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The Skeletal System CH. 6 & 7, p. 139-190 Organization of the Skeletal System p. 129-131 The Axial Skeleton • • • • • The Skull - cranial and facial bones Auditory Ossicles - 3 total bones Hyoid Bone - located above the larynx Vertebral Column - 26 bones in the adult Rib Cage/Sternum The Appendicular Skeleton • • • • Pectoral Girdle - scapula and clavicles – cingulum membri superioris - girdle - articulates with sternum and vertebral column Upper Extremities - humerus, radius, ulna, carpal bones, metacarpals and phalanges Pelvic Girdle - 2 ossa coxae, cingulum membri inferioris - articulates with sacrum Lower Extremities - femur, tibia, fibula, tarsal bones, metatarsals and phalanges Functions of the Skeletal System • • • • • • 1) Support - rigid framework 2) Protection 3) Body Movement - levers 4) Provide an Anchoring Point for Muscles 5) Calcium/Phosphorus metabolism 6) Hematopoiesis Terminology, p. 133, Table 6.2 • • • • • • • • • Condyle - a large rounded projection or knob Facet - a flattened or shallow articulating surface Head - a prominent rounded articulating bone end Alveolus - a deep pit or socket Foramen - a hole or rounded opening Fissure - a narrow slit like opening Sinus - a cavity or hollow space in a bone Sulcus - a groove Crest - a narrow ridge like projection Terminology, cont. • • • • • • • Epicondyle - a projection located superior to a condyle Process - any boney protuberance Spine - a sharp slender process Trochanter - a massive process, on the femur Tubercle - a small rounded process Tuberosity - a large roughened process Fossa - a flattened or shallow surface, depression Shapes of Bones • • • • • • Long Bones - longer than wide Short Bones - somewhat cube shaped Flat Bones - cranial bones, ribs, scapula Irregular Bones - vertebrae and certain bones of the skull Accessory Bones - extra bones Wormian Bones - sutural bones Structure of a Typical Long Bone • • • • • • • • • • Shaft - Diaphysis – a) Periosteum - dense regular connective tissue • 1) Sharpey’s fibers - connect periosteum to bone Epiphysis - spongy bone on each end of the diaphysis – – – a) Epiphyseal plate - growth center b) Articular cartilage - hyaline cartilage c) Red Marrow - hematopoiesis Medullary cavity - central cavity within the diaphysis - lined with endosteum and filled with fat (yellow marrow) Bone Cells Osteogenic cells - in periosteum and endosteum, clasts can become blast or Osteoblasts - lay down osteoid Osteocytes - mature bone cells, reside in lacunae, stream regulate calcium release into blood Osteoclasts - break down bone Bone-Lining cells - derived from osteoblasts along Ca/P movement the surface of most bones, reg. Spongy and Compact Bone Spongy Bone - trabecular bones, located deep to compact bone. Compact Bone - forms external portion of bone, very dense, composed of cylindrical columns of bone. – Haversian System - osteon • Lamellae - concentric rings of bone • Central Canal - contains artery, vein and lymphatics • Lacunae - spaces where osteocytes reside • Canaliculi - small channels which connect lacunae • Perforating canals - Volkmann’s canals Bone Growth • Endochondral Ossification - long bones, etc. • Intramembranous Ossification - flat bones Homeostasis and Physiologic Function of Bone • • Hematopoiesis Calcium Storage and Release – Function of Calcium – • Blood clotting • Nerve transmission • Muscle contraction Control of Calcium Levels in the Blood • Bone • Kidney • Parathyroid Glands • Diet/GIT Disorders of Calcium Metabolism • • • • Hypocalcemia - tetany pH is proportional to HCO3/CO2 Hypercalcemia Essential Nutrients for Bone Development – calcium, phosphorus, magnesium – Vit D - absorption of Ca – Vit. A - osteoblast function – Vit C - necessary for osteoid synthesis – protein The Axial Skeleton p. 139-160 The Skull • Divisions of the Skull – – • • • • • • • • • a) Cranial Bones - 8 bones in all • 1) Cranial Cavity - where the brain is – a) Calvaria - roof of the cranial vault – b) Cranial fossa - floor of the cranial cavity b) Facial bones - 14 bones are not in contact with the brain. All paired except for vomer and mandible Fontanels Anterior - Frontal - bregmatic, closes by 18-24 Posterior - Occipital, closes by 2months - becomes months the lambda Anterolateral - Sphenoidal - closes by 3 months of age, becomes the pterion Posterolateral - Mastoid - closes by 1 year of age, becomes the asterion Sutures Sagittal Suture Coronal Suture Lambdoidal Suture Squamous Suture Metopic Suture - extends from anterior fontanel 6 years rostrally to the glabella, closes by age The Cranial Bones p. 146 - 149 Frontal Bone • • • • • • • • • Frontal Squama - flattened portion of the forehead Supraorbital Margin - arch, ridge Supraorbital foramen - supraorbital nerve Roof of the orbit Supracilliary Ridge - deep to eyebrow Glabella - most forward projecting part of head, AKA mesophryon, antinion, intercilium Metopic Suture –closed by age 6 Bregma Frontal Sinus Parietal Bones • • • • Coronal Suture Sagittal Suture Parietal Foramina - emissary veins Temporal Lines - origin of temporalis m. Temporal Bones • • • Squamous Suture Squamous Portion – a) zygomatic process – b) mandibular fossa – c) groove for the middle temporal artery Tympanic Portion – a) external acoustic meatus - ear canal – b) styloid process Temporal bones, cont. • • Mastoid Portion – a) Mastoid process – b) Mastoid foramen – c) Stylomastoid foramen - CN VII – d) Mastoid sinus Petrous portion – a) Groove for the Sigmoid Sinus – b) Carotid canal - internal carotid artery – c) Bones of the middle ear - malleus, incus, stapes – d) internal acoustic meatus - CN VII and VIII – e) Jugular foramen - CN IX, X, XI, internal jugular v. Occipital Bone • • • • • Lambdoid Suture Foramen magnum - SC, CN XI, Vertebral aa., meninges Occipital condyles Hypoglossal canal - CN XII Condyloid canal - emissary veins • • • • • External occipital protuberance - inion Nuchal lines Clivus - from dorsum sellae to foramen magnum Pharyngeal Tubercle Groove for the Transverse Sinus Sphenoid Bone - the wedge • • • • • • • • • Greater wing – Groove for the middle meningeal artery Lesser wing – Anterior clinoid ( = to resemble 4 poster bed) process Body – sphenoidal sinus - pernasal sinus – jugum or yoke, connects the lesser wings – Chiasmatic groove – Groove for the internal Carotid a. Pterygoid Plates - lateral wall of nasal cavity Optic canal - CN II Superior Orbital Fissure - CN III, IV, VI and V1 (ophthalmic division of CN V) Foramen Rotundum - V2 - maxillary div. Foramen Ovale - V3 - mandibular div. Foramen Spinosum - middle meningeal a. 13 bones of the skull that do not touch the sphenoid 2 nasal, 2 lacrimal, 6 ear bones, 2 inferior nasal conchae, 1 mandible Ethmoid Bone • • • • • Perpendicular plate Ethmoidal air cells - ethmoid sinus Crista Galli - anterior attachment for falx cerebri Superior and Middle Nasal Conchae - AKA turbinates Cribriform Plate - CN I Facial Bones p. 149 - 152 Maxilla • • • • • • • • • • Alveolar Process - area around alveolus Palatine Process - Horizontal Plate - Hard Palate Median Palatine Suture Incisive Foramen - Nasopalatine nerve Infraorbital Foramen - branch of V2 Maxillary Sinus Frontal Process Zygomatic Process Intermaxillary suture Inferior Orbital Fissure - V2 Palatine Bones • • • Horizontal Plate - posterior 1/3 of hard palate Greater Palatine Foramen Lesser Palatine Foramen Zygomatic Bones • • Temporal Process Zygomaticofacial Foramen - Zygomatic n. Lacrimal Bones • Lacrimal Sulcus • Nasolacrimal Canal Facial bones, cont. • Nasal Bones – Internasal Suture • Inferior Nasal Conchae • Vomer Bone – – Inferior portion of the nasal septum Does not touch the occipital bone Mandible • • • • Jawbone - to chew - only movable bone in the skull Body – – – – symphysis menti - fuses at 1-2 years of age mental (chin) protuberance mental tubercle mental foramen - mental nerve - branch of V3 Angle of the mandible Ramus – – – – – condylar process • head • neck • pterygoid fossa Coronoid (crow’s beak) process Mandibular notch Mandibular foramen - inferior alveolar nerve Lingula Hyoid Bone • • • Body Greater Cornu (Horn) Lesser Cornu - stylohyoid ligament Bones Which Form the Orbit • • • • • • • Frontal Bone Ethmoid Bone Sphenoid Bone Maxillary Bone Lacrimal Bone Zygomatic bone Palatine Bone Auditory Ossicles • • • • Three small paired bones within the middle ear cavity of the petrous portion of the temporal bone malleus - hammer - touches the tympanic membrane incus - anvil stapes - stirrup Bones Which Enclose the Nasal Cavity • • • • • Ethmoid Bone Frontal Bone Maxilla Palatine Bone Nasal Bone Bones which do not touch the sphenoid bone • There are 13 of them and they are……….. • Hint - they are all paired except one (this list does not include the hyoid bone) 2 nasal, 2 lacrimal, 6 ear bones, 2 inferior nasal conchae, 1 mandible Holes in the Skull • • • • • • • • • • Supraorbital foramen - supraorbital nerve Cribriform plate - Olfactory nerve (CN I) Optic canal - Optic nerve (CN II) Superior orbital fissure - CN III, IV, VI and V1 Foramen rotundum - Maxillary nerve (V2) Foramen ovale - Mandibular nerve (V3) Foramen spinosum - middle meningeal vessels Foramen lacerum - loop of internal carotid artery Carotid canal - internal carotid artery Internal acoustic meatus - CN VII and CN VIII • • • • • • • • • • • Stylomastoid foramen - CN VII Jugular foramen - CN IX, X and XI, and sigmoid sinus Hypoglossal canal - CN XII Foramen magnum - Spinal cord, meninges, vertebral arteries, spinal roots of CN XI Greater palatine - greater palatine nerve Incisive foramen - nasopalatine nerve Inferior orbital fissure - maxillary div. of CN V Mandibular foramen - inferior alveolar nerve Mental foramen - mental nerve Nasolacrimal duct - nasolacrimal (tear) duct Zygomaticofacial foramen - zygomaticofacial n. The Vertebral Column p. 153 - 159 The Vertebral Column • Functions – – – – – – Support and Weight Bearing Provide attachments for muscles Protection of Spinal Cord Permit passage of spinal nerves Motion Shock absorption Human Vertebral Formula • C7, T12, L5, S5, Cy 3-6 • Spinal Curves – – Primary Curves - present at birth - kyphotic - posterior curves - thoracic and sacral Secondary Curves - develop at 3 months of age and as baby begins to stand erect Lordotic - anterior curves - cervical and lumbar A typical vertebra looks like the other ones in that group • • • Body - weight bearing portion Neural Arch = 2 pedicles + 2 lamina – pedicles – lamina – vertebral notches • Intervertebral foramen - ovoid holes formed by the superior vertebral notch of one vertebra and the inferior vertebral notch of the superior vertebra. • Flexion verses extension • First pair between C2 and C3, and last one between L5 and S1 Vertebral foramen - neural ring – vertebral canal - neural canal – Boundaries – • • • • posterior portion of the vertebral body • vertebral arch Shape • cervical, lumbar and sacral regions - triangular • thoracic region - circular, smallest Transverse process - from lamina-pedicle junction Superior and Inferior Articular processes Articular facets Joints of the Spine • • • • • • • Zygapophyseal Joint - synovial, multiaxial, plane, gliding Intervertebral Joint - symphysis, amphiarthrotic – IVD - intervertebral disc • 23 in total - first one between C2 and C3, last one L5 and S1 • Function – shock absorption – attach vertebral bodies together – form secondary curves to the vertebral column – form anterior wall of the IVF ( intervertebral foramen) • Components - nucleus pulposus and annulus fibrosus Cervical Vertebrae p. 156 - 157 The Atlas, C1 Lateral mass - no body Superior and Inferior Articular processes Anterior Arch – anterior tubercle – articular facet for the dens Transverse process – transverse foramen – costotransverse bar - intertubercular bar – anterior and posterior tubercles Posterior Arch – groove for the vertebral artery – posterior tubercle Axis, C2, Epistropheus • • • • Odontoid process - dens – Anterior Articular Facet for the Atlas – Posterior Articular Facet for the Transverse Ligament of the Atlas – attachments for the alar ligaments on lateral aspects Lateral Mass Body - lip on anterior surface that overlaps superior surface of the body of C3 Bifid Spinous process - can palpate 2 inches below the EOP Facts about Cervical Vertebrae • • Typical Cervical Vertebrae - C3,4,5,6 – – Bifid Spinous process Transverse foramen Atypical Cervical Vertebrae - C1,2,7 • • First IVF - between C2 and C3 First IVD - between C2 and C3 Facts about Cervical Vertebrae • Uncinate process – hook shaped process on the lateral borders of the superior surface of the bodies of C3-T1 – prevents posterior linear movement (translation) of the vertebral bodies and limits lateral flexion C7 • • • • • • • • • • • Vertebral Prominens transverse processes do not posses a costotransverse bar the vertebral artery does not go through the transverse foramen, but the vein does no anterior lip to overlap T1 all mammals have 7 cervical vertebrae with 3 exceptions: duck billed platybus, 3 toed sloth, sea manatec Thoracic Vertebrae Also called Dorsal vertebrae Humans have 12; 2-8 are typical Spinous processes are directed inferiorly Costal Facets - where ribs articulate, most have 3 on each side Surfaces of the articular process are aligned on a frontal plane T1, 9, 10, 11 and 12 are atypical • All have transverse costal facets except T11 and T12 • Bodies have whole facet of 1/2 facet called a demifacet • T1 has a whole superior facet and an inferior demifacet and articulates with the first and second rib respectively • T2-T8 have 2 demifacets on each side of their bodies. • T9 has a single superior demifacet on each side • T10, T11 and T12 have whole facets on either side of their bodies. Each articulate with only one pair of ribs Atypical thoracic vertebrae • • • • • • • • T1 - articulates with rib 1 and 2 T9 - may have no demifacets and articulate with rib 9, or it may have superior and inferior demifacets and articulate with 2 ribs T10 - has only a full pair of facets, rib 10 T11 - has only a full pair of facets, no transverse costal facets, short spinous process, articulates with rib 11 T12 - no transverse costal facets, articulates with rib 12, inferior articular facets face laterally Lumbar Vertebrae Mamillary processes - on superior facets Accessory processes - on inferior base of TP The surfaces of the articular facets are oblique to a sagittal plane - superior facets are concave and face posteromedial, inferior facets are convex and face anterolateral • L5 - largest circumference but not as thick as other lumbars, atypical as it has a wedge shaped body (anterior portion of body is of greater height than the posterior region The Sacrum • • • • • • • • • • Auricular surface Sacroiliac joint Median Sacral Crest Anterior and Posterior Sacral Foramina Sacral Canal Superior articular process Sacral Tuberosity Transverse lines Sacral Promontory Lateral masses Ligaments of the Spine • • • • • Anterior Longitudinal Ligament – anterior aspect of vertebral bodies and IVD – axis to first sacral segment Posterior Longitudinal Ligament – attaches axis (continuous with the Tectorial membrane) to the first sacral segment – inside of the neural canal – attaches body to body and IVD’s Interspinous Ligament – connects adjacent spinous processes Supraspinous Ligament – attach the tips of the spinous processes, C7 to S1 Ligamentum Nuchae – superior continuation of the supraspinous ligament – triangular in shape – attaches to the EOP and the median nuchal line, posterior tubercle of the atlas, and spinous processes of the cervical vertebrae • Ligamentum Flavum – connects adjacent lamina, one on each side, elastic lig. Ligamentum Flavum - connects adjacent lamina, one on each side, elastic ligament The Rib Cage • • Sternum – Manubrium • Jugular notch • clavicular notch • costal notch • manubriosternal joint - sternal angle, Angle of Louis – Body of the Sternum • Costal notches – Xiphoid Process Costal Margin - fusion of cartilage of ribs 8,9,10 • Costal Angle - formed by the 2 costal margins Sternum • • • Manubrium – – – – Jugular notch Clavicular notch Costal notch Manubriosternal joint Body of the Sternum Xiphoid Process Ribs • • • • • 12 pairs of ribs Ribs 1 thru 7 - Vertebrosternal (True) ribs Ribs 8 thru 10 - Vertebrocondral (False) ribs Ribs 11 ans 12 - Floating ribs Components of a typical rib – Head – Tubercle – Neck – Angle Body Costal groove Intercostal space Costochondral joint The Appendicular Skeleton CH. 7, p. 169 - 188 The Pectoral Girdle p. 169 - 172 The Clavicle - Collar Bone • • • Acromial Extremity - lateral end – Conoid Tubercle - coracoclavicular ligament Sternal Extremity – Costal Tuberosity - costoclavicular ligament Groove for the Subclavius muscle The Scapula • • • • Spine of the scapula – acromion - lateral end of spine Fossae of the Scapula – supraspinous fossa - supraspinatus m. – infraspinous fossa - infraspinatus m. – subscapular fossa Glenoid cavity – supraglenoid tubercle - long head of biceps brachii m. – infraglenoid tubercle - long head of triceps brachii m. Coracoid process - 3 muscles attach here The Scapula, cont. • Margins (borders) of the scapula – lateral border (axillary margin) – medial border (vertebral margin) – superior border • suprascapular notch - scapular notch - suprascapular nerve • • Angles of the Scapula – inferior angle – medial angle – superior angle Neck The Humerus • • • • • • • • Head Anatomic neck vs. surgical neck Greater tubercle Lesser Tubercle Intertubercular groove Deltoid Tuberosity Radial groove - spiral groove - musculospiral groove - radial nerve Medial epicondyle - flexors of carpus and digits The Humerus, cont. • • • • • • Lateral epicondyle - extensor muscles of the carpus and digits Medial and lateral supracondylar crests Trochlea Capitulum Coronoid fossa Olecranon fossa The Ulna • • • • • • • • Olecranon process Semilunar notch - trochlear notch Coronoid process Ulnar tuberosity Radial notch Styloid process Interosseous margin Posterior border of ulna The Radius • • • • • Head Radial tuberosity Styloid process Ulnar notch Grooves on the posterior surface – groove for ECRL and ECRB mm. – dorsal tubercle – groove for the Ex Pollicis Longus m. – groove for the Ex Dig. And Ex. Indicis mm. The Carpus • • Proximal Row of Carpal Bones - medial to lateral – Pisiform - sesamoid bone in the tendon of FCU m. – Triquetral - triangular bone – Lunate - articulates with radius – Scaphoid bone - navicular bone, articulates with radius Distal Row - medial to lateral – Hamate bone - hamulus – Capitate - Os Magnum – Trapezoid - Lesser multangular – Trapezium - Greater multangular Metacarpal Bones and Phalanges • • • • • • • Metacarpal bones – – – Base Body Head Phalanges – – Proximal, middle and distal Digits are numbers form lateral to medial, 1-5 The Pelvic Girdle Formed by two Ossa Coxae - hip bones Greater pelvis (false) - superior to pelvic brim Lesser (true) pelvis - inferior to brim of pelvis Pelvic Brim Pelvic Inlet Bones of the Pelvis p. 177 - 180 Ilium • External surface • Iliac crest • • • • • • – anterior superior iliac spine and anterior inferior iliac spine – posterior superior iliac spine and posterior inferior iliac spine Gluteal Lines Iliac Fossa Greater Sciatic Notch Auricular Surface for the sacrum Iliac tuberosity Inguinal ligament - pubic tubercle to ASIS Ischium • • • • Spine of the Ischium Ischiatic tuberosity Lesser Sciatic Notch Body • Ramus of the Ischium Pubis • • • Superior Pubic Ramus – – – pubic tubercle pecten pubis obturator groove Inferior Pubic Ramus Symphysis The Pelvis, cont. • • • Obturator Foramen Acetabulum – – – acetabular notch acetabular fossa lunate surface Sex related differences in the pelvis The Femur • Head – fovea capitis • • • • • • • • • • • Neck Greater and lesser trochanter Shaft Linea aspera Gluteal tuberosity - third trochanter Epicondyles Adductor tubercle Condyles Intercondylar fossa Popliteal fossa Patellar surface The Tibia • Medial Condyle • Lateral Condyle • • • • • • • – Gerdy’s tubercle - insertion of the iliotibial tract Tibial Plateau – Intercondylar eminence • Medial and lateral intercondylar tubercle Tibial Tuberosity Shaft Interosseous crest Medial Malleolus Inferior Articular surface Fibular notch The Fibula • • Head Interosseous border • Lateral Malleolus The Tarsal Bones • • • • • Talus – posterior process • groove for the FHL m. • medial and lateral tubercles Calcaneus – tuberosity – sustentaculum tali – groove for the FHL m. Navicular Cuboid - groove for the peroneus longus m. Cuneiform bones Metatarsals and Phalanges • • Metatarsals – – base, body, head Mt 5 has a tuberosity on its base Phalanges – – proximal, middle and distal Hallux has only two phalanges Arches of the Foot • • Longitudinal Arch – medial portion is more elevated than lateral portion. The talus is the keystone of the medial portion and the cuboid is keystone for the lateral portion. Transverse Arch – extends across the width of the foot. Formed by the calcaneus, navicular, cuboid and all 5 Mt’s.
