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Descriptive Grammar - ściąga.doc (59 KB) Pobierz Grammar – the system that puts words together into meaningful units. Sentence – the basic block of language. 6 verb types: 1. intransitive, 2. linking, 3. transitive, 4. Vg, 5. Vc, 6. Be Intransitive – they can end sentences or they can be followed by adverbs words and phrases that answer questions like: how? Where? Why? When? How often? Linking – can’t end sentencesnor they can be followed immediately by adverbs; they must be followed by either nouns or adjectives (seem, become, remain, taste, smell, sound, look, feel) - adjectives that follow linking v. function as PREDICATE ADJ. - nouns that follow linking v. function as PREDICATE NOUNS. Transitive – they must be followed by nouns or noun phrases; those nouns are not predicate but DIRECT OBJECT. Sentences with transitive v. can be turned into Passive Voice. Two – place transitives: Vg – it is like the verb “give” or “buy”. - when Vg verbs are followed immediately by two noun phrases, the first noun function as an INDIRECT OBJECT, the second – DIRECT OBJECT. - Indirect Objects are almost always receivers of sth - With few exceptions (IO) can perceive as well as receive - In order to perceive IO are almost always animate; usually – human - Sentences with Vg have an alternative form. You can often rearrange the NP in a sentence with Vg, placing the IO into a PP introduced by “to” or “for” - Vg must always has both – DIRECT and INDIRECT OBJECTS. Two – place transitives: Vc – it is followed first by NP that function as a DIRECT OBJECT; then another NP, an adjective or an infinitive phrase; these phrases function as COMPLEMENTS. - Vc are like “consider”, “make”, “believe”, “elect” - Complements to objects in sentences with Vc are called OBJECT COMPLEMENTS Verb BE – 8 forms - can be followed by N or ADJ which function as PREDICATE NOUNS and PREDICATE ADJECTIVES - it can be followed by an ADV OF PLACE called PREDICATE ADVERB - adjectives, nouns and adverbs that follow BE are often classify as SUBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT Semi – transitive verbs: like, cost, resemble, weigh Noun Phrase – functions as a SUBJECT - CONSTITUENT Verb Phrase – functions as a PREDICATE - CONSTITUENT Auxiliary verb (helping) – will, have, be Constituent – can be single word, phrase several words long or clauses dozens of word long Object of Preposition – a noun phrase that follows a preposition (OBLIQUE OBJECTS) Multiple – word verbs (two-word transitive) – generally phrasal vwrbs like: pick up, pull off. Tense – PAST and PRESENT Modality or mood – relates to the purpose of a sentence – whether it makes a statement, ask questions, gives an order or indicates possibility. Modality is indicated by a change in the form of a sentence. Conditional mood – refers to possibility or probability, is formed by the addition of a modal auxiliary verb to the verb phrase. Aspect – indicates that the action of a verb is completed or ongoing; it occurs in two forms – PERFECT and PROGRESSIVE. Verb have 5 PRINCIPAL PARTS: 1. base (infinitive) 2. present tense 3. past tense 4. present participle 5. past participle Sentence – NP: Subject + VP that contains tense Mood – sentences generally make: statements, questions, order possibility or command, indicate possibility or eventuality - when a sentence makes a statement it is INDICATIVE MOOD – twierdzący - when it asks questions: INTERROGATIVE MOOD – pytający - when it gives a command: IMPERATIVE MOOD – rozkazujący - when it indicates possibility: CONDITIONAL MOOD – warunkowy - STATEMENT MOOD – orzekający Semi – modals: ought to, used to, dare to, seem to, need to, want to, happen to, have to Modals (aux): can, could, shall, will, would, may, might, must What happened to FUTURE TENSE – generally we indicate future time as the previous section indicates, by making the main verb conditional and by adding an adverb of time to the sentence. Perfect aspect (completed action) – is shown by aux HAVE followed by a PAST PARTICIPLE Progressive aspect (continuing action) – is composed by a form of BE used as an aux followed by a PRESENT PARTICIPLE. Object – dopełnienie Main Verb may be expanded in 8 ways: 1. tense + verb 2. tense + modal + verb 3. tense + perfect + verb 4. tense + progressive + verb 5. tense + modal + perfect + verb 6. tense + modal + progressive + verb 7. tense + perfect + progressive + verb 8. tense + modal + perfect + progressive + verb Syntactic cathegories (1) – we can build new words: NOUN, VERB, ADJECTIVE, PREPOSITION, ADVERB Syntactic cathegories (2) – non-lexical cathegories: DETERMINER(det), DEGREE WORD(deg), QUALIFIER(qual), AUXILIARY(aux), CONJUNCTION(con) Direct object (dopełnienie bliższe) – the object has sth „done” to the verb Constituent – words that work together as a single units (can be a single word, phrase…) Subject – defines topic Predicate – makes a comment about topic Hierarchies – The system of inflections, syntax, and word formation of a language. Phrase constituents: HEAD (central part), ATRIBUTE (word that clusters or aggregater around the head) Voices – active, passive, middle Sentence: 1. simple 2. compound 5 patterns of sentence: 1. subject + verb 2. subject + verb + object 3. subject + verb + ind. Obj. + dir. Obj 4. subject + verb + subject predicate 5. subject + verb + odject + object predicate Noun – the name of person, place, thing or idea, they function as subjects or direct object (COMMON, PROPER, COLLECTIVE) Verb – denotes an action or state of being; follows nouns and may be followed by adj, adv, nouns. Adjective – describe or denote the qualities of sth. Occur between a determiner and a noun or after BE or other linking verb althoug they can follow a noun (ATTRIBUTE – precede noun, PREDICATIVE – follow Vlink) Adverbs – modify verbs and contribute meaning of varioussorts of sentence Pronouns – refer to or replace nouns and NP within a text or as direct reference to an outside situation a) SUBJECT: you, he, she b) OBJECT: me, him, her c) REFLEXIVE: myself, yourself d) POSSESSIVE: mine, yours, his, hers e) DEMONSTRATIVE: this, that, those, these Determiners – refer to special class of words that limit the nouns follow them a) ARTICLES (a, an, the) b) DEMONSTRATIVE (this, that…) c) POSSESSIVE (my, your…) Prepositions – connect words to other parts of sentence and have a close relationship with the word that follow, which is usually a noun Conjunctions – words that join a) coordinating (and, but) b) subordinating types of adverbs: 1. of manner – loudly 2. of duration – briefly, forever 3. of reason or purpose – to prove his value 4. of cause – by mistake 5. of time – yesterday 6. of instrument – with a hammer 7. of means – by the stairs 8. of agency – by the gardener 9. of association – with the Democrats 10. of frequency – every, often 11. of condition – without Hillary 12. of extent – as far as possible 13. of place – on the sofa Word – the smallest free form; simple (hunt) and complex (hunter) Morpheme – the smallest meaningful unit; free (hunt) or bound (-er) Derivation – changes the cathegory and/or the type of meaning of the word, so it is said to create a new word (suffix – ment in “government”) A derivational affix must combine with the base before an inflectional affix: neighbour (base) + hood (Derivational affix) + s (Inflectional affix) = neighbourhoods Inflection – does not change either the grammatical cathegory or the type of meaning found in the word: suffix –s in books An inflectional affix is more productive than derivational affix English inflectional morphemes: - Nouns: -s (plural); -‘s (possessive) - Verbs: -s (3rd person); -ed (past tenses); -en (past participle); -ing (progressive) - Adjectives: -er (comparative); -est (superlative) English derivational morphemes: - N→ADJ (-ic alcohol – alkoholic) - ADJ→ADV (-ly exact – exactly) - N→V (-ate vaccin – vaccinate) - ADJ→N (-ity active – activity) - N→N (-ship friend – friendship) - V→V (re- cover – recover) AFFIXATION - Prefix – an affix that is attached in front of a base: re-play - Suffix – an affix that is attached to the end of a base: kid – ness - Infix – an affix that occur within a base (Indonesian): s – in – amburg - Confix (circumfix/ambifix) – an affix that is attached to the front and to the end of a base simultaneously (Indonesian): ke – lapar – an - Interfix, simulfix, superfix, transfix Morpheme – the minimal unit of meaning Free morpheme – a single morpheme that constitutes a word and can stand alone Bound morpheme – a morpheme that must be attached to another morpheme Prefix – an affix that occurs before a morpheme Suffix – an affix that occurs after a morpheme Derivational morpheme – deriving (creating) a new word with a new meaning Inflectional morpheme – changing the form of a word because of the rules of syntax English word COINAGE (The invention of new words.): - COMPOUNDS – two or more words joined together to form a new word a) endocentric – home + work = homework b) exocentric – pick + pocket = pickpocket ACRONYMS – words derived from the initials of several words (SARS – severe acute respiratory syndrom; SCUBA – self-contained underwater breathing apparatus) - BACK – FORMATION – creative reduction due to incorrect morphological analysis (editor→edit; television→televise) - ABBREVIATIONS (CLIPPING) – a word which is clipped (advertisement→ad; facsimile→fax; hamburger→burger; gasoline→gas - EPONYMS – words derived from proper names or things (Celsius, Sandwich) - BLENDING – similar to compounds, but parts of the words are deleted (motor + hotel = motel; Wireless + Fidelity = Wi – Fi) - Types of nouns: 1. ... 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