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Grammar – the system that puts words together into meaningful units.
Sentence – the basic block of language.
6 verb types: 1. intransitive, 2. linking, 3. transitive, 4. Vg, 5. Vc, 6. Be
Intransitive – they can end sentences or they can be followed by adverbs words and phrases that
answer questions like: how? Where? Why? When? How often?
Linking – can’t end sentencesnor they can be followed immediately by adverbs; they must be
followed by either nouns or adjectives (seem, become, remain, taste, smell, sound, look, feel)
- adjectives that follow linking v. function as PREDICATE ADJ.
- nouns that follow linking v. function as PREDICATE NOUNS.
Transitive – they must be followed by nouns or noun phrases; those nouns are not predicate but
DIRECT OBJECT. Sentences with transitive v. can be turned into Passive Voice.
Two – place transitives: Vg – it is like the verb “give” or “buy”.
- when Vg verbs are followed immediately by two noun phrases, the first noun function as
an INDIRECT OBJECT, the second – DIRECT OBJECT.
- Indirect Objects are almost always receivers of sth
- With few exceptions (IO) can perceive as well as receive
- In order to perceive IO are almost always animate; usually – human
- Sentences with Vg have an alternative form. You can often rearrange the NP in a
sentence with Vg, placing the IO into a PP introduced by “to” or “for”
- Vg must always has both – DIRECT and INDIRECT OBJECTS.
Two – place transitives: Vc – it is followed first by NP that function as a DIRECT OBJECT;
then another NP, an adjective or an infinitive phrase; these phrases function as
COMPLEMENTS.
- Vc are like “consider”, “make”, “believe”, “elect”
- Complements to objects in sentences with Vc are called OBJECT COMPLEMENTS
Verb BE – 8 forms
- can be followed by N or ADJ which function as PREDICATE NOUNS and
PREDICATE ADJECTIVES
- it can be followed by an ADV OF PLACE called PREDICATE ADVERB
- adjectives, nouns and adverbs that follow BE are often classify as SUBJECTIVE
COMPLEMENT
Semi – transitive verbs: like, cost, resemble, weigh
Noun Phrase – functions as a SUBJECT
- CONSTITUENT
Verb Phrase – functions as a PREDICATE
- CONSTITUENT
Auxiliary verb (helping) – will, have, be
Constituent – can be single word, phrase several words long or clauses dozens of word long
Object of Preposition – a noun phrase that follows a preposition (OBLIQUE OBJECTS)
Multiple – word verbs (two-word transitive) – generally phrasal vwrbs like: pick up, pull off.
Tense – PAST and PRESENT
Modality or mood – relates to the purpose of a sentence – whether it makes a statement, ask
questions, gives an order or indicates possibility. Modality is indicated by a change in the form
of a sentence.
Conditional mood – refers to possibility or probability, is formed by the addition of a modal
auxiliary verb to the verb phrase.
Aspect – indicates that the action of a verb is completed or ongoing; it occurs in two forms –
PERFECT and PROGRESSIVE.
Verb have 5 PRINCIPAL PARTS:
1. base (infinitive)
2. present tense
3. past tense
4. present participle
5. past participle
Sentence – NP: Subject + VP that contains tense
Mood – sentences generally make: statements, questions, order possibility or command, indicate
possibility or eventuality
- when a sentence makes a statement it is INDICATIVE MOOD – twierdzący
- when it asks questions: INTERROGATIVE MOOD – pytający
- when it gives a command: IMPERATIVE MOOD – rozkazujący
- when it indicates possibility: CONDITIONAL MOOD – warunkowy
- STATEMENT MOOD – orzekający
Semi – modals: ought to, used to, dare to, seem to, need to, want to, happen to, have to
Modals (aux): can, could, shall, will, would, may, might, must
What happened to FUTURE TENSE – generally we indicate future time as the previous section
indicates, by making the main verb conditional and by adding an adverb of time to the sentence.
Perfect aspect (completed action) – is shown by aux HAVE followed by a PAST PARTICIPLE
Progressive aspect (continuing action) – is composed by a form of BE used as an aux followed
by a PRESENT PARTICIPLE.
Object – dopełnienie
Main Verb may be expanded in 8 ways:
1. tense + verb
2. tense + modal + verb
3. tense + perfect + verb
4. tense + progressive + verb
5. tense + modal + perfect + verb
6. tense + modal + progressive + verb
7. tense + perfect + progressive + verb
8. tense + modal + perfect + progressive + verb
Syntactic cathegories (1) – we can build new words: NOUN, VERB, ADJECTIVE,
PREPOSITION, ADVERB
Syntactic cathegories (2) – non-lexical cathegories: DETERMINER(det), DEGREE
WORD(deg), QUALIFIER(qual), AUXILIARY(aux), CONJUNCTION(con)
Direct object (dopełnienie bliższe) – the object has sth „done” to the verb
Constituent – words that work together as a single units (can be a single word, phrase…)
Subject – defines topic
Predicate – makes a comment about topic
Hierarchies – The system of inflections, syntax, and word formation of a language.
Phrase constituents: HEAD (central part), ATRIBUTE (word that clusters or aggregater around
the head)
Voices – active, passive, middle
Sentence: 1. simple 2. compound
5 patterns of sentence:
1. subject + verb
2. subject + verb + object
3. subject + verb + ind. Obj. + dir. Obj
4. subject + verb + subject predicate
5. subject + verb + odject + object predicate
Noun – the name of person, place, thing or idea, they function as subjects or direct object
(COMMON, PROPER, COLLECTIVE)
Verb – denotes an action or state of being; follows nouns and may be followed by adj, adv,
nouns.
Adjective – describe or denote the qualities of sth. Occur between a determiner and a noun or
after BE or other linking verb althoug they can follow a noun (ATTRIBUTE – precede noun,
PREDICATIVE – follow Vlink)
Adverbs – modify verbs and contribute meaning of varioussorts of sentence
Pronouns – refer to or replace nouns and NP within a text or as direct reference to an outside
situation
a) SUBJECT: you, he, she
b) OBJECT: me, him, her
c) REFLEXIVE: myself, yourself
d) POSSESSIVE: mine, yours, his, hers
e) DEMONSTRATIVE: this, that, those, these
Determiners – refer to special class of words that limit the nouns follow them
a) ARTICLES (a, an, the)
b) DEMONSTRATIVE (this, that…)
c) POSSESSIVE (my, your…)
Prepositions – connect words to other parts of sentence and have a close relationship with the
word that follow, which is usually a noun
Conjunctions – words that join
a) coordinating (and, but)
b) subordinating
types of adverbs:
1. of manner – loudly
2. of duration – briefly, forever
3. of reason or purpose – to prove his value
4. of cause – by mistake
5. of time – yesterday
6. of instrument – with a hammer
7. of means – by the stairs
8. of agency – by the gardener
9. of association – with the Democrats
10. of frequency – every, often
11. of condition – without Hillary
12. of extent – as far as possible
13. of place – on the sofa
Word – the smallest free form; simple (hunt) and complex (hunter)
Morpheme – the smallest meaningful unit; free (hunt) or bound (-er)
Derivation – changes the cathegory and/or the type of meaning of the word, so it is said to create
a new word (suffix – ment in “government”)
A derivational affix must combine with the base before an inflectional affix: neighbour (base) +
hood (Derivational affix) + s (Inflectional affix) = neighbourhoods
Inflection – does not change either the grammatical cathegory or the type of meaning found in
the word: suffix –s in books
An inflectional affix is more productive than derivational affix
English inflectional morphemes:
- Nouns: -s (plural); -‘s (possessive)
- Verbs: -s (3rd person); -ed (past tenses); -en (past participle); -ing (progressive)
- Adjectives: -er (comparative); -est (superlative)
English derivational morphemes:
- N→ADJ (-ic alcohol – alkoholic)
- ADJ→ADV (-ly exact – exactly)
- N→V (-ate vaccin – vaccinate)
- ADJ→N (-ity active – activity)
- N→N (-ship friend – friendship)
- V→V (re- cover – recover)
AFFIXATION
- Prefix – an affix that is attached in front of a base: re-play
- Suffix – an affix that is attached to the end of a base: kid – ness
- Infix – an affix that occur within a base (Indonesian): s – in – amburg
- Confix (circumfix/ambifix) – an affix that is attached to the front and to the end of a base
simultaneously (Indonesian): ke – lapar – an
- Interfix, simulfix, superfix, transfix
Morpheme – the minimal unit of meaning
Free morpheme – a single morpheme that constitutes a word and can stand alone
Bound morpheme – a morpheme that must be attached to another morpheme
Prefix – an affix that occurs before a morpheme
Suffix – an affix that occurs after a morpheme
Derivational morpheme – deriving (creating) a new word with a new meaning
Inflectional morpheme – changing the form of a word because of the rules of syntax
English word COINAGE (The invention of new words.):
- COMPOUNDS – two or more words joined together to form a new word
a) endocentric – home + work = homework
b) exocentric – pick + pocket = pickpocket
ACRONYMS – words derived from the initials of several words (SARS – severe acute
respiratory syndrom; SCUBA – self-contained underwater breathing apparatus)
- BACK – FORMATION – creative reduction due to incorrect morphological analysis
(editor→edit; television→televise)
- ABBREVIATIONS (CLIPPING) – a word which is clipped (advertisement→ad;
facsimile→fax; hamburger→burger; gasoline→gas
- EPONYMS – words derived from proper names or things (Celsius, Sandwich)
- BLENDING – similar to compounds, but parts of the words are deleted (motor + hotel =
motel; Wireless + Fidelity = Wi – Fi)
-
Types of nouns:
1. ...
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