Download Science 10 Provincial Notes UNIT 1 Sustaining Earth`s Ecosystem

Science 10 Provincial Notes
UNIT 1 Sustaining Earth’s Ecosystem
Chapter 1: Biomes and Ecosystems

Section 1.1- Biomes

Section 1.2- Ecosystems
Chapter 2: Energy Flow and Nutrient Cycles

Section 2.1- Energy Flow in Ecosystems

Section 2.2- Nutrient Cycles in Ecosystems

Section 2.3- Effects of Bioaccumulation on Ecosystems.
Chapter 3: Ecosystems Changing

Section 3.1- How changes Occur Naturally

Section 3.2- How Humans Influence Ecosystems

Section 3.3- Introduced Species
UNIT 2 Chemical Reactions and Radioactivity
Chapter 4: Atomic Theory explains the formation of compounds

Section 4.1- Atomic Theory and Bonding

Section 4.2- Names and Formulas

Section 4.3- Chemical Equations
Chapter 5: Compounds are classified in different ways

Section 5.1- Acids and Bases

Section 5.2- Salts

Section 5.3- Organic Compounds
Chapter 6: Chemicals Reactions

Chapter 6.1- Types of Chemical Reactions

Section 6.2- Factors Affecting Chemical Reactions
Chapter 7: The Atomic Theory

Section 7.1- Atomic Theory, Isotopes and Radioactive Decay

Section 7.2- Half-Life

Section 7.3- Nuclear Reactions
UNIT 3 Motion
Chapter 8: Average Velocity

Section 8.1- The Language of Motion

Section 8.2- Average Velocity
Chapter 9: Acceleration

Section 9.1- Describing Acceleration

Section 9.2- Calculating Acceleration
UNIT 4 Energy Transfer in Natural Systems
Chapter 10: The Kinetic Molecular Theory

Section 10.1- Temperature, Thermal Energy and Heat

Section 10.2- Energy Transfer in the Atmosphere
Chapter 11: Climate Change

Section 11.1- Natural Causes of Climate Change

Section 11.2- Human Activity and Climate Change
Chapter 12: Thermal Energy transfer Drives Plate Tectonics

Section 12.1- Evidence for Continental Drift

Section 12.2- Features of Plate Tectonics
Chapter 1: Biomes and Ecosystems
Section 1.1- Biomes
Abiotic and Biotic

Biotic- living components:
- Organisms
- Plants, animals, fungi and bacteria
- Interact with each other and with the physical and chemical environment in
which they live in

Abiotic- non- living components:
- Sunlight, soli, moisture and temperature
Biome

Includes large regions that have similar biotic components:
- Similar temperature and amount of rainfall
- There are 8 terrestrial (land based) biomes
1. Boreal Forest
2. Desert
3. Grassland
4. Permanent Ice
5. Temperate Deciduous Forest
6. Temperate Rainforest
7. Tropical Rainforest
8. Tundra
Factors That Influence Biomes

Temperature and Precipitation:
- Precipitation- rain, snow, mist and fog
- Most important abiotic factors that influence the characteristics of biomes
- Animals and plants can only survive in specific temperatures and the
amount of precipitation
- Graph- y axis: annual precipitation and x axis: find the intersection with the
average annual temperature

Latitude:
- Abiotic factor that affects the temperature and precipitation
- Distance measured in degrees north or south from the equator
- Tropical zone: is close to equator, it receives more direct sunlight and has
warm temps.
- Sun rays less intense farther away from the equator, the temp. In these
zones are lower that they are at the equator.
- At the equator- the direct sunlight heats moist air, which rises, cools in the
upper atmosphere and falls on earth as rain
- Land or oceans on the equator receive greatest amount of precipitation

Elevation:
- The height of a land mass above sea level
- Affects temperature because atmosphere is thinner at a higher elevation
which means it retains less heart
- Windward side of a mountain: clouds filled with moisture rise and cool
then release rain or snow
- Leeward side- (sheltered by the wind) the air warms again, which allows it
to absorb water creating a dry land area

Ocean Currents:
- Also and abiotic factor that affects temp and precipitation
- Makes biome warmer and wetter
Climatographs

Climate and Climotographs:
- Climate: average pattern of weather conditions that occur in a region
- Climatograph: a graph of climate data usually obtained over 30 years from
local weather observations
- Month of the years is shown is shown on the horizontal axis
- The average temp is shown on the right vertical axis
- The average propitiations is shown on the left vertical axis
Adaptations and Biomes

Adaption’s:
- Characteristics that enable organisms to better survive and reproduce.
There are 3 types:
a) Structural adaptation- physical feature of an organisms having a
specific function that contributes to the survival of the organism
Example: pine trees are cone-shaped and therefore get rid of snow.
Example: Arctic fox has thick, white coat in the winter and a
brownish-grey one in the simmer for camouflage.
b) Physiological Adaptation- physical or chemical event that occurs
within the body of the organism that enables survival.
Example: wolves can contain a constant body temperature no
matter the weather conditions.
c) Behavioral Adaptations- what an organism does to survive in the
unique conditions of its environment. (Feeds, mates, cares for
young, migrate, hibernate or escape from predators.)
Example: the owl lines his nest with grass, which keeps it cool
during the day and warm at night.
The Biomes:
1. Tundra

Located in the upper northern hemisphere

Very cold and dry

Permanently frozen soil (permafrost)

Plants are short and there are few trees

Animals have compact bodies and shorter legs
and ears which reduce heat loss
2. Boreal Forest
3. Temperate Deciduous Forest

Found in the far north

Below freezing half the year

Mainly coniferous (cone-bearing) trees

Located in temperate regions- mostly eastern
North American, eastern Asia and Europe
4. Temperate Rainforest

Trees lose their leaves in winter (tall tress)

Large seasonal changes with four distinct seasons

Found along coastlines where oceans winds
drops large amounts of moisture

Coast of Chile, BC, New Zealand, part of Australia

Cool and very wet (fog which provides moisture
and rainfall)
5. Grassland

Allows trees (mainly evergreens) to grow very tall

Occurs in temperate and tropical regions

Canada, North America, Russia, Africa, South
America, northern Australia

Covered with grasses that have deep roots, which
are well adapted to droughts

Limited rainfall and land is mainly flat

Large grazing animals
6. Tropical Rainforest

Found in wide band around the equator

Northern South America, Central America, central
Africa and southeast Asia

Wet and warm all year around

Allows the growth of a dense canopy of tall tress

Hass the greatest diversity of animals but few
large a mammals
7. Desert

Occur in temperate and tropical regions

Days are hot and nights are cold

Rainfall is minimal and plans and animals are
adapter to reduce water loss

Reptiles are common and have thick skin and
scales
8. Permanent Ice

Includes the polar land masses and large polar ice
caps

Arctic, Greenland and Antarctica

The few animals that live there are well insulated
against the extreme cold
Section 1.2- Ecosystems
Parts of an Ecosystem

Ecosystem
- Has abiotic factors- oxygen, water, nutrients, light and soil
- Biotic factors- plants and animals, microorganisms.
- Within an ecosystem is a habitat which is a place in which an organism
lives
Abiotic Interactions in Ecosystems

Interactions:
- Organisms have special roles-or niches in their ecosystem
- The way it contributes to and fits into its environment
- Biotic interactions are structured form smallest to largest in and ecological
hierarchy
a) A species: is a group of closely related organisms that can reproduce
with one another
b) Population- all the members of a species within an ecosystem
c) Community- populations of a different species that interact in a
specific ecosystem
Biotic Interactions in Ecosystems

Symbiosis:
- The interaction of two different organisms that live in close association
- Communalism, mutualism, parasitism, competition, predation, and mimicry
Interaction
Result
Example
Commensalism
One Organism benefits and the other Barnacles attach to whales and are
is neither helped nor harmed.
transported to new locations in the
ocean.
Mutualism
Both
organisms
sometimes
neither
benefit
and In lichen, the alga produces sugars
species
can and oxygen for the fungus, which
survive without the other.
provides carbon dioxide and water for
the alga.
Parasitism
One species benefits and another is Hookworms attach to the gut wall and
obtain nourishments from their host’s
harmed.
blood.
Competition
Organisms
require
the
same Spotted knapweed release chemicals
resource (i.e. food) in the same place into the soil, which prevents the growth
at the same time.
Predation
of other plants.
One organism (the predator) eats all Cougars have sharp, pointed teeth to
or part of another organism (the catch prey.
prey).
Mimicry
A
prey
animal
mimics
another Viceroy butterflies look like bitter-
species that is dangerous or tastes tasting monarch butterflies and are
bad to avoid being eaten.
avoided by predators.
Chapter 2: Energy Flow and Nutrient Cycles
Section 2.1- Energy Flow in Ecosystems

Energy Flow:
- Producers: plants that produce food in the form of carbohydrates during
photosynthesis
- Consumer: a insects that eats the plant

Dead organisms:
- Decomposition: the breakdown of organic wastes and dead organism
- Biodegradation: when living organisms carry out decomposition
a) Detrivores, such as small insects, earthworms, bacteria and fungi,
obtain energy and nutrients by eating dead plants and animals, as well
as animal waste
b) Decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi, change wastes and dead
organisms into nutrients that can be used by plants and animals
Food Chains and Webs

Food Chains
- Show the flow of energy from plant to animal and from animal to animal
- Each step in a food chain is called a trophic level
- Detrivores: consumers that obtain energy at every trophic level and
nutrients by eating small dead stuff
- Herbivores: primary consumers that eat plants
- Carnivores: secondary consumers that eat primary consumer
Trophic
Organism
Energy Source
Example
Primary producer
Obtain energy from the
Grass, algae
Level
1st
sun
2nd
Primary consumer
Obtain energy from
Grasshoppers, krill
primary producers
3rd
4th
Secondary
Obtain energy from
consumer
primary consumer
Tertiary consumer
Obtain energy from
secondary consumers
Frogs, crabs
Hawks, sea otters

Food webs:
- Interconnected food chains
- Animals are in several food chains because they eat or get eaten by
several organisms

Food Pyramid:
- Shows the loss of energy from one trophic level to another
- Not all energy in incorporated into the consumers tissues
- Between 80 and 90% of energy is used for chemical reactions and is lost
as heat
- Ecosystems can support fewer organisms at higher trophic levels, as less
energy reaches these levels
Section 2.2- Nutrient Cycles in Ecosystems
The Carbon Cycle

Cycled through living and decaying organisms, the atmosphere, bodies of
water and soil and rock

Photosynthesis:
- It is a chemical reaction that converts solar energy into chemical energy
by an important process in which carbon and oxygen cycle through the
ecosystem
- Energy (sunlight) + 6CO2 + 6H2 * C6H1206 + 602

Cellular Respiration:
- Plants and animals breath out carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere by
converting carbohydrates and oxygen into carbon dioxide and water
- C6H1206 (carbohydrates) + 602 * 6CO2 +6HO2 + 6H2O + energy

Decomposition:
- Breaks down dead organic matter
- Examples of decomposers are bacteria and fungi that convert organic
molecules back into carbon dioxide, which then is released into the
atmosphere

Ocean Process and Human Activity:
- Ocean process dissolves carbon dioxide that is stored in oceans
- Human activities are burning foil and clearing land which both release
carbon quickly
The Nitrogen Cycle
 Component of DNA and proteins, which are essential for the life, processes that
take place inside the cell.
 Most nitrogen is stored in the atmosphere (N2 nitrogen gas)

Nitrogen Fixation:
- The process in which nitrogen gas is converted into compounds that
conation nitrate or ammonium which are useful for plants
- Nitrogen fixation occurs in: atmosphere, soil and in water bodies

Nitrification an Uptake:
- In Nitrification ammonium (NH4+) is converted into nitrate (NO3-)
- Takes place in two stages
- First stage: certain species of nitrifying bacteria convert ammonium into
nitrate.
- Second stage: different species of nitrifying bacteria convert nitrite into
nitrate
- The uptake is where useable forms of nitrogen are taken up by plant roots
and included into plant proteins

Denitrification:
- Where nitrogen is returned to the atmosphere
- In terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems Denitrification involves certain
bacteria know as denitrifying bacteria
- Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrate back into nitrogen gas

Human activities:
- Fossil fuels and burning organic matter release nitrogen into the
atmosphere, where it forms acid rain.
- Chemical fertilizers also contain nitrogen, which escapes into the
atmosphere or leaches into lake and streams.
The Phosphorus Cycle

Necessary for life processes on plants and animals.

Carries energy to cells

Found in phosphate (PO4³-) rock and sediments on the ocean floor.

Weathering:
- Releases phosphorus into soil.
- The process of breaking down rock into smaller fragments.
- Chemical weathering reacts, which causes phosphate rocks to break,
down and releases phosphate soil.
- Acid participation and the chemicals released by lichens can also cause
chemical weathering.
- Physical Weathering is when wind, rain, and freezing release particles of
rock and phosphate into the soil.

Decomposers:
- Organisms take up phosphorus and when they die, decomposers return
phosphorus to the soil.
- The excess phosphors settle on the floor of lakes and oceans, forming
sedimentary rock.

Geologic Uplift:
- Phosphorus remains trapped for a long time until the rock layers are
exposed through geologic uplift.
- Geologic uplift refers to the process of mountain building in which earths
crust folds, and deeply buried rock rise and uncover.

Human Activity:
- Commercial
fertilizers
and
phosphate-containing
detergents
enter
waterways and contribute phosphate to the phosphorus cycle.
- Slash and burn forest reduces phosphate levels
Section 2.3- Effects of Bioaccumulation on Ecosystems
Bioaccumulation

Human Activity:
- Creates many harmful pollutants
- Bioaccumulation refers to the gradual build-up of pollutants in living
organisms
- Biomagnifications refers to the process in which pollutants not only
accumulate but become more concentrated at each trophic level
- Keystone species are species that greatly affect ecosystems health, or the
reproductive abilities of species are harmed

PCB Concentrates:
- In orcas food web
- When orcas consume food contaminated with PCBS they store some
PCBs in their blubber
- When salmon (the food they eat) orcas use their bladder for energy
- These release PCDB into the system
- PCB can also affect a whole ecosystem

Half Life:
- The time it takes for the amount of a substance to decrease by half
Persistent Organic Pollutants

POP’S:
- Carbon-containing compounds that remain in water and soil for many
years
- Chemical accumulation is measured in parts per million

Heavy Metals:
- Metallic elements with a high dentist that are toxic to organisms at low
concentrations
- Lead, cadmium and mercury
Chapter 3: Ecosystems Changing
Section 3.1- How changes Occur Naturally
How Organisms Adapt to Change

Natural selection- Best adapted members of a species to survive to reproduce
- Pass this to their offspring
How Ecosystems Change Over Time

Ecological succession:
- Changes that take place over time in the types of organisms that live in an
area
- Two types:
1. Primary Succession
- No soil exist before
- On bare rock
- Wind and rain carry spores of lichens to these areas
- Lichens obtain nutrients by secreting chemicals that break down rock
- The first organisms to survive and reproduce are called pioneer species
- After a very long time, it leads to climax (mature) community
2. Secondary Succession
- Small disturbances such as a fire, happen in an ecosystem
- Already had soil and was once the home of living organisms
- The process much faster then primary since micro-organisms, insects,
seeds and nutrients still exist in soil
Section 3.2- How Humans Influence Ecosystems
Sustainability

Sustainability:
- The ability of an ecosystem to sustain ecological processed
- Land use refers to the ways we use the land around us
- Resource use is the ways we obtain our resources like wood, soil, water
and minerals

Traditional Ecological Knowledge:
- First nations’ through understanding of the plants, animals and natural
occurrences in their environment
- Reflects knowledge about local climate and resources, biotic and abiotic
characteristic, and animal and plant life cycles
Resource Exploitation Affect Ecosystem
Effect
Example of Human Activity
Habitat loss
Humans take over natural space in Habitats are destroyed and no
the creation of cities
Habitat fragmentation
Agriculture
etc.
How ecosystems are affected
longer can support the species
divide
natural Plant pollination
ecosystems into smaller, isolated
fragments
Deforestation
Forests are logged or cleared for The # of plants and animals
human use and never replanted
living in an ecosystem are
reduced
Soil degradation
Leave land bare so water and wind Reducing plant growth
erosion remove top soil
Soil compaction
Farm vehicles are grazing animals Reduces the movement of air,
squeeze soil particles together
Contamination
By-products
exploitation
of
such
water and soil organisms in soil
resource Kills plants and animals
as
mining,
introduce toxins
Overexploitation
A resource is used or extracted Food webs are affected
until it is depleted
Section 3.3- Introduced Species
Introduced Species

Native Species:
- Plants and animals that naturally inhabit an area

Introduced species (foreign):
- Plants and animals that have been introduced into an ecosystem by
humans
- Beneficial or harmless

Invasive Species:
- Take over a habitat of native species
- Also invade their bodies, weakening their immune system
Example: Scotch broom was introduced to BC as a garden plane. It has
up to 18 000 seeds per plant, can survive drought, and fixes nitrogen in
the soil, causing conditions they many native species have trouble
growing in. Together with other introduced species, is competition with
the keystone species Carry Oak on Vancouver Island.
Effect
Harm to Native Species
Competition

Aggressive

They easily outcompete native species for food and habitat

Introduced predators can have more impact on a prey
Predation
population than native predators
Disease and parasites

Prey may not have adaptations to escape or fight them

An invasion of parasites or disease-causing viruses and
bacteria

Can weaken the immune response of native plants and
animals
Habitat alternation

Introduced invasive species can make a natural habitat
unsuitable for native species

Changing its structure or composition
Chapter 4: Atomic Theory explains the formation of compounds
Section 4.1- Atomic Theory and Bonding
Atoms

A compound:
- A pure substance that is composed of two or more atoms combined in a
specific way
 Atom:
- The smallest particle of an element that retain the properties of an element

Atomic theory:
- Subatomic particle are the particles that make up an atom
Name
Symbol
Electric Charge
Location in Atom
Relative Mass
Proton
p
1+
Nucleus
1836
Neutron
n
0
Nucleus
1837
Electron
e
1-
Surrounding the
1
nucleus

The Nucleus:
-
The center of each atom
-
The electric charge is always positive
-
Nuclear charge (atomic number) is the electric
charge on the nucleus and is found containing the amount of electrons

The Periodic Table:
-
Each element is listed according to their atomic
number
-
Each row is called a period
-
Each column (top and bottom) is called a group
or family
-
Metals on the left and in the middle of the table
-
Elements in the same family have similar
properties:
a)
Alkali metals (1)- very reactive metals
b)
The alkali earth metals (2)- somewhat reactive
metals
c)
The halogens (17)- very reactive non-metals
d)
The
noble
heasous non-metals
The Periodic Table and Ion Formation

Ions:
gases
(18)-
very
un-reactive
- When atoms gain or lose electrons the become electrically charged
particles called ions
- Metals lose electrons to form positive electrons
- Non-metals gain electrons to for negative electrons

Multivalent:
- Can from ions in more than one way

Bohr Diagrams:
- A diagram that shows how many electrons are in each shell surrounding
the nucleus
- Electrons organized in shells
First shell- 2 electrons
Second shell- 8 electrons
- When this shell is full it is called a stable octet
- Valence shell is the outermost shell of electrons and those electrons are
called valence electrons
Forming Compounds

Ionic bonding:
- Contains a positive ion (metal) and a negative ion
- One or more electrons are transfers from each atom of the metal to each
atom of the non-metal
- The metal atoms lose electrons forming cations
- The non-metal atoms gain electrons forming anions

Covalent bonding:
- The atoms of a non-metal share electrons with other non-metals atoms
- An unpaired electron from each atom will pair together forming a covalent
bond sometimes called bonding pairs
Lewis Diagrams
- Illustrates chemical bonding by showing only an atom’s valence electrons
and it’s chemical symbol
-
Dots represent electrons are placed around the elements symbols
-
Electron dots are placed singly until the fifth electron is reached, then they
are paired
- Positive ions- one electron dot is removed from the valence shell for each
positive charge of the ion
- For negative ion- one electron dot is added to each valence shell for each
negative charge of an ion
Section 4.2- Names and Formulas
Naming and Writing Ionic Compounds

Naming:
- The first part of the name is the positive ion (a metal
- The second part is the negative ion (non-meals) which always ends with “ide”
Example: lead sulphide

Writing formulas:
1. Indentify the chemical symbol for each ion and its charge
2. Determine the total charges needed to balance the positive and negative
charges of each ion
3. Note the ratio of positive to negative ions
4. Use these subtracts to write the chemical formula
Naming and Writing Ionic Compounds

Writing Formulas:
1. Indentify each ion and its charge
2. Determine the total charges needed to balance positive with negative
3. Note the ratio of positive ions to negative ions
4. Use subscripts to write the formula
Multivalent Metals

Can form two or more positive ions with different ionic charges

Has roman numerals
Metal Ion
Roman
Charge
Numeral
1+
I
2+
II
3+
III
2+
IV
5+
V
6+
VI
7+
VII
Polyatomic Ions
- Composed of more than one type of atom joined by a covalent bonds
- Have special names assigned to them
- (Need to look at a table)
Binary Covalent Compound

Binary covalent compounds:
- Contains two nonmetals elements joined together by one or more covalent
bonds
- Prefixes indicate the number of atoms of each element that appear in the
formula

Writing names”
1. Name the left most element in the formula first
2. Name the second element making sure the element name end with the
suffix ide
3. Add the prefix to each elements name to indicate the number of atoms of
each element in the compound
**If the first element has only one atom, do not add a prefix
Prefix
Number
Mono-
1
Di-
2
Tri-
3
Tetra-
4
Penta-
5
Hexa-
6
Hepta-
7
Octa-
8
Nona-
9
Deca-
10
Example:
- P4010 tertaphosphrous decaoxidene ne can
Section 4.3- Chemical Equations
Chemical change

Reactants and Products:
- Involves the conversion of pure substance called reactants into other pure
substances called products with different properties from the reactants
- One or more chemical changes that occur at the same time are called
chemical reaction

How it is represented:
- By suing a chemical equation
- May be written in word or chemical symbols
- The symbols for states of matter are solid (s), gas (g) and liquids (l)
Conservation of Mass

Law:
- Atoms are neither destroyed nor produced in a chemical reaction
- The total mass of the products is always equal to the total mass of the
reactants
Writing and Balancing Equations

Steps:
1. Write a word equation: provides the names of the reactants and products
Example: methane +oxygen  water + carbon dioxide
2. Write a Skelton equation (replaces the names of the reactant s and
products in a word equation with formulas) THIS IS NOT BALANCED!
Example: CH4 + 02  H20 + CO2
3. Write a balanced equation: shows the identities of each pure substance
involved in the reaction. Uses lowest number coefficients. What you start
with you must end with!!!
Example: CH4 +2O2  2H20 + CO2
Chapter 5: Compounds are classified in different ways
Section 5.1: Acids and Base
Acids and Bases

pH Scale:
- A number scale for measuring how acidic or basic a solution is.
- Less than 7 acidic
- More than 7 basic
- pH of 7 neutral (neither acidic or basic)
pH values of common substances

Acids:
- Chemical compounds that produce a solution with a pH of less than 7
when they dissolve in water.
- Taste sour, will burn you skin, they corrode metals, conduct electricity.

Bases:
- Compounds that produce a solution of pH of more than 7 when dissolve in
water.
- Taste bitter, feel slippery, many will burn your skin, no reaction to meals,
conduct electricity.
pH Indicators

pH Indicators Used For:
- Chemicals that change color depending on the pH of the solution they are
placed in.
- Blue litmus paper turns red in an acidic solution.
- Red litmus paper turns to blue in a basic solution.
- Phenolphthalein, bromothymol blue, indigo carmine, methyl orange and
methyl red are other common ph indicators.
Naming Acids and Bases

Acids:
- Chemical formulas are usually written with an H on the left side of the
formula.
- If no state of matter is given, the name may be given beginning with
hydrogen, as in hydrogen chloride.
- If acids is shown as being aqueous as in HCI(aq), a different name may
be used that ends in “-ic acid” as in hydrochloric acid.

Names of Acids:
- Names that begin with hydrogen and end with the suffix “-ate” can be
changed by dropping “hydrogen” from the name and changing the suffix
to –ic
Example: H2CO3- hydrogen carbonate

Bases:
- They are usually written with an OH on the right side of the formula.
- Common names of bases include sodium hydroxide and magnesium
hydroxide.
Section 5.2: Salts
Acid Base Neutralization

Neutralization (acid base):
- acid and a base react to form a salt and water
Example: HCI + NaOH  NaCI + H2O
Metals Oxides and Non-Metal Oxides:

Metal Oxides:
- Contains a metal chemically combined with oxygen.
- The solution becomes basic
Example: Na2O(s) + H2O 2NaOH(aq) (a base Sodium hydroxide

Non-Metals Oxides
- Contains a non-metal chemically combined with oxygen.
- The solution become acidic
Example: CO2(g) + H2O(l)  H2CO3(aq) Carbonic acid
Acids, Metals and Carbonates

Acids and Metals:
- When metals react with acids to produce salt, they usually release
hydrogen gas
- The most reactive metal are the alkali metals and the alkaline earth
metals.
- The bottom of the columns reacts most vigorously.

Carbonates:
- React with acids to produce salts.
- Much of the carbon dioxide on the surface of the earth is trapped in rocks,
such as limestone, dolomite, and calcite.
- Carbonates help to neutralize acids.
Section 5.3: Organic Compounds
Organic Compounds

Organic and Inorganic Compounds:
- Organic compounds are any compounds that contain carbon (with a few
expectations)
- Carbon in organic compounds forms four bonds.
- To recognize a compound as organic: Look for an indication of the
presence of the presence of carbon in its name, chemical formula or
diagram.
- Inorganic compounds include compounds that generally don’t contain
carbon and also a few exceptions to the organic classification (i.e. carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, and ionic carbonates).
Hydrocarbons

A hydrocarbon:
- An organic compound that contains only the elements carbon and
hydrogen (simples is methane)
Alcohols

Alcohol:
- One of a kind organic compound that contains C. H, and O.
- Many types such as methanol, ethanol and isopropyl alcohol.
- A solvent is a liquid that can dissolve other substances.
Chapter 6: Chemicals Reactions
Section 6.1- Types of Chemical Reactions
Chemical Reactions

Six main types:
- Synthesis
- Decomposition
- Single replacement
- Double replacement
- Neutralization (acid, base)
- Combustion
Synthesis

Synthesis (combination) reactions:
- Two or more reactants (A and B) combine to produce a singe product
(AB). A + B  AB
Decomposition

Decomposition reaction:
- A compound is broken down into smaller compounds or separate
elements.
- The reverse of a synthesis reaction.
Example: compound  element + element
AB  A + B
Single Replacement

Single Replacement reaction:
- A reactive element (a metal or non-metal) and a compound react to
produce another element and another compound react to produce
another element and another compound.
- One of the elements in the compound is replace by anther element.
- The element that is replaced could be a metal or a non-metal.
Example: element + compound  element + compound
A + BC  B + AC where A is a metal OR
A + BC  C + BA where A is a non-metal
Double Replacement

Double Replacement Reaction:
- Usually involves two ionic solutions that react to produce two their ionic
compounds.
- One of the compounds forms a precipitate, which is an insoluble solid that
forms a solution.
Example: ionic solution + ionic solution  ionic solution + ionic solution
AB(aq) + CD(aq)  AD(aq) + CB(s)
Neutralization (acid-base)

Neutralization (acid-base) reaction:
- When an acid and a base are combined, they will neutralize each other.
- An acid and a base react to form a salt and water.
Example: acid + base  salt + water
HX + MOH  MX + H20 (X= negative ion, M= positive ion)
Combustion

Combustion reaction:
- The rapid reaction of a compound or element with an oxygen to form an
oxide and produce heat.
Example: hydrocarbon + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water
Section 6.2- Factors Affecting Chemical Reactions
Rate of Reaction

Rate of reaction:
- How quickly or slowly reactants turn into products.
- A reaction that takes a long time has a low reaction rate.
- A reaction that occurs quickly has a high reaction rate.
- A rate describes how quickly or slowly a change occurs.

Factors affected rate of reaction:
- Temperature
- Concentration
- Surface Area
- Catalyst
Temperature

Increasing + Higher Temperature:
- Causes the particles (atoms or molecules) of the reactants to move more
quickly so that they collide with each other more frequently and with more
energy.
- The higher the temperature the greater the rate of reaction.

Decreasing + Lower Temperature:
- If you decrease temperature the particles move more slowly, colliding less
frequently and with less energy.
- The rate of reaction decreases.
Concentration:

Greater Concentration:
- if a greater concentration of reactant atoms and molecules is present,
there is a greater chance that collisions will occur among them.
- More collisions mean a higher reaction rate.
- Increasing concentration of the reactants usually results in a higher
reaction rate.
- When you blow on a campfire, you are increasing the concentration of
oxygen near the flames,

Lower Concentration:
- There is less chance for collision between particles.
- Decreasing the concentration of the reactants results in a lower reaction
rate.
Surface Area

For the same mass:
- Many small particles have a greater total SA than one large particle.
- The more surface contact between reactants, the higher the rate of
reaction.
- The less surface contact, the lower the reaction rate.
Catalyst

A catalyst:
- Substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction without being
used in the reaction itself.
- Reduce the amount of energy required to break and form bonds during
chemical reaction.
- A reaction can proceed although less energy is added during the reaction.

Enzymes
- Catalysts that allow chemical reactions to occur ate relatively low
temperatures within the body.
- Large organic molecules, usually proteins, which speed up reaction in
living cells.
- Each enzyme in your body is specialized to perform its own function.
Chapter 7: The Atomic Theory
Section 7.1- Atomic Theory, Isotopes and Radioactive Decay
Radioactivity

Radioactivity:
- The release of high-energy particles and rays of energy from a substance
as a result of changes in the nuclei of its atoms.
- Radiation refers to high-energy rays and particles emitted by radioactive
sources.
- Includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared rays, visible light and
ultraviolent rays
- Light is one form of radiation that is visible to humans.
Isotopes:

Isotopes:
- Different atoms of a particular element that have the same number of
protons but different numbers of neutrons.
- All isotopes of an element have the same atomic number (protons),
however, since the number of neutrons differs, the mass number and
atomic mass differ from one isotope to the next.

Mass number:
- An integer (whole #) that represents the sum of an atom’s protons and
neutrons.
Mass number = atomic number + number of neutrons
Number of protons = mass number – atomic number

Representing Isotopes:
- Includes the chemical symbol, atomic number and the mass number.
- The mass number is written as a subscript (above) on the left of the
symbol.
- The atomic number is written as a subscript (below) on the left.
Radioactive Decay

Radioactive Decay:
- The process in which unstable nuclei lose energy by emitting radiation.
- By emitting radiation, atoms of one kind of element can change into atoms
of another element.
- Radioisotopes are natural or human-made isotopes that decay into other
isotopes, releasing radiation.
- Three types of radiation: alpha, beta and gamma.
Property
Alpha Radiation
Beta Radiation
Gamma Radiation
Symbol
4
2
0 b
-1
0 y
0
Composition
Alpha particles
Beta particles
He or 42a
or 0-1e
High-energy
Radiation
Description
Helium nuclei
Electrons
High energy rays
Charge
2+
1-
0
Relative Penetrating
Blocked by paper
Blocked by metal foil
Partly/completely
blocked
Power
Or concrete
Alpha Radiation:

Alpha particles:
By lead
- Positively charged atomic particles that are much more massive that either
beat and gamma radiation.
- Same combination of particles as the nucleus of a helium atom.
- Alpha particle has a mass number of 4 and an atomic number of 2, two
protons and two neutrons.
- Has an electric charge of 2+.
- Relatively slow moving compared with other types of radiation.
- Not very penetrating- a single sheet of paper stops alp ha particles.

Alpha decay:
- The emission of an alpha particle from a nucleus.
Beta Radiation:

Beta particle:
- An electron that has a mass number of 0.
- Has an electric charge of 1-.
- Beat particles are lightweight and fast moving that have a greater
penetrating power than alpha particles.
- A thin sheet of aluminum foil can block beta particles.

Beat Decay:
- A neutron changes into a proton and an electron.
- Proton remains in the nucleus while the electron shoots out from the
nucleus with a lot of energy.
- The atomic number increases by one- it has become an atom of the next
higher element.
- The mass number does not change.
Gamma Radiation

Gamma Radiation:
- Consists of rays of high-energy, short-wavelength radiation.
- Have almost no mass and no charge. The release of gamma radiation
does not change the atomic number or the mass number of a nucleus.
- Highest energy form of electromagnetic radiation.

Gamma Decay:
- Results from a redistribution of energy within the nucleus.
- A gamma ray is given off as the isotope changes from high-energy to a
lower energy state.
Section 7.2- Half-Life
Carbon Dating

Radiocarbon dating:
- The process of determining the age of an abject by measuring the amount
of carbon-14 remaining in that object.
- Carbon isotopes include carbon-23 and carbon-14.
- When an organism is alive the ratio of carbom-14 atoms to carbon-12
atoms in the organism remains nearly constant.

The Rate of Radioactive Decay:
- Half life- is a constant for any radioactive isotope and is equal to the time
required for a half the nuclei in a sample to decay.

Using a Decay Curve:
- A decay curve is a curved line on a graph that shows the rate at which
radioisotopes decay.
Common Isotope Pairs

Parent and Daughter Isotope
- The isotope that undergoes radioactive decay is called the parent isotope.
- The stable products of radioactive decay are called the daughter isotope.
- The production of a daughter isotope can be a direct reaction or the result
of a series of decays.
Parent
Daughter
Half Life of
Effective Dating
Parent
Range
Carbon-14
Nitrogen-14
5730
Up to 50 000
Uranium-235
Lead-207
710 million
> 10 million
Potassium-40
Argon-40
1.3 billion
10 000 to 3 billion
Uranium-238
Lead-206
4.5 billion
> 10 million
Theorium-235
Lead-208
14 billion
> 10 million
Rubidium-87
Strontium-87
47 billion
> 10 million
The Potassium-40 Clock

How it Works:
- It uses radioisotopes, specifically potassium-40 and argon-40, to
determine Earths age.
- When rock is produced from lava, all the gases (including potassium-40)
in the molten rock are driven out, this process sets the potassium
radioisotope clock to zero.
Section 7.3- Nuclear Reactions
Nuclear Fission

Nuclear Fission:
-
The splitting of a big nucleus into two smaller nuclei, subatomic
particles and energy.
-
Heavy nuclei are unstable due to repulsive forces between the many
protons.
-
To increase stability, atoms with heavy nuclei may split into atoms with
lighter nuclei.
-
Fission is accompanied by a very large release of energy.
-
4He2 +14N7  17O8 + 1H1
 Nuclear Fission of Uranium-235:
-
When a nucleus of uranium-235 is stuck by or bombarded with a
neutron, the nucleus absorbs the neutron.
-
Result, the mass number of the nucleus increases by one.
-
Because the number of protons had not changed, this is still an atom
of uranium (just different isotope.)
-
When a uranium nucleus undergoes fission, they release neutrons,
which trigger more fission reactions.
Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear Fusion:
-
The processes in which two low mass nuclei join together to make a
more massive nucleus.
-
It occurs at the core of the Sun and other stars, where there is a lot of
pressure and high enough temperature to force isotopes of hydrogen
to collide with great force.
-
2H1 + 3H1  4H2 + 1n0 + energy
-
We don not currently have the technology to extract energy from fusion
reactions.
Comparing Nuclear Fission and Fusion:
Nuclear Fission
Beginning
Heavy unstable nuclei split apart in Two lightweight nuclei join together
two smaller nuclei.
Releases
Energy
Nuclear Fusion
to form a heavier nucleus.
Unstable nuclei release a huge Lightweight nuclei release a huge
amount of energy when they split.
amount of energy when they join.
Heavy nuclei- don’t release energy
Lightweight nuclei- will not release
energy
Products
Produce daughter products that No not produce products that are
are radioactive.
Technologies
radioactive.
Many countries generate some No commercial fusion reactors are
electrical power through fission in use or under construction.
reactions.
Research
Used
Try to produce environmentally Try to produce a fusion nuclear
friendly nuclear power generation
reactor.
Used in modern nuclear weapons
Used in modern nuclear weapons
to generate most of the energy
released in the blast.
Nuclear Equation:

A nuclear Equation:
-
A set of symbols that indicates changes in the nuclei of atoms during a
nuclear reaction.

Rules:
1. The sum of the mass numbers on each side of the equation stays the
same.
2. The sum of the charges (represented by atomic number) on each side of
the equation stays the same.