.
It is also large and round, taking up a lot of storage space.

Go through Task 3b (p. 49) in the Text to identify the order of
describers. ( 10 minutes)
_______________________________________________________________
Classifiers
Adjectives, nouns or participles may be used as classifiers such as urban
development, city dweller, losing game.
Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between classifiers and describers as
similar word forms are used. The test is to see if an adverb can be use to
modify the noun group. If we can, then it is a describer.
Example
46
47 Functional Grammar
The monsoon season cannot be modified by an adverb
The tall glass can be modified
the very tall glass.
Tall is a describer while monsoon is a classifier.

Go through Task 3c (p. 50) in the Text to see the distinction
between classifiers and describers. ( 15 minutes)
Some words are confusing for use as describers or classifiers. In the case of
classifiers, some combinations are acceptable as shown in Task 3d while
some would sound rather odd.
A case in point is the following group of words. How do you use them in the
formation of noun groups?

economy

economical

economic
The word economy can be used as a mass noun on its own
The economy of Malaysia is well regulated.
It may be used as a classifier ( modifying drive ):
The economy drive brought about results that were encouraging.
Economic used as a describer (to describe condition)
The economic conditions are not as rosy as last year's.
Economical used as an describer ( as a complement)
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48 Functional Grammar
We were told that we have to be more economical if we do not want to
face difficulties later on.
____________________________________________________________________________
Postmodifiers
Premodifiers are words that come before the head noun such as the mob, that
car, these books while postmodifiers are words that follow the head nouns to
give specific meaning. The post modifiers may be in the form finite clauses,
infinite clauses or prepositional phrases as shown in the examples below.
Examples:
The mob that gathered at the hall was restless. ( finite clause)
That car, being newly painted ,was parked in the garage. ( infinite clause)
These books in the bookshelf are priceless. (prepositional phrase)
More Examples:

The man whom you saw last night is my uncle.

He found his friend waiting at the bus stop.

The prisoner, sentenced for life, broke down in tears.

Use the umbrella in the corner.
Are you able to identify the variety of structures of the postmodifiers in the
above sentences?
Answers:
48
49 Functional Grammar

The man whom you saw last night is my uncle. ( finite clause)

He found his friend waiting at the bus stop. ( infinite clause)

The prisoner, sentenced for life, broke down in tears. ( infinite clause)

Use the umbrella in the corner.
(prepositional phrase)
NOTE: Always remember that there must be a finite verb in a finite clause.
Problems in the use of modifiers for ESL students
1.
Correct placement for modifiers
If a group of words is functioning as a modifier of the noun, it should be
placed right after it or as close to it as possible. For example, the following
sentences would have different meanings depending on which is the head noun
that is being modified.

The table was placed next to the sofa which was newly bought.

The table which was newly bought was placed next to the sofa.
The above sentences although conveying different meaning are grammatically
correct either way but in the following pair, only the first sentence is
acceptable.

The vegetables packed for export will remain fresh for days.
*
The vegetables will remain fresh for days packed for export.
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50 Functional Grammar
2.
Using the correct relative pronoun
In the construction of a finite clause that acts as a postmodifier , there is a
choice of relative pronouns depending on the noun that is referred to and the
manner of embedding. For 'human' nouns such as man, woman, child, we may
use that, who and whose, and whom.
For animals and non-human things, the choice is that and which.
Examples
The man who visited me last night was my uncle.
The man that robbed the bank was caught.
The man whose bag was stolen lodged a report at the police station.
The man whom you saw last night was my uncle.
The paper which he took from me cost me RM 5.00 a piece.
The paper that he used was bought from the supermarket.
The cat which ate the mice belonged to my neighbour.
Problems arising in the use of who and whom and the zero relative
pronoun.
These days whom is very often substituted by who especially in informal
speech. However, in writing, the correct choice is often emphasised. As
students of the language, it would be necessary to know the distinction.
Basically it has to do with how the embedded structures come about. Examine
the steps involved in the transformation. Since we are talking about finite
clauses being used as modifiers, we have to start with two sentences.
Sentence 1.
The man is my uncle.
Sentence 2
You saw my uncle last night.
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51 Functional Grammar
Assuming that you wish to embed Sentence 2 into Sentence 1.
Examine the structure of Sentence 2:
Subject
Verb group
You
saw
Object
Adjunct
my uncle
last night
Thus when the head noun is the object in the base sentence, whom is used.
The man whom you saw last night was my uncle.
Now, examine the next pair of sentences:
1.
The man was my uncle.
2.
He visited me last night.
The embedded sentence is Sentence 2.
The structure of the embedded sentence is as follows :
Subject
Verb group
Object
Adjunct
He
visited
me
last night.
Thus when the relative pronoun refers to a noun that is used as the
subject of a sentence then who is used.
The man who visited me last night was my uncle.
The use of the zero relative pronoun
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52 Functional Grammar
In English we are allowed to omit the use of the relative pronoun in certain
constructions.
For example in the sentence :

The house we bought was a real bargain.
We have choose to omit that . If we put it back, the sentence will read as
follows:

The house that we bought was a real bargain.
However, we cannot omit the relative pronoun in the following sentence:

He lives in the house that belongs to his grandmother
and have a sentence such as . :

He lives in the house belongs to his grandmother.
In the use of the zero relative clause, just as in the use of who and whom, there
are constraints. Optional replacement by the zero relative pronoun is possible
when the head noun is in an object position. Look at the structures involved in
the construction.

The house we bought was a real bargain.
Subject
Verb group
The house
was
Complement
a real bargain.
Subject
Verb Group
Object
We
bought
the house.
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53 Functional Grammar

He lives in the house that belongs to his grandmother.
Subject
Verb group
Adjunct ( the house is the object in the
prepositional
phrase)
He
lives
in the house.
Subject
Verb group
Adjunct
The house
belongs
to his grandmother.
_______________________________________________________________
Task 4
(10 minutes)
Some of the sentences contain errors. Correct them.
1. That cat who fur is black is called Bella.
2. The carpet who is Persian is very colourful.
3. My brother which is six foot tall has difficulties buying shoes.
4. Do you recognise Alan whom you met three years ago?
5. Please tell Kee Jun whom live down the road to come here immediately.
6. I am surprised the grade you got is so low.
7. The room is on the top floor belongs to my sister.
.
8. Why don't you try the cheese we bought from the United States?
9. I like the sweater that you bought from the boutique.
10. The land lady who you lived with as a student is now retired.
Answers
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54 Functional Grammar
1.
That cat whose fur is black is called Bella.
2.
The carpet which is Persian is very colourful.
3.
My brother who is six foot tall has difficulties buying shoes.
5.
Please tell Kee
Jun
who
lives down the road to come here
immediately.
7.
The room that is on the top floor belongs to my sister.
10.
The land lady whom you lived with as a student is now retired.

.
Go through Task 3e in the Text to see how relative nouns are used.
(10 minutes)
____________________________________________________________________________
Problems using relative pronouns
1.
when a preposition is used together with a relative pronoun
Often, problems arise when
relative pronouns are accompanied by
prepositions such as:.

He lives in a house in which there is a secret tunnel.

He had to repaired the car of which the tyres were also changed.
These variations come about because of the indication of possession. Not
inserting the preposition will cause the sentence to be ungrammatical.
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55 Functional Grammar
Going back to the base sentences:
He lives in a house.
The house has a secret tunnel.
He lives in a house in which there is a secret tunnel.
He had to repaired the car.
The car has tyres.
The tyres were also changed.
He had to repair the car of which the tyres were also changed.
2.
Using the relative pronoun and the noun together as in:
*I saw a movie which I had read about it.
The sentence should be:
I saw a movie which I had read about.
_______________________________________________________________
Process of nominalization
The process of nominalization allow us to repackage our thoughts whereby the
noun groups can be formed by changing verbs into nouns such as:
allow
allowance
ship
shipment
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56 Functional Grammar
know
knowledge
reject
rejection
produce
production
Can you think of more words that can undergo such a process? Try doing it
with the following words: Check your answers with a dictionary.
Verb
Noun
Link
Pave
Inform
Represent
Nominate
Construct
Relate
Participate
Accompany
Repeat
Season
Build
The nominalised noun groups allow the representation of
the processes
depicted usually by the verb groups.
Another process of nominalization is to change adjectives into nominal
groups, for example:
The girl who is young
the young girl
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57 Functional Grammar
Functions of nominalization
As said in the Text (p. 60-61), there are reasons why nominalization is used.
They serve the following functions:
1. They offer the potential of conciseness
1. They allow us to start a sentence more easily
2. They aid scientific writing in categorising, labeling and describing
_______________________________________________________________
Task 5
(15 minutes)
Rewrite the underlined parts in the
passage below by using
nominalization so that reading is aided. You may need to change the
exiting structure slightly to accommodate the nominalization.
Make-up should not be used as camouflage, but rather as something that
would enhance or more exactly something that seeks to discover. A face that
is bare has it own character and hidden harmony. It is this character that is
hidden that one must try to reveal. There is no need for make-up that is heavy
to achieve that.
L'Oreal was launched in Malaysia in 1990 but the brand though it was strong
and exclusive failed to stand out and people weren't aware of how much it has
to offer. With new styles to manage the company hopes to regain its footing.
As a cosmetic company that is considered leading, it stands to benefit from a
new partnership with Shu Uemura ,a company found in Japan. The way that
Shu Uemura packages its products is kept simple and compact. And the price
range is also reasonable, varying from RM12 to RM225.
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58 Functional Grammar
(adapted from The Weekender in the Star, Saturday, February 16, 2002)
Suggested Answer
Make-up should not be used as camouflage, but rather as enhancement or
more exactly for discovery. A bare face has it own character and hidden
harmony. It is this character that is hidden that one must try to reveal. There is
no need for heavy make-up to achieve that.
L'Oreal was launched in Malaysia in 1990 but the strength and exclusivity of
the brand failed to stand out and people weren't aware of how much it has to
offer. With new management styles the company hopes to regain its footing.
As a leading cosmetic company, it stands to benefit from a new partnership
with
Shu Uemura ,a Japanese company. The packaging of Shu Uemura
products is kept simple and compact. And the price range is also reasonable,
varying from RM12 to RM225.
NOTE:
Too much of nominalization is not encouraged as the text can
become very dense.
 Go through Task 3f in the Text to undergo the process of
denominalization. (15 minutes)
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59 Functional Grammar
Summary
The noun group serves its function in many ways. We have seen how the use
of inclusives, quantifiers and the partitive structures give rise to particular
descriptions of the noun group. Describers in the form of words realized by the
use of -ed and -ing may precede the noun or are found in the postmodifying
clause. Adjectives, participles and nouns may also be used together with the
head to form sub -sets. Postmodifiers may be used in the form of finite and
nonfinite clauses as well as prepositional phrases. Finally, to help us use the
language more efficiently, the process of nominalization is demonstrated.
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60 Functional Grammar
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61 Functional Grammar
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