The Target of Metformin in Type 2 Diabetes
... unchanged, by the kidneys.1 At the whole-body level, metformin itself does not affect insulin sensitivity in muscle or adipose tissue2 but consistently reduces endogenous glucose production by inhibiting gluconeogenesis.1 Proposed mechanisms of action have included delayed intestinal glucose absorpt ...
... unchanged, by the kidneys.1 At the whole-body level, metformin itself does not affect insulin sensitivity in muscle or adipose tissue2 but consistently reduces endogenous glucose production by inhibiting gluconeogenesis.1 Proposed mechanisms of action have included delayed intestinal glucose absorpt ...
Enzymes are proteins which control biochemical reactions in cells
... Enzymes are proteins which control biochemical reactions in cells Properties * All enzymes are globular proteins and round in shape * They have the suffix "-ase" * Intracellular enzymes are found inside the cell * Extracellular enzymes act outside the cell (e.g. digestive enzymes) * Enzymes are cata ...
... Enzymes are proteins which control biochemical reactions in cells Properties * All enzymes are globular proteins and round in shape * They have the suffix "-ase" * Intracellular enzymes are found inside the cell * Extracellular enzymes act outside the cell (e.g. digestive enzymes) * Enzymes are cata ...
Chapter 8 Study Guide
... the pigment that produces the yellow and orange fall leaf colors these organisms get their energy from food by cellular respiration this is an enzyme assisted anaerobic process that breaks down glucose to pyruvate this are light absorbing substances this is a metabolic process that requires oxygen i ...
... the pigment that produces the yellow and orange fall leaf colors these organisms get their energy from food by cellular respiration this is an enzyme assisted anaerobic process that breaks down glucose to pyruvate this are light absorbing substances this is a metabolic process that requires oxygen i ...
2: Enzymes
... by bonds between and within side groups, such as ionic bonds in non-neutral solutions (-CO2 and NH3 groups act as acids or bases), covalent disulphide bonds in the amino acid cysteine, and van der Waals and dipole-dipole interactions. It is also important to observe the behaviour of polar and nonpol ...
... by bonds between and within side groups, such as ionic bonds in non-neutral solutions (-CO2 and NH3 groups act as acids or bases), covalent disulphide bonds in the amino acid cysteine, and van der Waals and dipole-dipole interactions. It is also important to observe the behaviour of polar and nonpol ...
Document
... Chemical properties of monosaccharides Reductive properties –only when free aldehyde or ketone group in saccharide molecule is present. In alkaline environment saccharides have reductive properties and ring can be opened In acidic environment saccharides are in cyclic form and there is no =CO gro ...
... Chemical properties of monosaccharides Reductive properties –only when free aldehyde or ketone group in saccharide molecule is present. In alkaline environment saccharides have reductive properties and ring can be opened In acidic environment saccharides are in cyclic form and there is no =CO gro ...
Study Guide Nucleotide metabolism 2015
... Nucleotide Synthesis 1. In the synthesis of IMP, why is the second reaction the first committed step? What other pathways utilize PRPP? 2. What is the rate-limiting step of purine synthesis? 3. How is the purine synthetic pathway controlled? 4. What are the amino acid sources for the NH2 come from t ...
... Nucleotide Synthesis 1. In the synthesis of IMP, why is the second reaction the first committed step? What other pathways utilize PRPP? 2. What is the rate-limiting step of purine synthesis? 3. How is the purine synthetic pathway controlled? 4. What are the amino acid sources for the NH2 come from t ...
Carbon and energy distribution through propagation and fermentation
... Key aspects of redox balance 1. Typically, an oxidation is always coupled with a reduction. 2. If a preferred reduction pathway (glycerol) is compromised, cells will overproduce some other product (acetic acid, fusels) until cell is redox neutral (homeostasis). This slows growth in fermentation and ...
... Key aspects of redox balance 1. Typically, an oxidation is always coupled with a reduction. 2. If a preferred reduction pathway (glycerol) is compromised, cells will overproduce some other product (acetic acid, fusels) until cell is redox neutral (homeostasis). This slows growth in fermentation and ...
06_Isoenzymes. Enzymodiagnostics. Enzymopathy. Enzymotherapy
... enzyme is stable. The rate of most enzymatic reactions doubles for each 100 C rise in temperature. This is true only up to about 500 C. Above this temperature, we observe heat inactivation of enzymes. The optimum temperature of an enzyme is that temperature at which the greatest amount of substrate ...
... enzyme is stable. The rate of most enzymatic reactions doubles for each 100 C rise in temperature. This is true only up to about 500 C. Above this temperature, we observe heat inactivation of enzymes. The optimum temperature of an enzyme is that temperature at which the greatest amount of substrate ...
Electron Transport Oxidative Phosphorylation Control
... In brown adipose tissue: Uncoupling protein (UCP, thermogenin) - 32-kDa dimer forms channel that controls H+ permeability of inner membrane Flow through channel is activated by free fatty acids through norepinephrine stimulated pathway ...
... In brown adipose tissue: Uncoupling protein (UCP, thermogenin) - 32-kDa dimer forms channel that controls H+ permeability of inner membrane Flow through channel is activated by free fatty acids through norepinephrine stimulated pathway ...
CHAPTER 6
... The Glyoxylate Cycle • Plant can use acetate as the only source of carbon for all the carbon compounds • Glyoxylate cycle offers a solution for plants and some bacteria and algae • The CO2-producting steps are bypassed and an extra acetate is utilized • Isocitrate lyase and malate synthase are the s ...
... The Glyoxylate Cycle • Plant can use acetate as the only source of carbon for all the carbon compounds • Glyoxylate cycle offers a solution for plants and some bacteria and algae • The CO2-producting steps are bypassed and an extra acetate is utilized • Isocitrate lyase and malate synthase are the s ...
What Is the Chemical Logic of the TCA Cycle?
... The Glyoxylate Cycle • Plant can use acetate as the only source of carbon for all the carbon compounds • Glyoxylate cycle offers a solution for plants and some bacteria and algae • The CO2-producting steps are bypassed and an extra acetate is utilized • Isocitrate lyase and malate synthase are the s ...
... The Glyoxylate Cycle • Plant can use acetate as the only source of carbon for all the carbon compounds • Glyoxylate cycle offers a solution for plants and some bacteria and algae • The CO2-producting steps are bypassed and an extra acetate is utilized • Isocitrate lyase and malate synthase are the s ...
Chapter 1
... • Typical reaction has acetoacetate reduced in an NADHdependent reaction to produce b-hydroxybutyrate • Ketone bodies: acetoacetate, acetone, and bhydroxybutyrate ...
... • Typical reaction has acetoacetate reduced in an NADHdependent reaction to produce b-hydroxybutyrate • Ketone bodies: acetoacetate, acetone, and bhydroxybutyrate ...
Biosc_48_Chapter_5_lecture
... Also called anaerobic metabolism or lactic acid fermentation (Similar to how yeast ferments glucose into alcohol) Still yields a net gain of 2 ATP a. Muscle cells can survive for awhile without oxygen by using lactic acid fermentation. b. RBCs can only use lactic acid fermentation because they lack ...
... Also called anaerobic metabolism or lactic acid fermentation (Similar to how yeast ferments glucose into alcohol) Still yields a net gain of 2 ATP a. Muscle cells can survive for awhile without oxygen by using lactic acid fermentation. b. RBCs can only use lactic acid fermentation because they lack ...
Summary of Chapter 24
... • Overall reaction uses 4 “high energy” phosphate bond hydrolysis. CO2 + NH3 + Asp + 2H2O + 3ATP → Urea + Fumarate + 2ADP + AMP + 2Pi + PPi (→ 2Pi) • Oxidation of urea cycle produces 2NADH (= 6ATP). • Krebs bicycle: Urea cycle and aspartate-argininosuccinate shunt of citric acid cycle. • Urea cycle ...
... • Overall reaction uses 4 “high energy” phosphate bond hydrolysis. CO2 + NH3 + Asp + 2H2O + 3ATP → Urea + Fumarate + 2ADP + AMP + 2Pi + PPi (→ 2Pi) • Oxidation of urea cycle produces 2NADH (= 6ATP). • Krebs bicycle: Urea cycle and aspartate-argininosuccinate shunt of citric acid cycle. • Urea cycle ...
Transition
... • An increased interaction of the enzyme and substrate occurs in the transition-state (ES‡) • The enzyme distorts the substrate, forcing it toward the transition state • An enzyme must be complementary to the transition-state in shape and chemical character • Enzymes may bind their transition states ...
... • An increased interaction of the enzyme and substrate occurs in the transition-state (ES‡) • The enzyme distorts the substrate, forcing it toward the transition state • An enzyme must be complementary to the transition-state in shape and chemical character • Enzymes may bind their transition states ...
Nucleotide Synthesis Nucleotides Origin of Atoms Nucleotide
... DNA rapidly and require rapid production of thymine nucleotides • by preventing formation of thymine nucleotides, rapidly dividing cells are killed ...
... DNA rapidly and require rapid production of thymine nucleotides • by preventing formation of thymine nucleotides, rapidly dividing cells are killed ...
Nucleotides, Vitamins, Cosubstrates, and Coenzymes
... reaction is then used to reduce a substrate during a subsequent metabolic reaction. The NADP+/NADPH pair participates in reductive biosynthetic reactions. NADPH acts as the reducing agent. If a vitamin is present at insufficient quantities or is completely lacking in the diet a deficiency disease o ...
... reaction is then used to reduce a substrate during a subsequent metabolic reaction. The NADP+/NADPH pair participates in reductive biosynthetic reactions. NADPH acts as the reducing agent. If a vitamin is present at insufficient quantities or is completely lacking in the diet a deficiency disease o ...
Lipogenesis (2014)
... Elongation of fatty acids: Mitochondrial synthesis Palmitic acid - the end product of FA synthesis in cytoplasm can be elongated in mitochondria by the addition of two carbon atoms to give other long chain saturated FA e.g. stearic acid Unsaturation: occur also in mitochondria by desaturase enzyme ...
... Elongation of fatty acids: Mitochondrial synthesis Palmitic acid - the end product of FA synthesis in cytoplasm can be elongated in mitochondria by the addition of two carbon atoms to give other long chain saturated FA e.g. stearic acid Unsaturation: occur also in mitochondria by desaturase enzyme ...
metabolism
... • enzymes involved in glucose metabolism Regulated enzymes – not constantly present; production is turned on (induced) or turned off (repressed) in response to changes in concentration of the substrate ...
... • enzymes involved in glucose metabolism Regulated enzymes – not constantly present; production is turned on (induced) or turned off (repressed) in response to changes in concentration of the substrate ...
D-Ribose Powder - Professional Complementary Health Formulas
... For prevention and wellness support consider using D-Ribose Capsules (SRIB), one to three (775mg) caps four times daily. ...
... For prevention and wellness support consider using D-Ribose Capsules (SRIB), one to three (775mg) caps four times daily. ...
5-Metabolism of Pyrimidine Nucleotides
... phosphorylase and the previously encountered thymidine kinase: ...
... phosphorylase and the previously encountered thymidine kinase: ...
Slides - WordPress.com
... expense of 9 ATP & 6 NAD(P)H) RuBisCO (ribulose-1,5bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase is the key enzyme of the pathway and catalyzes the carboxylation or oxygenation of RuBP ...
... expense of 9 ATP & 6 NAD(P)H) RuBisCO (ribulose-1,5bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase is the key enzyme of the pathway and catalyzes the carboxylation or oxygenation of RuBP ...
Fuel Metabolism PART 1: Structure and Function of Protein
... 8-D. Although heme is contained in the cytochromes of the electron transport chain, the protein globin is not present. 9-C. Thiamine pyrophosphate forms a covalent intermediate with the a-carbon of a-ketoglutarate. 10-D. Pyruvate dehydrogenase and a-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase require four vitamins ...
... 8-D. Although heme is contained in the cytochromes of the electron transport chain, the protein globin is not present. 9-C. Thiamine pyrophosphate forms a covalent intermediate with the a-carbon of a-ketoglutarate. 10-D. Pyruvate dehydrogenase and a-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase require four vitamins ...
Glycolysis
Glycolysis (from glycose, an older term for glucose + -lysis degradation) is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose C6H12O6, into pyruvate, CH3COCOO− + H+. The free energy released in this process is used to form the high-energy compounds ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADH (reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide).Glycolysis is a determined sequence of ten enzyme-catalyzed reactions. The intermediates provide entry points to glycolysis. For example, most monosaccharides, such as fructose and galactose, can be converted to one of these intermediates. The intermediates may also be directly useful. For example, the intermediate dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) is a source of the glycerol that combines with fatty acids to form fat.Glycolysis is an oxygen independent metabolic pathway, meaning that it does not use molecular oxygen (i.e. atmospheric oxygen) for any of its reactions. However the products of glycolysis (pyruvate and NADH + H+) are sometimes disposed of using atmospheric oxygen. When molecular oxygen is used in the disposal of the products of glycolysis the process is usually referred to as aerobic, whereas if the disposal uses no oxygen the process is said to be anaerobic. Thus, glycolysis occurs, with variations, in nearly all organisms, both aerobic and anaerobic. The wide occurrence of glycolysis indicates that it is one of the most ancient metabolic pathways. Indeed, the reactions that constitute glycolysis and its parallel pathway, the pentose phosphate pathway, occur metal-catalyzed under the oxygen-free conditions of the Archean oceans, also in the absence of enzymes. Glycolysis could thus have originated from chemical constraints of the prebiotic world.Glycolysis occurs in most organisms in the cytosol of the cell. The most common type of glycolysis is the Embden–Meyerhof–Parnas (EMP pathway), which was discovered by Gustav Embden, Otto Meyerhof, and Jakub Karol Parnas. Glycolysis also refers to other pathways, such as the Entner–Doudoroff pathway and various heterofermentative and homofermentative pathways. However, the discussion here will be limited to the Embden–Meyerhof–Parnas pathway.The entire glycolysis pathway can be separated into two phases: The Preparatory Phase – in which ATP is consumed and is hence also known as the investment phase The Pay Off Phase – in which ATP is produced.↑ ↑ 2.0 2.1 ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑